1 CONVENTION ON INTERNATIONAL TRADE IN ENDANGERED SPECIES OF WILD FAUNA AND FLORA CONSIDERATION OF PROPOSALS FOR AMENDMENT OF APPENDICES I AND II A. Proposal Inclusion of the genus Dalbergia in CITES Appendix II with exception to the species included in Appendix I. The UNEP-WCMC assessed the Dalbergia species of Latin America and concluded: “… all populations of Dalbergia spp. from South and Central America appear to meet the criteria for listing in CITES Appendix II” (UNEP-WCMC, 2015). Including the whole genus in Appendix II will be essential for the control of international trade by eliminating the arduous task of enforcement and customs officers of differentiating between the hundreds of Dalbergia species listed and not listed in CITES. The inclusion will help ensure that legal trade does not become a direct cause of the extinction of these highly threatened species and will help curb illegal trade. Considering that CITES Appendix II must include all species, which although not necessarily now threatened with extinction may become so unless trade in specimens of such species is subject to strict regulation in order to avoid utilization incompatible with their survival, it is important to include the genus Dalbergia in CITES Appendix II. a) Resolution Conf. 9.24, Annex 2 a, Criterion A - ”It is known, or can be inferred or projected, that the regulation of trade in the species is necessary to avoid it becoming eligible for inclusion in Appendix I in the near future”. b) Resolution Conf. 9.24, Annex 2 a, Criterion B - ”It is known, or can be inferred or projected, that regulation of trade in the species is required to ensure that the harvest of specimens from the wild is not reducing the wild population to a level at which its survival might be threatened by continued harvesting or other influences”. c) Resolution 9.24 (Rev. CoP15) Annex 2b Criterion A – “The specimens of the species in the form in which they are traded resemble specimens of a species included in Appendix II under the provisions of Article II, paragraph 2 (a), or in Appendix I, so that enforcement officers who encounter specimens of CITES-listed species are unlikely to be able to distinguish between them”. Domestic and international experience has indicated that enforcement and customs officers who encountered specimens of Dalbergia products are unlikely to be able to reliably distinguish between the various species of Dalbergia. B. Proponent Guatemala, C. Supporting statement 1. Taxonomy 1.1 Class: Magnoliopsida 1.2 Order: Fabales 1.3 Family Leguminosae (Fabaceae) Juss. 1789
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CONVENTION ON INTERNATIONAL TRADE IN ENDANGERED … · The UNEP-WCMC assessed the Dalbergia species of Latin America and concluded: “… all populations of Dalbergia spp. from South
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TheUNEP-WCMCassessedtheDalbergiaspeciesofLatinAmericaandconcluded:“…allpopulationsofDalbergiaspp.from South and Central America appear to meet the criteria for listing in CITES Appendix II” (UNEP-WCMC, 2015).Including the whole genus in Appendix II will be essential for the control of international trade by eliminating thearduoustaskofenforcementandcustomsofficersofdifferentiatingbetweenthehundredsofDalbergiaspecies listedandnotlistedinCITES.Theinclusionwillhelpensurethatlegaltradedoesnotbecomeadirectcauseoftheextinctionofthesehighlythreatenedspeciesandwillhelpcurbillegaltrade.Considering that CITES Appendix II must include all species, which although not necessarily now threatened withextinctionmay become so unless trade in specimens of such species is subject to strict regulation in order to avoidutilizationincompatiblewiththeirsurvival,itisimportanttoincludethegenusDalbergiainCITESAppendixII.
a) ResolutionConf.9.24,Annex2a,CriterionA-”Itisknown,orcanbeinferredorprojected,thattheregulation
c) Resolution9.24(Rev.CoP15)Annex2bCriterionA–“Thespecimensofthespecies intheforminwhichtheyaretradedresemblespecimensofaspeciesincludedinAppendixIIundertheprovisionsofArticleII,paragraph2 (a), or in Appendix I, so that enforcement officers who encounter specimens of CITES-listed species areunlikelytobeabletodistinguishbetweenthem”.
Domestic and international experience has indicated that enforcement and customs officers who encounteredspecimensofDalbergiaproductsareunlikelytobeabletoreliablydistinguishbetweenthevariousspeciesofDalbergia.B.Proponent
2. OverviewSpeciesofthegenusDalbergiabelongtothefamilyLeguminosae(Fabaceae)Juss..Thegenusincludestrees,shrubsandvines,approximately250speciesinthetropics(Mabberley,2008)and304speciesworldwide(ThePlantList,2013)(seeannex1).These species are in high demand in the international tropical hardwood trade for the manufacture of furniture.However, the wild populations of several species have experienced a major decline due to legal and illegaloverexploitation.CITESregulates61speciesofDalbergia:D.abrahamii,D.andapensis,D.aurea,D.baronii,D.bathiei,D. bojeri,D. brachystachya,D. bracteolata,D. calycina,D. campenonii,D. capuronii, D. catipenonii, D. chapelieri,D.chlorocarpa, D. cochinchinensis, D. cubilquitzensis, D. darienensis, D. davidii, D. delphinensis, D. emirnensis, D.erubescens, D. gautieri, D. glaberrima, D. glaucocarpa, D. glomerata, D. granadillo, D. greveana, D. hildebrandtii, D.hirticalyx,D.humbertii,D.hutibertii,D.lemurica,D.louvelii,D.madagascariensis,D.malacophylla,D.manongarivensis,D.marítima,D.masoalensis,D.mollis,D.montícola,D.neoperrieri,D.nigra,D.normandii,D.occulta,D.orientalis,D.peltieri, D. pervillei, D. pseudobaronii, D. pseudoviguieri, D. purpurascens, D. retusa, D. stevensonii, D. suaresensis, D.trichocarpa,D.tricolor,D.tsaratananensis,D.tsiandalana,D.tucurensis,D.urschii,D.viguieri,D.xerophila.Whilesome identificationguidesfora fewDalbergia speciesexist,distinctionbetweenand identificationof individualspeciesisverydifficultfornon-professionalsandsometimesevenforexperts,makingitaproblemforenforcementandcustoms officers to comply correctly with inspection and identification of CITES listed Dalbergia tree and productshipments.However,Dalbergiaspeciesatgenuslevelcanbedistinguishedfromother“rosewood”timbergenus.ThegenusDalbergia is native to the tropical regionsofCentral andSouthAmerica,Africa,Madagascar and southernAsia.Thedistributionofthisgenusisfragmentedandmanyspeciespopulationsareindeclinemainlyduetothelossofforest coverage by human induced disturbances (e.g. non-sustainable agricultural practices, population growth, fires,legalandillegallogging).SeveraltimbertreespeciesofDalbergiaproducefinetimbersofhigheconomicvalue,generallyknownas“rosewood”,sorenownedforitsfragrancesandcolours,usedinmusicalinstrumentsandexpensivefurniture
(e.g.D.cochinchinensis,D.latifolia,D.melanoxylon,D.nigra,D.odoriferaandD.sissoo).However,thetermrosewoodhasalsobeenvariouslyascribedtothegeneraJacaranda,Guibourtia,MachaeriumandPterocarpus.Onlytheheartwoodyieldqualitytimber,butthetreeshavealowregenerationandtheyareslowinformingheartwood;even large logs often losemuch of their volumewhen the valueless sapwood is removed. The cutting of exploitableindividualsinthewildisthemaincauseoftheabsenceofcertaindiameterclassesandlowdensityofpopulations.Rosewoodspeciesarecurrentlyinhighdemandbyconsumersandlogsandsawnwoodarethemainproductsintradeinmostoftheproducingcountries.AsaresultofanongoingdemandintheAsianmarket,rosewoodhasbecomeseriouslyendangeredbytheirabusivelogginganddestructionoftheirhabitatwhichisleadingtothedeclineofwildpopulationsinsideandoutsideprotectedareas.ThisdocumentsuggeststhatthegenusDalbergiameetsthecriteriafor listing inCITESAppendix II incompliancewithArticle II, paragraph2(a) of theConvention and resolutionsConf. 9.24 (Rev. CoP16)Annex2 a, CriteriaA andB, andAnnex2bCriterionA.Itisestablishedoritispossibletodeductthatregulationoftradeinthespeciesofthegenusisrequiredtoensurethattheharvestoftheirspecimensfromthewild isnotreducingthepopulationtoa levelatwhichtheirsurvivalmightbethreatened.
3. Speciescharacteristics
3.1Distribution
ThegenusDalbergiahasapantropicaldistributionwithhighspeciesdiversityinAsia(ca.119species),inAfrica(ca. 116 species) and in Central and South America (ca. 80 species) (Vatanparast et al., 2013); according toVaglica(2014),thegenusDalbergiaisspreadworldwideto102countries;(seefigure1andAnnex2).
The genus Dalbergia occurs in different types of ecosystems such as humid evergreen rainforest, semideciduousrainforest,riparianforest,drytropicalforest,Miombowoodland,dryandsubaridforests,savannahs,thicketsandpastureland.Speciesarefoundinareaswithcompletelydifferentcharacteristics,suchastotallyflatareaswithdryrockysites,areaswithpossibilityof floodingduringtherainyseason(s), fertileanddeepsandyclay or calcareous soils along streams (Standley & Steyermark, 1946; Carvalho, 1997; Stevens et al., 2001;Linares&Sousa,2007;Lemmens,2008).Speciescanbefoundataltitudesfromsealevelupto1.700m.
Flowerssmall(2to20mm):corollasmall,rarelyfragrant,usuallywhite,lightyelloworpurple,withlightgreenspot at the center of the vexillum (FAUSAC- FNPV, 2015). Inflorescences are terminal or axillar, racemes orpanicles,usuallynumerousflowered;bractsandbracteolesusuallysmall,rarelypersistent,sometimesscorpioidorcorymbiform.
TreesbloombetweenDecemberandJuly inCentralAmericaafter4to5years,withasecondflush inAugustandSeptember(e.g.D.retusa),whileinMadagascartreesbloomfromSeptembertoMarch.Dalbergiatreesareslowgrowing. It hasbeenestimated that trees inAfrica reacha size largeenough to yield a fair amountofheartwoodonlyafter70–100years(Lemmens,2008).InSouthEastAsia,heartwoodoftreesreachesanaverageof13cmindiameterafter20years(CITESCOP16Prop.60).Honeybees, beetles and butterflies are the typical pollination agents for the genus that requires cross-pollination(Vasudeva&Sareen,2009).Bumblebeesandwaspsarealsofrequentvisitorsoftheflowers;aphidshavebeenfounddamagingtheflowersstructures(FAUSAC-FNPV,2015).Information on the breeding system of the genusDalbergia is not available; however, some aspects of thereproductive biology show common features: high levels of seed abortion have been observed inD. retusa(Bawa&Webb,1984);pollenisdispersedbybeesinD.glomerata,D.stevensoniiandD.retusa(Frankieetal.,2002),andseeddispersedbywindandwaterinD.retusaandD.stevensonii(Marín&Flores,2003).
AveryimportantandcommonregenerationstrategyforDalbergiaspeciesintropicaldryforestsissproutingorcoppicing. The ability to coppice is used for management systems (including plantation) of some Dalbergiaspecies.ExamplesforwellcoppicingspeciesareD.sissoo,D.stevensoniiandD.cochinchinensis.
3.4MorphologicalcharacteristicsofthewoodThewoodofthegenusDalbergiahasatextureandspecificcoloursthatmakesithighlydesirable:redincolor(D. tucurensis and D. glabra), dark brown (D. calycina), brown to dark brown with reddish stripes (D.stevensonii)darkbrowntopurplishblack(D.melanoxylon)(Lemmens,2008;FAUSAC-FNPV,2015).Accordingto
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Condit&Pérez(2002),thecolourmaychangeanddarkensrelativelyquicklyinthelighttobecomeebonyblack.The trees that produce rosewood are also much alike: they are medium size, reaching 20-30 m tall, withirregular-shaped trunk, 1-2m in diameter (NAS/NRC, 1979). Field studies of FAUSAC-FNPV (2015) showed inGuatemalathatthebiggesttrunksreached0.90minDBH(diameteratbreastheight)forD.tucurensis,1.00minD.calycina,0.77mforD.retusaand0.83mforD.stevensonii.Only theheartwoodyieldquality timber: it isveryhard,heavyandstrong.Thus inmanufacturedobjects thewood is stable, durable and holds its shape. The heartwood is surrounded by clearly differentiated whitesapwood;thesapwood,whichisasdenseastheheartwood,willvaryinamountdependingonthespecies,theageofthetreeandtheconditionsofitshabitat(FAUSAC-FNPV,2015).Thetreesareslowinformingheartwoodandevenlargelogsoftenlosemuchoftheirvolumewhenthevaluelesssapwoodisremoved(NAS/NRC,1979).Wastagemaybeashighas70-80%asonlythefineststraightgrainlogsareusedinmakingbarsformarimbasandxylophones(Kline,1980).However,theamountoffigureandcontrastingcolourvarieswidelyfromtreetotree.
3.5Roleofthespeciesinitsecosystem
The Dalbergia flowers represent an important food source for honeybees, beetles, wasps, bumble bees,butterflies andother insects (Vasudeva&Sareen,2009; FAUSAC-FNPV,2015).D. retusa is ahighly attractivebeeplantinCostaRica,whereupto60speciesofbeesvisittheflowers(Frankieetal.,2002).D.stevensoniiinBelize isadominantcomponentof thesouthern forest types (Cho&Quiroz,2005).Mature treesaresitesofwaspsandbeescolonies;beehiveshavebeenfoundintheprincipaltrunks(FAUSAC-FNPV,2015).Antcoloniesare frequently found associated withD. stevensonii, especially because the use of leaves as source of food(FAUSAC-FNPV,2015).Leavesalsorepresentasourcefoodformammals,suchasPotosflavus;birdsareoftenseenonthecrownofthetrees(FAUSAC-FNPV,2015).
Numerous epiphytes such as orchids, bromeliads, fungi, lichens, ferns, aroids and peperomias live on thebranchesandinthemaintrunksofthetrees(FAUSAC-FNPV,2015).ClimbingplantsarealsoassociatedtothegenusDalbergia.The roots of Dalbergia species form nodules in symbiosis with nitrogen-fixing soil bacteria (it has beendemonstrated to have aeschynomenoid type of root nodules): as a result of this nitrogen-fixing symbiosis,Dalbergia species play an important role in the natural forest ecosystem, enhancing soil fertility(Rasolomampianina et al., 2005; Sprent, 2009) and this is a requirement for biodiversity preservation(Rasolomampianinaetal.,2005).Loggingislikelytodisturbthehabitatofallthespeciesassociates,withtherelatedconsequencesofroadandtrailbuildingto transport the logs (Newman,2004).Theprotectionof thespecies fromfurtherunsustainableloggingwouldallowremainingtreestocontinuetheirecologicalfunctions.
4. Statusandtrend
TheIUCNRedListhasassessedthegenusDalbergiaandhasclassified83ofthe304knownspeciesofDalbergia(IUCN, 2016): 1 species asCritically Endangered (D. intibucana); 29 species asEndangered (D.abrahamii,D.andapensis,D.annamensis,D.bariensis,D.bathiei,D.bojeri,D.brachystachya,D.cambodiana,D.capuronii,D.congesta,D. davidii, D. delphinensis, D. erubescens,D. glaucocarpa,D. gloveri, D. hirticalyx,D. humberti, D.intibucana, D. louvelii, D. mammosa, D. maritima, D. normandii, D. oliveri, D. peishaensis, D. setifera, D.suarensis,D.tsaratanensis,D.tsiandalana,D.urschii,D.xerophila);26speciesasVulnerable(D.acariiantha,D.aurea,D.balansae,D.baronii,D.catipenoni,D.chlorocarpa,D.cochichinensis,D.glaberrima,D.hildebrantii,D.latifolia,D. lemurica,D.madagascarensis,D.monticola,D.neoperrieri,D.nigra,D.odorifera,D.orientalis,D.pseudobaronii,D.purpurascens,D.retusa,D.simposonii,D.tonkinensis,D.tricolor,D.vaccinifolia,D.viguieri);3 species as Near Threatened (D. chapelieri, D. cultrate, D. eremicola); 5 species as Lower Risk/NearThreatened(D.bracteolata,D.emirnensis,D.greveana,D.mollis,D.pervillei);12speciesasLeastConcern(D.arbutifolia,D.assamica,D.calycina,D.cana,D.louisii,D.monetaria,D.oligophylla,D.ovata,D.parviflora,D.
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peltieri,D. reniformis,D. rimosa);1 speciesasLowerRisk/LeastConcern (D. thrichocarpa);6 speciesasDataDeficient(D.boniana,D.ealaensis,D.entadoides,D.funera,D.menoeides,D.sambesiaca).
4.1Habitattrend
InCentralAmerica the typicalhabitathasbeendestroyedand isunder continuingpressureparticularly fromincreasing agriculture, cattle ranching, palm plantations, population growth and overexploitation (FAUSAC-FPNV,2015).ThetropicaldryforestsofCentralAmerica,themainhabitatforD.retusa,havebeensubjecttohumaninfluencessuchashuntingandmodificationofthevegetationcoverforalongas11,000years(Murphy&Lugo,1995).Lessthan0.1%oftheoriginaldryforesthasconservationstatusinPacificMesoamerica(Maass,1995).Deforestation has been commonly observed throughout the habitat range ofD. cochinchinensis, the naturalstandsofthespeciesarefoundscatteredonlyin30protectedareasthusthehabitatisfragmented(CITESCOP16Prop.60).InMadagascarinadditiontothedamagecausedbyabusiveloggingoftheDalbergiaspecies,thedestruction of the habitat is worsened by various anthropological activities (slash-and-burn agriculture,extension of crop fields) (CITES COP 16 Prop. 63). In some areas, in eastern and southern AfricaDalbergiamelanoxylon is found in theMiombowoodlands which has been highly degraded as a result of human use(Deweesetal,.2011).
4.2 Populationsize
InMadagascar,theresultsobtainedonthedensityanddendrometricfeaturesofsomeDalbergiaspeciesshowawidevarietyofindividualsrangingbetween10and320individualsperhectare.Moreover,thebiovolumeandthebasalareaarelow.Thisindicatesthatmostindividualsarenotyetexploitable(DBEV,2010).InaninventoryofDalbergiamelanoxyloninNachingwea,southernTanzania,thespeciesaccountedfor4%oftreestemsofthesampling area (Opulukwa et al., 2002). The density in southern Tanzania corresponds well with the densityfound in the two forest types inwhichD.melanoxylon occurs inMozambiquewith 3% and 5% respectively(Jenkinsetal.,2002).InThailand,itwasestimatedthatthecountryhadjust80,000-100,000D.cochinchinensistrees(approximately63,500m3)leftintheforestsin2011.ThepopulationsizeofrosewoodinVietnamhasbeendecliningabout50-60%duringthepast5-10years(CITESCOP16Prop.60).According to FAUSAC-FNPV (2015), in Guatemala a few (only four) populations ofD. stevensonii have beenfoundatthemomentatthesocalled”FranjaTrasversaldelNorte,FTN”(AltaVerapazandIzabal),witharangefrom44to800trees (only5%of treeshaveadiameterbetween60and100cmDBH). In theDepartmentofSantaRosaonepopulationofD.calycinawas identified,around100trees (18%of thetreeshaveadiameterbetween40and80cmDBH)andscatteredtreeshavebeenfoundinalltheDepartment.Dalbergia retusa was widely distributed at the coastal planes in the South Pacific regions of Guatemala(Standley&Steyermark,1946).However,onlyonepopulationofthisspecieshasbeenfoundinSuchitepéquez(48 trees), and few scattered trees have been found in Santa Rosa and Escuintla. This species shows a highpercentageoftrees(69%)inthelowestdiameterclassesrange(0-20cmDBH)indicatingrecentregeneration,andonly21%belongtotherange20-40cmDBH,confirmingahighlevelofoverexploitationinthecountry.AccordingtoFAUSAC-FNPV(2015),inGuatemala,forDalbergiatucurensisonlyscatteredtreeshavebeenfoundinAltaVerapazandQuiché,ofwhichonly12%oftreesbelongtotherangeof60-100cmDBH.
4.3Populationstructure
InMadagascarthepopulationstructureoftheDalbergiaspeciespresentsadisruptioncausedbytheabsenceofcertain diameter classes inside and outside the protected areas (CITES COP 16 Prop. 63). An inventory ofDalbergiamelanoxyloninNachingwea,southernTanzania,revealedthepatchydistributionofthespecies.The
Opulukwaet al. (2002) noted in a studyon a region in southern Tanzania that itwas nowvery hard to findDalbergiamelanoxylontreesofaharvestablesize(commonlyasfromaDBHof24cm),withreductionsinthenumberandvolumeoftreesduetoexcessiveexploitation.InMadagascarthereisadecreaseinthenumberofexploitableindividualsintheproductionareas(CITESCOP16Prop.63).InThailand,itwasestimatedthatthecountryhad300,000naturalstandsin2005,butgreatlyreducedtojust80,000-100,000trees(approximately63,500m3)in2011.EvidencesuggeststhatthespeciesisthreatenedwithextinctionasEIAreportedthatamajorRosewoodtradercomplainedinApril2011that“thespeciesisfinished...there are only about fiveyears left in the trade.” InVietnam, the species has been exposed to high rates ofexploitationoftheprimetimber(CITESCOP16Prop.60).AccordingtoFAUSAC-FPNV(2015),thecombinationofforestcoverlossandcuttinghasresultedinadeclineofthe populations of the species of the genus Dalbergia in Guatemala. Thewild populations ofDalbergia spp.(namelyD. retusa,D. tucurensis andD. stevensonii) are likely to be severely diminished as a result of heavyloggingandland-changeeffectsduringtheperiod1991-2012.
4.5Geographictrends
Ingeneral,therateandextentofdeforestationintherangeStatesisveryhigh.FAO(2005)reportedthattheannual rates of forest cover change between -0.4% (Colombia) and -4.6% (El Salvador) for the range Statesbetween 1990 and 2000. Between the period 2006-2010, in Guatemala therewas a loss in forest covers of500.210hectareswithadeforestationrateestimatedat1%peryear.Themainareasaffectedbydeforestationfor illegal loggingwere Verapaz, Petén, Quiché and the central regions Chimaltenago, Guatemala and SantaRosa which includes the distribution areas ofD. stevensonii,D. retusa, D. tucurensis andD. calycina (INAB,CONAP,UVG&URL,2012).Mexicolostanaverageof274,450haor0.39%peryearbetween1990and2010ora7.8%totallossofforestcoverwhileinBrazil,thechangeinforestcoverbetween1990and2010wasalossof2,765,850haor0.48%peryear,intotalalossof9.6%oftheforestcover(Butler,2016)In Asia, deforestation has been commonly observed throughout the habitat range of D. cochinchinensis. InThailand,thehabitatareahasbeencontinuouslyreducedduetobothdeforestationforagricultureandillegallogging.Thenatural standsof the speciesare foundscatteredonly in30protectedareasof557.76km2.Thehabitatisthusfragmented(CITESCOP16Prop.60).InMalaysia,thechangeinforestcoverbetween1990and2010wasalossof96,000haor0.43%peryear,intotalalossof8.6%oftheforestcover(Butler,2016).
InAfrica,MiombowoodlandsstretchacrosssouthernAfricainabeltfromAngolaandtheDemocraticRepublicofCongointhewesttoMozambiqueintheeast.Insomeareas,Miombohasbeenhighlydegradedasaresultof human use (Deweeset al., 2011). This is also the biome predominant in the countries (Mozambique andTanzania)fromwheremostoftheDalbergiamelanoxylontimberisexported(Lemmens,2008).InMadagascarinadditiontothedamagecausedbyabusiveloggingoftheDalbergiaspecies,thedestructionofthehabitatisworsenedbyvariousanthropologicalactivities(slash-and-burnagriculture,extensionofcropfields)(CITESCOP16Prop.63).
Timber species of Dalbergia of South America (e.g. D. brasiliensis, D. cearensis, D. cubilquitzensis, D.cuscatlanica,D.decipularis,D.foliolosa,D.funera,D.glomerata,D.hortensis,D.miscolobium,D.spruceana,D.villosa) provide someof themost highly prizedwoods for themanufacture of fine furniture,marquetry andveneers,alsousedincabinetwork,musicalinstrumentsandsculpturesforlocalmarketsandhandcrafts(Harris,2004;Grandtner&Chrevrette,2013;ILDIS,2014;INAB-SEINEF,2015).InAfricaitissometimesusedforraftersandpolesinconstruction,andforimplementssuchaswalkingsticks,hammers, drumsticks, arrow tips, pestles, cups, plates and combs. The wood is also used for charcoalproductionandasfirewood,althoughtheflameisveryhotandmaydamagecookingpots.InSenegalthestemandrootbarkisusedintraditionalmedicinetotreatdiarrhoeaincombinationwithbaobabortamarindfruits.The smoke of burnt roots is inhaled for treatment of headache, bronchitis and colds. In Sudan, patientssufferingfromrheumatismareexposedtothesmokeofburntstems.InEastAfrica,arootdecoctionisusedtopreventmiscarriage,asananthelminticandaphrodisiac,andtotreatgonorrhoea,stomach-acheandabdominalpain.Abarkdecoctionorbarkpowderisusedtocleanwoundsandaleafdecoctiontorelievepaininthejoints.Leafsapistakentotreatinflammationsinmouthandthroat.Barkdecoctionsandleafsaparealsoingredientsofmixturesusedtotreatvariouscomplaints(Lemmens,2008).InSouthEastAsiaD.cochinchinensiswoodisusedtomakefurniture,carvings,woodturnery,fine-artarticles,musical instrumentsandsewingmachines.Thewoodfromthestumpsandrootscanalsobeusedformakinghandicrafts.Root,barkandsapcanbepartoftraditionalmedicine.Thedistinctiveheartwoodmakesbeautifulpatternsaftersawing(CITESCOP16Prop.60.
6.2 Legaltrade
Rosewoodspeciesareexportedasrawlogsorfinishedproducts,furnitureandhandicrafts.InMadagascar,over90% of exported productswere logs and sawnwood (CITES COP 16 Prop. 63). Heartwood from old trees isvalued for having the richest colouration (Zadro, 1975). The burls, highly figured cambium outgrowths, areparticularlyvaluedbysometimbertraders.TradeintimberproductsofDalbergiahasincreasedexponentiallyinthepastfewyearsasseenbylogimportstoAsianmarketsfortheHongmu(RedWood)tradethatisbasedon33speciesoftropicalhardwoodtreesof
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which 16 species areDalbergia (EIA, 2016) (Figure 2). Of these 16Dalbergia species, 7 come from Asia (D.odorifera, D. cultrata, D. fusca, D. latifolia, D. bariensis, D. cochinchinensis, D. oliveri), 2 from Africa (D.melanoxylon, D. louvelli) and 7 from Latin America (D. nigra, D. spruceana, D. stevensonii, D. cearensis, D.frutescens,D.granadillo,D.retusa)(EIA,2016).OnlyD.cochinchinensis,D. louvelli,D.nigra,D.stevensonii,D.granadilloandD.retusaareregulatedbyCITES.FarmoreDalbergiaspeciesarepresentlytradedthanthoseCITES-listed.However,informationontradeflowsisnoteasilyavailable.
Other LatinAmerica Africa Asia
Figure2.Chinahongmulogimportsbyregionoforigin(Source:EIA,2016).According to theCITESTradeDatabase ,a totalof28,288.45m3ofDalbergiawoodproductsand140 tweretradedbetween2005and2014(UNEP-WCMC,2016a);thenumberofDalbergiaspeciesintradeincreasedfrom1to6(duetothefactthatnewspecieswerelistedintheCITESAppendices),thenumberofrecordsoftradealso increased from aminimum of 64 in 2006 to amaximum of 220 in 2013 (Figure 3) and the number ofimportingcountriesfluctuatedfromaminimumof20toamaximumof35importingcountriesin2013.
AccordingtoUNEP-WCMC(2015),EuropeanimportersreportedtradeinsawntimberofD.nigra,D.retusa,andD.stevensoniifromSouthandCentralAmerica.ThemainexportercountrieswereGuatemala(D.stevensonii),Belize(D.stevensonii)andBrazil(D.nigra)forcommercialpurpose,andD.retusafromCostaRicaforpersonalpurpose. Between 2004 and 2013 exports from South and Central America to the rest of the world werereported inD. granadillo, D. nigra, D. retusa,D. stevensonii andDalbergia spp., except for 2005 and 2006.CommercialtradewaspredominantlyintimberwithsomeadditionalcommercialtradeinveneersandcarvingsofD.nigra(UNEP-WCMC,2015).According to The National Forest Institute of Guatemala (INAB, 2015), for the year 2014, Dalbergia timberproducts(logs,tables,sawnwoodandfurniture)ofD.calycina,D.cubilquitzensis,D.stevensoniiandDalbergiaspp.havebeencommercializedandexportedoutsidethecountry.Consulted the CITES Trade Database (UNEP-WCMC, 2016b) Guatemala reported the export of 463.79m3 ofsawnwoodofDalbergiaspp.duringtheperiod2011-2014.Allexportsweredoneundersourcecode“W”(wild)andwith“T”purpose(commercial).Dalbergiamelanoxylon is principally viable for commercial timber extraction only in southeast Tanzania andnorthernMozambique(Jenkinsetal.,2012).BasedonofficialrecordsofMozambicantimberexports,thetotalconsumptionoftimber(notonlyD.melanoxylon)domesticallyandforexportwas727,000m³oflogsequivalentin 2012 (FAEF, 2013). Timber imports toChina fromMozambique increasedaround seven-fold in the last 10years, the figures given by Chang & Peng (2015) for imported Dalbergia melanoxylon timber (round woodequivalents)intoChinaaremorethan5,000m3in2004andmorethan33,000m3in2013.
6.3 Partsandderivativesintrade
InGuatemala,logsandsawnwoodofDalbergiatimbertreespeciesarethemainproductsintheinternationaltrade, butwooden furniture, firewood, tables and finished items manufactured (doors, frames, board) andhandicrafts are also found in the national and international trade (CONAP, 2015; INAB, 2015; UNEP-WCMC,2016b).
69 6481
95 99110 107
123
220
181
0
50
100
150
200
250
2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014
11
With an exception forD. nigra, the CITES trade database shows that almost all the exports in CITES listedDalbergia species reportedby range states for theperiod2000-2015are identifiedas logs, timber and sawnwood(UNEP-WCMC,2016c).WoodcarvingsofD.nigraanAppendixIspeciesfromBrazilaretradedinternationally(UNEP-WCMC,2016a).D. melanoxylon is a favourite wood for musical instruments, especially wind-instruments such as clarinets,oboes, flutes and bagpipes, because of its dark colour, stability and clearness of tone. Jenkins et al., (2012)reportedastabledemandforthis industryof255m3peryear.Usuallythewoodforthispurpose isexportedsemi-processedasbillets.In1999itwasestimatedthat250,000piecesofcarvingwereexportedwithavalueofUS$970,000. In the past Senegal, Kenya andMalawi produced considerable amounts of African blackwood,especially for thecarving industry,butstandshavebeendepletedconsiderablyandcarversoftenchangedtootherwoodsorusedAfricanblackwoodfromTanzania(inKenya)orMozambique(inMalawi)(Lemmens,2008).DestructiveuseinKitui,KwaleandMakuenihasincludeddigginguptherootstomaketallthincarvings.MostcarversnowbuytheirDalbergiamelanoxylonwoodfromtraderswhocrosstheborderfromTanzania.
6.4 Illegaltrade
The trade inHongmuDalbergia species has increasedmanifold in the past few years causing an increase inillegal trade. All Hongmu source countries in theMekong region have strict log export bans and trade in anumberofthemorethreatenedspeciesiscompletelyprohibited.Despitetheseprovisions,illegalcross-borderlogand sawn timber trade isevidentacross theMekong (EIA,2016). The sameoccurs inWestAfrica,wheremost countries have adopted total bans on harvesting and export and in Latin America, despite severalmoratoriums on exports and recent CITES listings, the illegal trade in Hongmu species is still rampant (EIA,2016).
IllegalloggingisaprevalentprobleminCentralAmerica.Forinstance,itwasestimatedin2003thatupto85%ofthetotalharvestinbroadleafforestsinHonduraswasillegal.Thereisverylittleinformationonthevolumeofinternational tradealthoughcocobolowood isavailable fromnumerous sourcesonline (Jenkinsetal., 2012).Extensiveillegaltradeinrosewoodshasbeenreported,raisingconcernsthatithasacceleratedinrecentyears(Jenkins et al., 2012). Seizures of illegally trafficked timber in Guatemala suggest that there is an organizedsmuggling ring capable of exporting large quantities. The demand for D. retusa from the Darien Region ofPanamahasbeendescribedas“outofcontrol”with“hundredsofsettlers looting”thespecies(Jenkinsetal.,2012).Duringtheperiod2011-2014,38shipmentsandvehicles,withatotalamountof906.244m3ofDalbergiatimber(mainlytrunks,flitchesandtables)ofD.stevensonii,D.retusaandDalbergiaspp. (reportedasrosul)of illegaloriginwereconfiscatedinGuatemala(almosttwotimestheCITEStimberreportedaslegallyexportedforthesame period). With the exception of two shipments destined to Honduras and El Salvador, all the othershipmentsweredestinedtoAsia.Dalbergia stevensoniiwas once locally common in Belize, then faced with rapidly declining stocks, Belizeprohibitedallrawrosewoodexportsin1992butliftedthebanin1996.Localestimatesin2010suggestedalossof 90 per cent of historical rosewood stands and in 2012, Belize enacted amoratorium on the harvest andexportofrosewoodspecies.Despitethisprogressivemove,theillegalharvestofthespecieshascontinued(EIA,2016).D.granadillo started tobe logged in all the sierrasofMichoacán,Mexico in2012where it is sold forUS$2,500/m3. An environment authority said that a ship container is sold to Asian buyers for US$50,000(PROCESO,2014).In Mexico the seizures ofD. granadillo sawn wood destined for the Asian market increased twofold from318.077m3in2012to727.703m3in2014(PROFEPA,2014).InrecentyearsMadagascarhasexperiencedveryhighlevelsofillegalloggingofeboniesandrosewoodsfromitsrainforestnationalparks,particularlysinceacoupd’étatinMarch2009.Thisillegallogginghasbeendescribed
12
asthemostseverethreattoMadagascar’snorth-easternrainforests.Thevastquantitiesbeingfelledhavebeenvaluedat severalhundredmillionUSdollars’worthextractedduring2009.Thereareestimatesof100–200treesbeingfelleddailywithacollectivevalueofuptoUS$460,000/day.Mostoftherosewoodbeingextractedis destined for Asianmarkets, for luxury furniture. Foreign traders and local traders dubbed ‘timber barons’dominate the illegal loggingwith thevastmajority (Jenkinsetal.,2012). IllegalPreciousWoodtradeappearsfrom this brief look (anecdotally) to have been accelerating in the last few years, particularly for rosewoodspecies.ItmaybethecasethattheveryrecentescalationinillegalrosewoodextractionfromCentralAmericaisduetoMadagascarclampingdownontheillegalrosewoodtradefrom2010andthereforethissupplydryingupfor the Asianmarket. Areas where rosewood used to occur closer to China have been all but exhausted ofrosewood,withestimatesfromtradersthatthespecieshasjustfiveyearsleft.Thisrosewoodtradeappearstohavebeenacceleratinginthelastfewyears,particularly‘specieshopping’and‘sourceareashifting’isatrendthathasbeenknownaboutandcommenteduponformanyyears(Jenkinsetal.,2012).Species shifting, as species become commercially extinct, is a common practice. For instance, with thecommercial extinction of D. odorifera in China and Pterocarpus santalinus in India, the trade in D.cochinchinensisgrewrapidlyanditbecamethemostsought-afterHongmuspeciesglobally(EIA,2016). AsD.cochinchinensiswasoverexploitedthemainspeciesnowdominatingtheHongmutradeinSouth-EastAsiaareD.oliveri,D.bariensis,Pterocarpusmacrocarpus,andP.pedatus(EIA,2016).In2014,anestimated229,796m3ofD.oliverilogsweretradedinternationally(EIA,2016).MoreandmorespeciesofDalbergiaareenteringthetradeworldwideasstocksofonceabundantspeciesarebeingdepleted.
Hongmu trade is also linked to and drives violence in source and transit countries. InWest Africa, Hongmuspecies are known as “blood timbers” due to connections between illegal Hongmu trade and rebel groupuprisings; for example, in the Senegalese Casamance, in Côte d’Ivoire and in northern Nigeria in territoriescontrolled by the Muslim extremist group Boko Haram. In Thailand, more than 150 forest rangers, police,soldiers and illegal loggers have been killed in gunfights during rosewood enforcement operations in recentyears(EIA,2016).Traffickersexploitanylegalloopholetosmuggleillegaltimber.Traffickershaverepeatedlytakenadvantageofthe current gaps in the CITES listings, misdeclaring Dalbergia retusa as the unregulated and similar-lookingDalbergia bariensis in violation of national moratoriums and CITES listings (EIA, 2016). In Guatemala, thedocuments accompanying rosewood shipments often recorded the export as recycling material (such ascardboard,junkorscrapmetal)orothertimberspecies,suchasCupressus,DialiumandMiroxylum.InMexico,D.granadillo logsaremixedwithother species in ship containers todisguise the shipments fromauthoritiessincetherearenopermitstologthisprotectedspecies(PROCESO,2014).
6.5 ActualorpotentialtradeimpactsDalbergiaspecieshavearelativelowregenerationrateandtheabsenceofcertaindiameterclasses(70-100cm)and the low density of population of certain diameter classes (20-30, 40-50) further disturbs the health ofregeneration.Wastagemaybeashighas70-80%asonlythefineststraightgrainlogsareusedinmakingbarsformarimbasandxylophones (Kline,1980).Thetreesareslow in formingheartwood,soeven large logs losemuchoftheirvolumewhenthesapwoodisremoved(NAS,1979).Thecuttingofexploitableindividualsinthewildisthemaincauseofthisdisturbance;harvestingforexportationcouldslownaturalregenerationandtheinternational trade has therefore promoted cutting of great manyDalbergia spp., leading to the decline ofpopulationsinsideandoutsideprotectedareas.
7.Legalinstruments
7.1National
Most range states have different legal instruments for the protection and conservation of the species, theirhabitat,declarationofprotectedareas,measurescontrollinglogging,use,importorexport.
13
7.2International
CITES regulates 61 species ofDalbergia: 1 species in Appendix I, 55 species in Appendix II and 5 species inAppendixIII:
Species Appendix Country Annotation
AppendixI AppendixII AppendixIII
D.nigra Brazil D.cochichinensis Thailand#5 D.abrahamii,D.andapensis,D.aurea,D.baronii,D.bathiei,D.bojeri,D.brachystachya,D.bracteolata,D.campenonii,D.capuronii,D.catipenonii,D.chapelieri,D.chlorocarpa,D.davidii,D.delphinensis,D.emirnensis,D.erubescens,D.gautieri,D.glaberrima,D.glaucocarpa,D.greveana,D.hildebrandtii,D.hirticalyx,D.humbertii,D.hutibertii,D.lemurica,D.louvelii,D.madagascariensis,D.malacophylla,D.manongarivensis,D.marítima,D.masoalensis,D.mollis,D.montícola,D.neoperrieri,D.nigra,D.normandii,D.occulta,D.orientalis,D.peltieri,D.pervillei,D.pseudobaronii,D.pseudoviguieri,D.purpurascens,D.suaresensis,D.trichocarpa,D.tricolor,D.tsaratananensis,D.tsiandalana,D.urschii,D.viguieri,D.xerophila
Most range states have different legal instruments for the protection and conservation of the species, theirhabitat,declarationofprotectedareas,logging,use,importorexport.
14
8.3.2International
CITES regulates 61 species ofDalbergia: 1 species in Appendix I, 55 species in Appendix II and 5 species inAppendixIII(seesection7.2)
8.4Artificialpropagation
Due to thevalueof their timber,NAS (1979) recommended thateffortbemade toextendDalbergia speciescultivations.Guatemalahasregistersofplantationsof:D.retusaandD.stevensonii(INAB,2012;FNPV,2012).D.retusawasincluded inplantation trialsofnativepreciouswood species inCostaRica,which started in1992 (Fonseca&Chinchilla,2002;Fonsecaetal.,2002).Inmanagedplantations,treesmayreach13cmDBHand8minheightafter17years (Marín&Flores,2003andreferencestherein).Dalbergia treeshavebeenfoundtogrowatanaveragerateof1.1m/yearinheight(Knowles&Leopold,1997).Laos andThailandhave trial plots of D. cochinchinensis (CITESCOP16Prop. 60). InMadagascar propagationtrialsfromcuttingsandbylayeringproducedsatisfactoryresultsforD.monticola(CITESCOP16Prop63).Thereare records of artificial propagation ofD.melanoxylon in plantations in Kenya and Tanzania (Gregory et al.,1999).
ManyDalbergiaspecieshavethesamewoodanatomyandtheprocessof identificationofdifferentspeciesisvery difficult because of the hardness of thewood in the process of preparing thin sections formicroscopicanalysys(FAUSAC-FNPV,2015;McLureetal.,2015).The timberofD. retusa is likely tobeconfusedwithD. stevensoniandD. tucurensis (Wiedenhoeft,2011).D.retusacanbemosteasilyseparatedfromthembyitsdistinctreddish-orangecolor,butalsoitscomparativelackof paratracheal parenchyma and distinct abundance of diffuse-in-aggregate parenchyma; this require strongtechnical knowledge (Wiedenhoeft, 2011). D. tucurensis and D. stevensonii cannot usually be definitivelyseparated (Wiedenhoeft, 2011). The two species can be distinguished by means of density that requiresaccurateweightandvolumemeasures (Wiemann&Ruffinatto,2012).D. retusawood isdenserandstrongerthan Brazilian rosewood D. nigra (SCMRE, 2002). D. tiralana can be confused with D. stevensonii (Zamora,2000).ThetimberofD.granadillo(rangeStatesElSalvadorandMexico)isnotdistinguishablefromthatofD.retusa(Record&Hess,1943;Richter,2006).Althoughithasthecommonname”granadillo”,itisoftentradedunderthe name ”cocobolo” (Richter, 2006). The inclusion in CITES Appendix II of the whole genus is thereforeproposedforlook-alikereasons.Mexico alsomade recommendations to the CITES Plants Committee for the evaluation of look-alike speciesfrom the genus, due to the difficulty that differentiation of CITES-listed and non-listed Dalbergia speciespresentsforimplementationoftheConvention(PC22Doc.22.4),aproblemalsonotedbyotherPartiesintheregion(PC22Doc.17.2;UNEP-WCMC,2015).
10.Consultations
15
11.AdditionalremarksTradeinDalbergiaspecieshasbeenincreasingformanyyearsandmoreandmorespeciesarebeingloggedandtradedinternationally,mostoftheseillegally.Severalfactorsarecausingmajorproblemsforenforcementauthoritiestocomplycorrectly with the actual CITES listings. For example, the difficulty in differentiating between Dalbergia species wasdiscussedinsection9,andmanyshipmentsareonlyidentifiedasDalbergiaspp.forwhichthereisnowayofknowingifit includes only CITES-listed Dalbergia species or illegal non-listed Dalbergia species. It has been recognized thatenforcementandtracking/reportingofDalbergiaspeciesintradeishamperedbytheuseofcommontradenames,suchas“rosewood”asitcanrelatetoCITES-listedDalbergiaspeciesandtomanynon-listedDalbergiaspeciesorspeciesfromdifferentCITESornon-listedgenera(PC22Doc17.6).IthasbeenrecognizedaswelltheproblemtoidentifybetweenDalbergiaandothertimberlook-alikespeciesorimprovetestingtodifferentiatebetweenlistedandnon-listedDalbergiaspeciesandlook-alikespecies.Forexample,thegeneraPterocarpusspp.andMachaeriumspp.arecloselyrelatedtoDalbergiawhileotherlook-alikegeneraincludeDicoryniaspp.,Caesalpiniaspp.,andSwartziaspp.(PC22Doc17.6).Theseandotherproblemshavebeendiscussedbyseveralexpertsandworkinggroups,includingdiscussionsatthelastPlantsCommitteemeetinginTbilisi,Georgia.TheCommitteenoteddocumentPC22Doc.17.6.ontheimplementationofthe Convention forDalbergia spp., presented by the representatives from the European region. The Committee alsonoted document PC22 Doc. 22.4 and supported its submission for consideration by the Conference of the Parties,includingrecommendations9and10:
“9.TotakenoteoftheadvancesmadebyMexicowithrespecttotheevaluationoftimberspeciesofthegenusDalbergia, andalsoof theprincipaldifficulties that theCITESAuthoritiesofMexicohaveencountered in theimplementationofthelistingsofDalbergiaspp.inAppendixII(para.3).10.Consideringthattodatethereisnoreliablemethod(noronetriedoutbyCustomsofficials)toidentifyatanintra-species levelthewoodfromspecimensofDalbergia,andthatthismaycauseproblemsin implementingthe listings of Dalbergia in Appendix II, to develop recommendations on the appropriateness of listing thethirteenremainingMexicantimberspeciesinAppendixII,andinthatcontexttoconsiderothertimberspeciesofDalbergiathatmightbesuitableforthesametreatment,inaccordancewiththeruleonlistingoflook-alikespecies(inlinewithArticleII,para.2b.oftheConvention).”
During thediscussionof thesedocumentsa largenumberofparticipants supported theneed to list thewholegenusDalbergiainAppendixIItosafeguardmanyoftheDalbergiaspecieswhicharenowintradeandhaveyettobelistedaswellastosimplifytheworkofenforcementandcustomsauthoritieswhenfacingshipmentsofDalbergiaproducts.12.ReferencesAsianRegionalWorkshop(Conservation&SustainableManagementofTrees,VietNam,August1996).1998.Dalbergia
latifolia. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 1998: e.T3209 A9675 296.http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.1998.RLTS.T32098A9675296.en.Downloadedon03December2015.
Ban, N.T. 1998.Dalbergia tonkinensis. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 1998:
d’ebéne,palissandreetboisderose),RapportfinalWWF,97p.Dewees, P., B. Campbell, Y. Katerere, A. Sitoe, A.B. Cunningham, A. Angelsen and S. Wunder. 2011. Managing the
FAEF (Faculty of Agronomy and Forestry Engineering). 2013. Assessment of harvested volume and illegal logging in
Mozambican natural forest. Report of the Faculty of Agronomy and Forestry Engineering, Eduardo MondlaneUniversity,withsupportfromtheForestLawEnforcement,GovernanceandTradeSupportProgrammeforAfrican,CaribbeanandPacificCountries(GCP/INT/064/EC).Maputo.
FAO.2005.StateoftheWorld’sforests.6thedition.FoodandAgricultureOrganisationoftheUnitedNations,Rome.FAUSAC-FNPV. 2015. ITTO-CITES Project: “Establishment of a forensic laboratory for identification and description of
woods for its application to legal processes and to the systemsof traceability of the products included in CITES”.Preliminarydataandpersonalconsultations.
conservation link between agriculture and nature. Ministry of Environment. Brasília. pp. 187-198.http://www.webbee.org.br
Grandtner,M.M.2005.Elsevier’sDictionaryofTrees.Volume1NorthAmerica.ElsevierScience.Grandtner, M.M., Chevrette. 2013. Dictionary of Trees, Volume 2: South America: Nomenclature, Taxonomy and
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Khare,C.P.2007.IndianMedicinalPlants:anillustratedDictionary.Springer-Verlag,NewYork,USA.Pp.199-201.Kiuru, J. 2003. Asistencia técnica en industrias forestales para asociaciones forestales de Guatemala (Informe de
Marín,W.A. and Flores, E.M. 2003. Dalbergia retusa Hemsl. In: Vozzo, J.A. 2003. Tropical Tree seedsManual. Part IISpeciesdescriptions.UnitedStatesDepartmentofAgricultureForestService.pp.429-431.
Medina,E.1995.SeasonallyDryTropicalForests.TheUniversityPress,Cambridge.pp9-34.NAS/NRC. 1979. Tropical Legumes: resources for the future. Report by an ad hoc advisor panel of the advisory
de Lajudie, P.,Dreyfus,B. andAvarre, J-C. 2005.Nitrogen-fixingnodules from rosewood legume trees (Dalbergiaspp.)endemictoMadagascarhostsevendifferentgenerabelongingtoα-andβ-Proteobacteria.MolecularEcology(14)13:4135.
Record, S.J. and Hess, R.W. 1943. Timbers of the NewWorld. Yale University Press, New Haven; H.Milford, Oxford
UniversityPress,London.640pp.Richter, H.G. (2006). Pers. Comm. (email) 27 Nov 2006 from Dr. H.G. Richter, Departamento deMadera, Celulosa y
Papel, Universidad de Guadalajara, Jalisco, Mexico, concerning possible inclusion of Cedrela odorata, DalbergiaretusaandDalbergiastevensoniiinCITESAppendixII.
2016UNEP-WCMC.2016c.CITESTradeDatabase.Dalbergiaspp.globaltrade2000-2015.Downloaded01April2016Vaglica, V. 2014Dalbergia spp.A case for CITES listing? Thesis submitted in partial fulfilmentof the requirements to
obtain theMaster’s Degree inManagement and Conservation of Species in Trade: The International Framework(11thEdition).UniversidadInternacionaldeAndalucía,SedeAntonioMachadodeBaeza
FPL-RP-665.Madison,WI:U.S.DepartmentofAgriculture,ForestService,ForestProductsLaboratory.7p.World Conservation Monitoring Centre. 1998. Dalbergia odorifera. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 1998:
e.T32398A9698077. http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.1998.RLTS.T32398A9698077.en. Downloaded on 03December2015.
Annex 2. Distribution of accepted species names of the genusDalbergia according to “TheInternationalLegumeDatabaseandInformationService”(ILDIS,2013).Note.DifferentreferencesourceswerealsoutilisedandthoseareindicatedbyspecificnumbersaftertheISOcodesofcountriesmentionedinAnnex2.