Contributions of Bhāratam Janam to Archaeometallurgy: Reinterpreting Mayabheda Sukta of Rigveda (RV 10.177)

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Contributions of Bhāratam Janam to Archaeometallurgy:

Reinterpreting Mayabheda Sukta of Rigveda (RV 10.177)

Hindu Chemistry, 2 vols. -- Prafulla Chandra Ray (Full text, embedded). Theories of

Transmutation -- BV Subbarayappa (Essay, embedded): These documents provide the

framework for reinterpreting Mayabheda Sukta of Rigveda (RV 10.177).

Mayabheda Sukta is interpreted as an archaeometallurgical rendering of the effect of patanga,

mercury or quicksilver; also, the sun (RV 10.177.1, 2) on Soma, metal -- gold, silver compound

of electrum (assem, Old Egyptian). With this, History of Bhāratam Janam, 'lit. metalcaster folk',

has to be retold.

This Rigveda Sukta is thus an intimation of the knowledge of mercury as a metal in Rigvedic

times.

Asur were sun-worshippers as evidenced by the oblations offered to the Sun on Sit Shamshi

bronze. The phrase asurasya mAyayA in RV 10.177.1 can be interpreted as bheda, transmutation

achieved by Asura kavi, (kavayah in RV 10.177.2), the smiths. ( A change, modification; न

न न न Bg.3.26)

Mayabheda Sukta: Mahavira pot is a symbol of Makha, the Sun (S'Br. 14.1.1.10). Asvalayana

Srauta Sutra IV.6, notes that Mantra ||2|| of this Rigvedic hymn is the inviting verse of the

immolated to Vac(speech), and is used in the parvargya rites along with Mantra ||3||. Mantra ||1||

does refer directly to the Sun.

Wash Edward Hale notes that the first mantra could refer to the myth of the Svarbhanu hiding

the Sun with darkness until it was found by the Atris; if so, this is the only occurrence of asura,

in the singular, referring to a mythological evil or demonic being. (Wash Edward Hale. Asura:In

Early Vedic Religion, Motilal Banarsidas, p.78)

Rishi Patanga Prajapati addresses the Vedic deity, Mayabheda. The third mantra also appears in

the First Mandala in the "Riddle Hymn" as Sukta R.V.I.164.31 in the hymn addressed to the

Vishwadevas, one view is that this mantra is the culminating point of the whole doctrine of the

Transmigration of souls. (Ramachandra Dattatreya Ranade. A constructive survey of

Upanishadic philosophy. Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan. p. 106.)

Two expressions in the Mayabheda Sukta provide leads to archaeometallurgy:

1. kavayah; 2. patanga. Kavi in Old Iranian is a smith; patanga in Samskritam is 'quicksilver,

mercury'.

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In Old Iranian kavi is a smith, a ruler. (Christensen, Arthur. The Kayanians =: Les Kayanides.

Bombay: K.R. Cama Oriental Institute, 1993.) Kavi as kayāniān (Kayanids), in the early Persian

epic tradition is a dynasty that ruled Iran before the Achaemenids, all of whom bore names

prefixed by Kay from Avestan kauui. Kavi is the Indo-Iranian term for “(visionary) poet.” The

term may be older than Indo-Iranian, if Lydian kaveś and the Samothracean title cited

by Hesychius as koíēs or kóēs are related. “Indo-Iranian poets also performed the sacrifices (yaj-

/yaz-), the primary purpose of which was to fight darkness and evil and reestablish order in the

universe by making the sun rise and the rains fall. Of the Iranian kauuis/kays, Kauui

Haosrauuah/Kay Husrōy and Kauui Vištāspa/Kay Wištāsp play central roles in the universal

eschatology, while the role of the others is more generally to keep the forces of evil at bay. In the

oldest Indic poetry, the Rigveda, the term kaví refers to poets and priests and is frequently

applied to gods (Agni, Indra, Soma, Mitra, Varuṇa, and others) performing this function.

The kavís of old ( va, vyá) were “singers” (verb gṝ-), “libators” (hotar), and sacrificers

(verb yaj-); they “announce” (verb śaṃs-) “words” (vac), “well-spoken words” (s kta); and they

serve as the gods’ charioteers (vahni) in the race to make the sun rise from the “rock” (aśman)

and the world ocean. Their poems are made by their thoughts (mati, etc.), and they send their

“poetic visions” (dhī) into the divine world. “Sustainers of ṛtá and discoverers of non-ṛtá, they

set out on “great paths” (mahás atháḥ, Rigveda 2.24.7); and they find the hidden light and

regenerate dawn (Rigveda 7.76.4). They are characterized by krátu, a kind of knowledge that

permits them to perform their special functions: note kavíkrátu “having the krátu of the kavís”

(Rigveda 3.2.4). The krátus of travelers are compared with charioteers or draft animals pulling

chariots (cf.Rigveda 7.48.1, 90.5)… The Old Indic uśíj, another kind of priest, was also

demonized as Old Avestan usixš, mentioned together with the kauui and karapan as mistreating

the cow (Yasna 44.20)… In the Young Avesta, the kauuis are listed together with

the karpans… The verb kalpaya- takes yajña “sacrifice” as direct object (Rigveda 8.58.1,

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10.52.4), and Agni is once said to be priest, sacrificing and ordering the ṛtus (cf.

Avestan ratu“ritual models” of the

cosmos, Rigveda 10.2.3). ” http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/kayanian-i

Cinnabar.Mercury Sulfide, vermillion is the common ore

of mercury. Vermilion is a brilliant red or

scarlet pigment originally made from the powdered

mineral cinnabar, and is also the name of the

resulting color. Attested use of sindhur, red paste is found

in two terracotta toys of Sarasvati-Sindhu (Hindu)

civilization.

Nausharo: female figurines. Wearing sindhur at the

parting of the hair. Hair painted black, ornaments golden

and sindhur red. Period 1B, 2800 – 2600 BCE. 11.6 x

30.9 cm.[After Fig. 2.19, Kenoyer, 1998].

Sindhur, vermilion-colored powder with which Indian

women make a mark in their hairline to indicate they are

married. The re-interpretation of RV 10.177 Mayabheda

Sukta points to the possibility that the archaeometallurgical

knowledge about Sindhur, vermilion, cinnabar (mercury

sulfide) may date to Rigvedic times.

RasAyana, 'the way of the rasa, mercury' is the Samskritam

expression for alchemy. Texts in ancient Bharatam relate

to transmutation of base metals into gold (dhātuvāda, transmutational alchemy) and the

production of elixirs of immortality (dehavāda, elixir alchemy). The expression Rasāyana can be

interpreted to mean alchemy using mercurials.

Indian alchemy or proto-chemistry, is more generally "The Science of Mercury", or Rasaśāstra,

in Sanskrit, Nepali, Marathi, Hindi, Kannada and several other languages. Early Indian

alchemical texts discuss the use of prepared forms of mercury or cinnabar. Cinnabar has been

mined for centuries, even as far back as the Neolithic Age. (Martín-Gil, J.; Martín-Gil, F. J.;

Delibes-de-Castro, G.; Zapatero-Magdaleno, P.; Sarabia-Herrero, F. J. (1995). "The first Known

Use of Vermillion". Experientia 51 (8): 759–761.) Roasting cinnabar results in separation of

mercury from sulfur. Mercury evaporates and is collected as liquid in a condensing column.

Mercury, is extolled the king of rasas with synonyms: parada, sita, rasendra, svarnakaraka

(maker of gold), sarvadhatupati and, more significantly in a metaphorical setting, Sivaja (born of

Siva); Siva virya (semen of Siva) and Harabija (seed of Siva).

"Mercury had to undergo 18 processes before it could be used for transforming either metals or

human body. These processes were as follows:

Svedana: steaming or heating using water bath

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Mardana: grinding

Murchana: swooning or making mercury lose its form

Utthapana: revival of form

Patana: sublimation or distillation

Rodhana: potentiation

Niyamana: restraining

Sandipana: stimulation or kindling

Gaganabhaksana: consumption of essence of mica

Carana: amalgamation

Garbhadruti: liquefaction (internal)

Bahyadruti: liquefaction (external)

Jarana: calcinations

Ranjana: dyeing

Sarana: blending for transformation

Sankramana: acquiring power of transformation or penetration

Vedhana: transmutation

Sevana: becoming fit for internal use

These were known as the samaskaras. Briefly the processes are as follows:

Svedana consists in streaming mercury with a number of vegetables and mineral substances;

mardana involves rubbing the streamed mercury in a mortar with vegetable and acidic substances

to remove some more impurities; in murchanam mercury is rubbed in a mortar with another set

of vegetable substances, till it loses its own character and form; in utthapana the mercury is

steamed again in alkalis, salts, the three myrobalans, alum, etc.; patana involves distillation (3

types: urdhva, adah and tiyak); rodhana involves mixing the distilled mercury with saline water

in a closed pot; in niyamana the process is continued by streaming mercury for 3 days with a

number of plant products, alum borax, etc.; sandipana involves steaming with alum, black

pepper, sour gruel, some alkalis and some plant substances; ganganagrasa involves fixation of

the desired degree of the essence of mica for its consumption; in carana mercury is boiled with

sour gruel and leaves of some kinds of cereal plants, alum etc.; garbhardrti involves treating

mercury with other metallic substances; in bahyadrti the essences of the minerals or metallic

substances are utilized in the molten or liquid state; jarana involves heating mercury with the

desired minerals or metals, alkalis and salts; ranjana involves colouring by a complex process; in

sarana mercury is digested with gold, silver etc. in an oil base; kramana requires smearing

mercury with a number of plant extracts, mineral substances, human milk etc. and then heating

them ; vedhana consists in rubbing the treated mercury with oil and a few other materials so that

it acquires the power of transmutation; and finally sarayoga it is available for internal

use." http://www.infinityfoundation.com/mandala/t_es/t_es_agraw_chemistry_frameset.htm

Mahavira pot is a span high. The pot is mixed with goat's milk, ant-hill soil, Putika grass, goat's

hair and iron powder.

The pot is heated, the milk of a cow and a goat is poured in. Hot milk is offered to the Asvins

together with two RauhiNa cakes.Three Mahavira vessels make the head of a man. Pot is

covered with a golden plate. Aitareya Brahmana notes that Mahavira yajna is performed before

or after a Soma yajna.

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(Translated into English a) by Ralph T.H.Griffith and b) by Laurie L. Patton c) freely as per

Swami Dayananda Saraswati’s interpretation.); and d) based on Sayana.

RV 10.177: r.s.i: patan:ga pra_ja_patya; devata_: ma_ya_bheda; chanda: tris.t.up, 1 jagati_

S. Kalyanaraman

Sarasvati Research Center

May 25, 2015

न | न || ||1||

pata~Ngam aktam asurasya mAyayA hR^idA pashyanti manasA vipashchitaH|

samudre antaH kavayo vi chakShate marIchInAm padam ichChanti vedhasaH||

a) The sapient with their spirit and their mind behold the Bird adorned with all an Asura’s magic

might. Sages observe him in the ocean’s inmost depth: the wise disposers seek the station of his

rays.

b) The wise behold with their mind in their heart the Sun, made manifest by the illusion of the

Asura. The sages look into the solar orb, the ordainers desire the region of his rays.

c) The one who has entered the Prana, who is the Prana of the Pranas, owing to His grace the

wise ones whole-heartedly (devotedly) observe with great interest the constant (observable)

activity in the life (empirical existence) of the Jiva (the individual self); but those who are

blessed with sharper and deeper insight are able to see stationed within (merged with) the Lord

(the supreme Self) all those Jivas that have attained moksha (liberation); therefore, the wise

adore the Lord who rests shining ever so brightly.

d) 10.177.01 The wise behold their mind; (seated) in their heart the Sun made manifest by the

illusion of the asura; the sages look into the solar orb, the ordainers (of solar worship) desire the

region of his rays. [Illusion of the asura: asurasya = the supreme Brahma devoid of all disguise;

aktam ma_yaya_ = united, to knowledge, all-knowing].

In the context of archaeometallurgy, the rica can be translated as: The smiths behold their mind:

(seated) in their heart the Sun made manifest by the transmutation by mercury (patanga) of the

asura; the smiths look into the solar orb, the ordainers (of solar worship) desire the region of his

rays.

न | न न न || ||2||

pata~Ngo vAcham manasA bibharti tAM gandharvo .avadad garbhe antaH |

tAM dyotamAnAM svaryam manIShAm R^itasya pade kavayo ni pAnti ||

a) The flying Bird bears Speech within his spirit: erst the Gandharva in the womb pronounced it.

And at the seat of sacrifice the sages cherish their radiant, heavenly-bright invention.

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b) The Sun bears the word in his mind; the Gandharva has spoken it within the wombs; sages

cherish it in the place of sacrifice, brilliant, heavenly, ruling the mind.

c) The Jiva sincerely employs its ability to speak ("speech"); the speech which emerges from

within in the form of (various/numerous) words is impelled by the Prana residing within the

body having been inspired by it; the all-spreading brilliant light-rays and the vibrant air

(collectively) together gathering that word-form speech lifts that speech carrying it to all corners

of space (for it to be heard).

d) 10.177.02 The Sun bears the (sacred) word in his mind the Gandharva has spoken it, (abiding)

within the womb; sages cherish it in the place of sacrifice, brilliant, heavenly ruling the mind.

[Sacred word: va_k: the three Vedas; Taittiri_ya Bra_hman.a 3.12.9: in the morning the deity

moves in the sky with the hymns of the R.k, he abides at noon in the Yajurveda, at his setting he

is extolled with the Sa_maveda; the sun moves accompanied by the three Vedas; gandharva:

from gah (voices), and dhr. (to hold) = the breath of life].

In the context of archaeometallurgy, the rica can be translated as: Mercury (patanga) bears

speech; Gandharva pronounces it; smiths cherish it in the place of yajna, brilliant, heavenly

ruling the mind.

न न |

: न आ न || ||3||

apashyaM gopAm anipadyamAnam A cha parA cha pathibhish charantam |

sa sadhrIchIH sa viShUchIr vasAna A varIvarti bhuvaneShv antaH ||

a) I saw the Herdsman, him who never resteth, approaching and departing on his pathways. He,

clothed in gathered and diffusive splendour, within the worlds continuously travels.

b) I beheld the protector, never descending, going by his paths to the east and the west; clothing

the quarters of the heaven and the intermediate spaces. He constantly revolves in the midst of the

worlds.

c) The lord of the senses, the all-knowing one, as the witness, watches the imperishable Jiva who

in accordance with its past and present works is repeatedly born in this world and passes through

many types of agreeable and disagreeable births.

d) 10.177.03 I beheld the protector (the Sun), never descending, going by his paths to the east

and to the west; clothing (with light) the (four) quarters of heaven and the intermediate spaces,

he constantly revolves in the midst of the worlds.

In the context of archaeometallurgy, the rica can be translated as: The all-knowing one as the

witness watches the many types of transmutations in the travels (of mercury, patanga).

(Source: Laurie L. Patton. Bringing the Gods to Mind:Mantra and Ritual in Early Indian

Sacrifice. University of California Press. p. 132. The Rig Veda Translator Swami Dayananda

Saraswati. p. 1218,1219.)

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The Mayabheda Sukta of Rigveda (RV 10.177) can thus be seen as an archaeometallurgical

rendering of the role of patanga, mercury or quicksilver in transmuting metal (Soma, ams'u) to

achieve lustre and brightness like the Sun.

Mercury occurs in deposits throughout the world mostly as cinnabar (mercuric sulfide). The red

pigment vermilion, a pure form of mercuric sulfide, is mostly obtained by reaction of mercury

(produced by reduction from cinnabar) with sulfur. Mercury dissolves many other metals such as

gold and silver to form amalgams.

Native mercury with cinnabar, Socrates mine, Sonoma

County, California. Cinnabar sometimes alters to native

mercury in the oxidized zone of mercury

deposits. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(element)

Alchemists thought of mercury as the First Matter from

which all metals were formed. They believed that

different metals could be produced by varying the quality

and quantity of sulfur contained within the mercury. The

purest of these was gold, and mercury was called for in attempts at the transmutation of base (or

impure) metals into gold, which was the goal of many alchemists. (Stillman, J. M. (2003). Story

of Alchemy and Early Chemistry. Kessinger Publishing. pp. 7–9.) The 'way of Mercury'

rasavAda is the Samskritam word for alchemy.

[ न न -ड न˚] 1 A bird; न न N.1.124;

Bv.1.17. -2 The sun; ड U.6.12; Mal.1.24; Śi. 1.12; R.2.15. -3 A

moth, locust, or grass-hopper; न Ku.3.64;4.2; Pt 3.126. -4 A bee. -5 A

ball for playing with; $ Bhāg.5.2.14. -6 Ved. A spark. -7 A

devil. -8 Quicksilver. -9 N. of Kṛiṣṇa -1 A horse. -11 A species of rice. - 1 Quicksilver

(Samskritam. Apte)

[ [p= 891,2] m. N. of partic. Purodasas used in the ceremony S3Br. (Monier-

Williams)]

[p= 121,1] mfn. ( √2. Un2. ), spiritual , incorporeal , divine RV. AV. VS. (Monier-

Williams)

[p=264,2]mfn. ( √1. cf. 2. , /आ , /आ , Naigh. iii , 15 Nir. xii , 13 Un2. iv

, 138) gifted with insight , intelligent , knowing , enlightened , wise , sensible , prudent , skilful ,

cunning; m. N. of several gods , (esp.) of न RV. ii , 23 , 1 ; x , 5 , 4 , 3 ; iii , 5 , 1 ; i , 31 , 2 ;

76 , 5; m. of , , the न s , s , आ s; m. of the ; m. of the s (as skilful

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in contrivance); m. (fig.) N. of the gates of the sacrificial enclosure TS. v , 11 , 1 ,

2 (cf. / )(Monier-Williams)

See: https://manasataramgini.wordpress.com/2013/07/02/the-mayabheda-sukta/

" the mantra-s of the mAyAbheda sUkta are closely related to the inspiration that is received as

result of the rite which is supposed to be proclaimed by the celestial gandharva. The gandharva

in Vedic tradition has a mysterious nature and can take possession of individuals during which

he can make revelations via the possessed medium. This relates to the earlier R^ik where the

sun(bird) is said to be covered by mAyA, thus making it fit to be described as a gandharva. Like

the possessing gandharva-s, the solar gandharva-s ranti and vishvAvasu confer knowledge to the

ritualists. This is what is alluded to when they are described as drinking the gandharva’s

proclamation at the seat of the universal laws. This seat of the R^ita is in essence the ritual arena

– the uttaravedi which is homologized with the universe. Indeed the incantation used in the

pravargya when he sets down the mahAvIra pot at the conclusion of the ritualist utter the

formula:

chatuHsraktir nAbhir R^itasya | (iyam vA R^itam | tasyA eSha eva nAbhiH |)

Quadrangular is the center of R^ita. This [the uttaravedi] is the R^ita; the pravargya is its

root...This shows that the Hindu tradition of meditative practices connecting the observation of

the prANa with the celestial solar movement or penetration by solar light (as seen in the daily

saMdhyopAsanA) was also related to the mantra-s in the context of the pravargya ritual.

Moreover it also became clear to us that the mAyAbheda sUkta is closely linked to the pravargya

rite and was most probably composed precisely for that rite. However, the mAyA and asura in

this context are meant in a largely positive sense as that of savitA. The mystery of this mAyA

may be seen as being discerned by the ritualists who realize the homologies between the prANa

and sUrya. It was only later in the vidhAna tradition that the mAyA acquired a negative

connotation. Even latter the advaitin-s interpreted it in the sense they understood mAyA."

https://www.scribd.com/doc/266478083/The-Mah%C4%81v%C4%ABra-Vessel-and-the-Plant-

P%C5%ABtika-Stella-Kramrisch-Journal-of-the-American-Oriental-Society-Vol-95-No-2-Apr-

Jun-1975-pp-222-235

The Mahāvīra Vessel and the Plant Pūtika

Stella Kramrisch Journal of the American Oriental Society Vol. 95, No. 2 (Apr. - Jun., 1975), pp.

222-235:

"The Pravargya sacrifice is centered in the making and the worship of a non-iconic earthen pot,

the Mahāvīra vessel. The ritual enacts an initiation through a craft, the craft of the potter. The

vessel, made to glow in the sacrificial fire is the "all encompassing hero," Mahāvīra, the Sun.

The vessel is the head of the sacrifice, the Head of Makha. Makha however is the cosmic giant.

The myth of the decapitation of Makha and the restoration of its head to the sacrifice rest on a

secret magic knowledge, the mystery of Soma. In the Pravargya the mantle of King Soma has

fallen on the shoulders of Emperor Mahāvīra-and the myth of the Soma plant has been

substituted by that of the plant, Pūtika. The odour of this plant, an ingredient of the Mahāvīra

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pot, is of great significance in myth and ritual. The name of the plant, Pūtika, survives to this day

in the name "Putka" which is that of a mushroom sacred to the Santal, an aboriginal tribe in

Eastern India. The mushroom Pūtika is the mythically and ritually authenticated substitute of

Soma. This makes it more than likely that the Soma plant itself was a mushroom. The symbolism

of the Mahāvīra vessel, as the Sun, the "all seeing eye," on the other hand survives in

representations of the auspicious vase in Western Indian paintings preserved from the fifteenth

century CE."

Pravargya means that which is to be put on the fire, i.e. the Mahavira pot.

14:1:2

SECOND BRÂHMANA.

THE MAKING OF THE POT.

14:1:2:11. He equips (the Mahâvîra) with its equipments;--inasmuch as he equips it therewith

from this and that quarter, that is the equipping nature of the equipments 1 (sambhâra):

wheresoever anything of the sacrifice is inherent, therewith he equips it 2.

14:1:2:22. He gets ready a black antelope-skin,--for the black antelope-skin is the sacrifice 3: it is

at the

p. 448

sacrifice he thus prepares (the pot);--with its hairy side (upwards),--for the hairs are the metres:

on the metres he thus prepares it;--(spread out) on the left (north) side 1,--for the north is the

quarter of men;--on (the skin) with its neck-part to the east 2, for that (tends) towards the gods.

14:1:2:33. With a spade (he digs out the clay), for the spade is a thunderbolt, and the thunderbolt

is vigour: with vigour he thus supplies and completes it (the Pravargya).

14:1:2:44. It is made of Udumbara (Ficus glomerata) wood, for the Udumbara is strength 3: with

strength, with vital sap, he thus supplies and completes it.

14:1:2:55. Or of Vikaṅkata (Flacourtia sapida) wood; for when Pragâpati performed his first

offering, a Vikaṅkata tree sprang forth from that place where, after offering, he cleansed (his

hands); now an offering is a sacrifice, and (consequently) the Vikaṅkata is

p. 449

the sacrifice: with the sacrifice he thus supplies and completes it.

14:1:2:66. It is a cubit long, for a cubit means the (fore-) arm, and with the arm strength is

exerted: it (the spade) thus is composed of strength, and with strength he thus supplies and

completes it.

14:1:2:77. He takes it up, with (Vâg. S. XXXVII, 1), 'At the impulse of the god Savitri, I take

thee by the arms of the Asvins, by the hands of Pûshan: thou art a woman;'--the import (of this

formula) is the same as before 1.

14:1:2:88. Having placed it in his left hand, he touches it with the right, and mutters (Vâg. S.

XXXVII, 2), 'They harness the mind, and they harness the thoughts, the priests of the priest, of

the great inspirer of devotion; the knower of the rites alone hath assigned the priestly offices:

great is the praise of the god Savitri;'--the import of this is the same as before 2.

14:1:2:99. He then takes the lump of clay with the (right) hand and spade on the right (south)

side, and with the (left) hand alone on the left (north) side 3, with (Vâg. S. XXXVII, 3), 'O divine

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Heaven and Earth,'--for when the sacrifice had its head cut off, its sap flowed away, and entered

the sky and the earth: what clay (firm matter) there was that is this (earth), and what water there

was that is yonder (sky); hence it is of clay and water that the Mahâvîra (vessels) are made: he

thus supplies and

p. 450

completes it (the Pravargya) with that sap; wherefore he says, 'O divine Heaven and Earth,'--

'May I this day compass for you Makha's head,'--Makha being the sacrifice, he thus says, 'May I

this day accomplish for you 1 the head of the sacrifice;'--'on the Earth's place of divine worship,'-

-for on a place of divine worship of the earth he prepares it;--'for Makha thee! for Makha's head

thee!'--Makha being the sacrifice, he thus says, 'For the sacrifice (I consecrate) thee, for the head

of the sacrifice (I consecrate) thee.'

14:1:2:1010. Then an ant-hill 2 (he takes, and puts on the skin), with (Vâg. S. XXXVII, 4), 'Ye

divine ants,'--for it was they that produced this: just in accordance with the way in which the

head of the sacrifice was there cut off, he now supplies and completes it with those (ants);--'the

firstborn of the world,'--the firstborn of the world, doubtless, is this earth 3: it thus is therewith

that

p. 451

he supplies and completes it;--'may I this day compass for you Makha's head on the Earth's place

of divine worship:--for Makha thee! for Makha's head thee!'--the import of this is the same as

before.

14:1:2:1111. Then (earth) torn up by a boar (he takes), with (Vâg. S. XXXVII, 5), 'Only thus

large was she in the beginning,'--for, indeed, only so large was this earth in the beginning, of the

size of a span. A boar, called Emûsha, raised her up, and he was her lord Pragâpati: with that

mate, his heart's delight, he thus supplies and completes him 1;--'may I this day compass for you

Makha's head on the Earth's place of divine worship: for Makha thee! for Makha's head thee!' the

import of this is the same as before.

14:1:2:1212. Then Âdâra 2 (-plants), with (Vâg. S. XXXVII, 6), 'Indra's might ye are,'--for when

Indra encompassed him (Vishnu) with might, then the vital sap of him, thus encompassed,

flowed away; and he lay there stinking, as it were. He said, 'Verily, after bursting open (â-dar), as

it were, this vital sap has sung praises:' thence Âdâra (-plants originated); and because he lay

there stinking (pûy), as it were, therefore (they are also called) Pûtîka; and hence, when placed

on the fire

p. 452

as an offering, they blaze; and hence also they are fragrant, for they originated from the vital sap

of the sacrifice. And inasmuch as Indra, on that occasion, encompassed him with might,

therefore he says, 'Indra's might ye are;'--'may I this day compass for you Makha's head on the

Earth's place of divine worship: for Makha thee! for Makha's head thee!' the import of this is the

same as before.

14:1:2:1313. Then goat's milk;---for when the sacrifice had its head cut off, its heat went out of

it, wherefrom the goat was produced: it is with that heat 1 that he thereby supplies and completes

it;--with, 'For Makha thee! for Makha's head thee!' the import of this is the same as before.

14:1:2:1414. These, then, are the five equipments with which he equips (the Pravargya),--

fivefold is the sacrifice, and fivefold the victims, and five seasons are in the year, and the year is

he that shines yonder, and the Pravargya also is that (sun): it is him he thus gratifies. These

(objects), thus brought together, he touches with, 'For Makha (I consecrate) thee! for Makha's

head thee!' the import of this is the same as before.

11

14:1:2:1515. Now there is an enclosed space 2 on the north

p. 453

side: whilst proceeding towards that (shed) they mutter (Vâg. S. XXXVII, 7; Rig-v. I, 40, 3),

'May Brahmanaspati go forward!'--Brahmanaspati (the lord of devotion) doubtless is he that

shines yonder, and the Pravargya also is that one: it is him he thus gratifies; hence he says, 'May

Brahmanaspati go forward;'--'may the goddess Gladness go forward!'--for the goddess Gladness

she (Vâk 1) is;--'unto the hero 2, kindly to men and the dispenser of fivefold (offerings),'--he

thereby praises and magnifies it (the Pravargya),--'unto the sacrifice may the gods lead us!'--he

thereby makes all the gods its guardians.

14:1:2:1616. It is an enclosed space;--for at that time the gods were afraid, thinking, 'We hope

that the fiends, the Rakshas, will not injure here this our (Pravargya):' they accordingly enclosed

for it this stronghold, and in like manner does this (Sacrificer) now enclose for it this stronghold.

14:1:2:1717. He then deposits (the sambhâras 3) on the mound with, 'For Makha thee! for

Makha's head thee!' the import of this is the same as before. He then takes a lump of clay and

makes the Mahâvîra (pot) with, 'For Makha thee! for Makha's head thee,'--the import of this is

p. 454

the same as before;--a span high 1, for the head is, as it were, a span high;--contracted in the

middle 2, for the head is, as it were, contracted in the middle. At the top he then draws it out (so

as to form) a spout 3 of three thumbs’ breadths (high): he thereby makes a nose to this

(Mahâvîra, or Pravargya). When it is complete, he touches it with (Vâg. S. XXXVII, 8), 'Makha's

head thou art,'--for it indeed is the head of Makha Saumya (the Soma-sacrifice). In the same way

(he makes) the other two (Mahâvîra pots 4); silently two milking-bowls (pinvana 5), and silently

two Rauhina-plates 6.

14:1:2:1818. Verily this sacrifice is Pragâpati, and Pragâpati

p. 455

is both of this, defined and undefined, limited and unlimited 1. Whatever one does with a Yagus

formula, by that one makes up that form of him (Pragâpati) which is defined and limited; and

whatever one does silently, by that one makes up that form of him which is undefined and

unlimited: verily, then, whosoever, knowing this, does it on this wise, makes up that whole and

complete Pragâpati. But he also leaves over a lump of spare (clay) for expiations.

14:1:2:1919. He then smooths 2 it by means of Gavedhukâ grass (Coix barbata),--for when the

sacrifice had its head cut off, its vital sap flowed away, and therefrom those plants grew up: with

that vital sap he thus supplies and completes it;--with, 'For Makha thee! for Makha's head thee!'

the import of this is the same as before, In the same way the other two (Mahâvîra pots); silently

the two milking-bowls, silently the two Rauhina-plates.

14:1:2:2020. He then fumigates these (vessels) with (Vâg. S. XXXVII, 9), 'With dung of the

stallion, the impregnator, I fumigate thee,'--for the

p. 456

stallion is an impregnator, and the impregnator means vigour: with vigour he thus supplies and

completes it,--'on the Earth's place of divine worship: for Makha thee, for Makha's head thee!'

the import of this is the same as before. In the same way (he fumigates) the other two (Mahâvîra

pots); silently the two milking-bowls, and silently the two Rauhina-plates.

14:1:2:2121. He then bakes them, for what is baked belongs to the gods. He bakes them by

means of bricks, for they it was that did so on that occasion 1: just in accordance with the way in

which the head of the sacrifice was there cut off, he now supplies and completes it with those

(bricks), But, indeed, let him bake them with anything 2 whereby they may become properly

12

baked. Having laid down the fuel for baking 3, he puts down the Mahâvîra (pot), with, 'For

Makha thee, for Makha's head thee!' the import of this is the same as before. In the same way the

other two Mahâvîra (pots); silently the two milking-bowls, silently the two Rauhina-plates. By

day he should bury them (in the hole), and by day he should take them out, for the day belongs to

the gods.

p. 457

14:1:2:2222. He takes out (the first pot) with (Vâg. S. XXXVII, 10), 'For the righteous one (I

take) thee,'--the righteous one, doubtless, is yonder world, for the righteous one means truth; and

he that shines yonder is the truth, and the first Pravargya is that (god): it is him he thus gratifies,

and therefore he says, 'For the righteous one (I take) thee.'

14:1:2:2323. With, 'For the efficient one thee' (he takes out the second pot),--the efficient one

(sâdhu), doubtless, is he (Vâyu, the wind) that purifies here by blowing, for as a permanent one

(siddha) he blows through these worlds; and the second Pravargya is that (god): it is him he thus

gratifies, and therefore he says, 'For the efficient one (I take) thee.'

14:1:2:2424. With, 'For a good abode thee!' (he takes out the third pot),--the good abode,

doubtless, is this (terrestrial) world, for it is in this world that all creatures abide; and the good

abode also is Agni (fire), for Agni abides with all creatures 1 in this world; and the third

Pravargya is that (god): it is him he thus gratifies, and therefore he says, 'For a good abode thee.'

Silently (he takes out) the two milking-bowls, and silently the two Rauhina-plates.

14:1:2:2525. He then pours goat's milk upon them 2 (the

p. 458

first) with, 'For Makha thee! for Makha's head thee!' the import of this is the same as before. In

the same way the other two; silently the two milking-bowls, and silently the two Rauhina-plates.

14:1:2:2626. And, verily, whosoever either teaches, or partakes of, this (Pravargya) enters that

life, and that light: the observance of the rule thereof is the same as at the creation 1.

Footnotes

447:1 See part i, p. 276, note 1. Here, as formerly, it has not been thought desirable to adhere

throughout to the technical rendering of 'sam-bhri'

447:2 Pravargya being masculine, the original would, of course, have 'him' here and throughout,

the ceremony (just like the sacrifice in general) being indeed looked upon as a person.

447:3 See part i, p. 23, note 2. In making the Gharma, or Mahâvîra, p. 448 pot, on the present

occasion, the order of proceeding is to a considerable extent the same as that followed at the

Agnikayana, in providing the materials for, and making, the fire-pan, for which, see VI, 3, 3, 1

seqq. Cf. also the Âpastamba Srautas. XV, with Garbe's Translation and Notes, Journal of Germ.

Or. Soc., vol. xxxiv.

448:1 That is, immediately north of the lump of clay (previously prepared by a potter) and the

other objects to be used for making the Mahâvîra pot, which have been previously deposited near

the antahpâtya peg marking the middle of the west or hinder side of the Mahâvedi.

448:2 The locative, instead of the accusative, is rather strange here. As it stands, the locative is

evidently parallel to 'yagñe' and 'khandahsu,' and one has therefore to supply--he collects

(prepares) the Pravargya, viz. by putting the lump of clay and the other objects thereon.

448:3 See VI, 6, 3, 2 seqq.

449:1 See I, 1, 2, 17; VI, 3, 1, 38 seq.

13

449:2 See III, 5, 3, 11-12.

449:3 Between the two actions referred to in paragraphs 8 and 9, the digging up of the clay takes

place, and hence the spade, or trowel, has changed hands. Cf. VI, 4, 2, 2.

450:1 The pronouns in this and the subsequent corresponding formulas (vâm, vah, te) are taken

by Mahîdhara as accusatives ('te' according to him standing for 'tvâm') to which he supplies

'âdâya'--'having taken you, may I this day compass Makha's head.' The pronouns are certainly

somewhat awkward, as they can scarcely be taken as genitives of material--of you, of thee.

450:2 See VI, 3, 3, 5, where 'valmîkavapâ' is qualified by 'sushirâ,' hollow. The comm. on Kâty.

XXVI, 1, 2 explains 'valmîkavapâ' as the vapâ (omentum)-like inner lump (? surrounded by a

kind of net) of an ant-hill: in the present case, this substance is likewise placed on the black

antelope-skin to be mixed with the clay.

450:3 Whilst in the text of the formula this word must be taken as being plural 'prathamagâh,' the

Brâhmana (making use of the Sandhi-form) treats it as if it were singular 'prathamagâ.'

Mahîdhara also, apparently influenced by the Brâhmana, explains, 'the earth is the firstborn of

creatures, and, from their connection with it, ants also are called firstborn.'

451:1 That is, he supplies Pragâpati (and hence also his counterpart, the Sacrificer) with the

Earth, his mate. See J. Muir, Orig. Sansk. Texts, vol. i, p. 53; vol. iv, p. 27; and cp. Taitt. I, 10, 8,

where the earth is said to have been uplifted by a black boar with a thousand arms.

451:2 At IV, 5, 10, 4 we met with this plant--here also called Pûtîka, and explained, by the

comm. on Kâty., as = the flowers (!) of the Rohisha plant (? Guilandina, or Caesalpinia,

Bonducella)--as a substitute for Soma-plants.

452:1 Thus perhaps 'suk' should also have been rendered at VI, 4, 4, 7, where it is used in

connection with the ass.

452:2 Viz. a space five cubits square enclosed with mats on all sides, and with a door on the east

side, the ground being raised in the middle so as to form a mound covered with sand (cf. III, 1, 2,

2). The object of this enclosed space is to prevent any unauthorised person (such as the

Sacrificer's wife, and people uninstructed in the scriptures) from seeing the manufacturing of the

Mahîvîra (during which the door is kept closed), as well as the completed pot. p. 453 The place

is to the north of the antahpâtya peg, the black antelope-skin being spread to the south of it (and

immediately north of the materials used in making the pot).

453:1 Thus Mahîdhara, on Vâg. S. XXXIII, 89.

453:2 'Vîra,' apparently an allusion to 'Mahâ-vira' (great hero), the name of the pot used at the

Pravargya.

453:3 Viz. as placed on the black antelope-skin which is carried northwards to the enclosed place

by the Adhvaryu and his assistants taking hold of it on all sides.

454:1 That is, from bottom to top, a belt (mekhalâ) running round it at the distance of three

thumbs' breadths from the top (Mahîdhara, and comm. on Katy.). This top part above the belt--

here simply called 'mouth,' whilst in the Âpast. Sr. XV, 2, 14 it is called 'back' (sânu)--ends in a

hole for pouring the liquid in and out.

454:2 That is, for taking hold of it (mushtigrahanayogyam, comm. on Katy.).

454:3 'Mukha,' for which Katy. XXVI, 1, 16 has 'âsekana' explained by the commentator as a

hole (garta; comm. on Âsv. Grihyas. IV, 3 bila), apparently serving as the mouth, or open part of

the vessel which seems to be otherwise closed. The edge of the hole would seem to protract

sufficiently from the surface to suggest a similarity to the nose. In making the vessel, it seems

first to be left solid, the open part which is to hold the milk being then hollowed out by means of

14

a reed from the top hole to the depth of less than the upper half, the remainder remaining solid.

Cf. Âsv. Sr. XV, 3, 4.

454:4 Only the first of the three pots is, however, actually used; unless it gets broken by accident.

454:5 According to the comm. on Katy. Sr., these vessels are of the form of the (hand-shaped)

bowl of an offering-ladle (sruk, cf. part i, p. 67, note 2).

454:6 The Rauhina-kapâlas are two round, flat dishes for baking the Rauhina cakes on.

455:1 Cf. J. Muir, Orig. Sansk. Texts, vol. v, p. 393, where a passage is quoted from Prof.

Cowell's translation of the Maitri-Upanishad (VI, 3), 'There are two forms of Brahma, the

embodied (mûrta) and the unembodied (amûrta): the former is unreal (asatya), the latter real

(satya).'--Cf. Sat. Br. VI, 5, 3, 7.

455:2 The Sûtras use the verbs 'slakshnayati, slakshnîkurvanti' (to make smooth, or soft), and

this, I think, must indeed be the meaning of 'hinv.' It would also suit very well the passage III, 5,

1, 35, where it is said that the Vedi is a woman, and that, by sprinkling the former with water,

one 'makes her smooth' for the gods. The polishing of the vessels is done by rubbing them with

Gavedhukâ grass, whether with the spike, stem, or leaves is not specified.

456:1 That is, when the Ukhâ was baked, cf. VI, 5, 4, 1; or, perhaps,--they it was that (the gods)

made at this juncture. The former translation is more in accordance with what follows, though

one would expect 'etad' to mean 'at this time.'

456:2 That is, without using bricks (?).

456:3 Viz. in a square hole dug for the purpose east of the Gârhapatya; the pot being then placed

bottom upwards on the burning material, dry herbs, wood, &c. According to Âsv. Sr. XV, 3, 20

such materials are to be used as, whilst being burnt, dye red.

457:1 The accusative with 'kshi' (to inhabit) is rather peculiar here.

457:2 As the pots are, however, standing with their open parts upwards, on sand north of the hole

in which they were baked, it would chiefly be inside that they would receive the milk, being

thereby cooled (cf. VI, 5, 4, 15). According to Âpastamba, sand is in the first place heaped up

around them in the sunwise fashion, i.e. keeping them on the right side whilst strewing it.

458:1 That is to say, as would seem,--even as, in creating the universe, Pragâpati reconstructs his

body, or constructs himself a new body, so the Sacrificer, in keeping up the observance of the

Pravargya, constructs himself a new body for the future life.

Satapatha Brahmana Part V (SBE44), Julius Eggeling tr. [1900], at sacred-texts.com

http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin//sbr/sbe44/sbe44118.htm

https://www.scribd.com/doc/103372572/History-of-Hindu-Chemistry-Alchemy (1902)

https://www.scribd.com/doc/266426688/A-History-of-Hindu-Chemistry-Vol-2-PC-Ray-

1909?secret_password=cb0bRQgH83wjAsPCwixc (1909)

Soma substitutes according to Baudhayana:

15

(p.937)

(p.1621)

Rigveda 1.164:

1.164.01 I have beheld the Lord of men with seven sons; of which delightful and benevolent

(deity), who is the object of our invocation, there is an all-pervading middle brother, and a third

brother, well fed with (oblations of) ghee. [Seven sons: seven solar rays; A_ditya, the seventh

son of Aditi; a third brother: V_yu and Agni, the younger brothers of A_ditya: Parames'vara =

A_ditya, the three sons refer to the attributes of Parames'vara of creating, preserving and

destroying].

16

[The su_kta enunciates the doctrines of veda_nta, the spiritual unity of Brahma_ and the

universe; A_ditya or the sun, is glorified aqnd identified with all creation. S'aunaka explains the

su_kta at the level of repentance for a crime: if a bra_hman.a has committed theft, he may

expiate the offence by fasting three nights and repeating the su_kta silently].

1.164.02 They yoke the seven (horses) to the one-wheeled car; one horse, named seven, bears it

along; the three-axled wheel is undecaying, never loosened, and in it all these regions of the

universe abide. [One-wheeled car: either the orb of the sun, or time, or a year; the seven horses

may be the seven solar rays,or the six seasons, with their aggregation and year; or the six

doublemonths, and the intercalary month; or the seven days of the week; the wheels of the car, as

typical and identical are said to be one; one horse; eko as'vo saptana_ma = the Sun or A_ditya,

either as the absorber of the seven flavours, or as praised by the seven r.s.i; it may be a pun, since

sapta = a horse, seven; three-axled wheel: the day with its three sandhya_s; or time, past, present

and fugure; all these regions: all things are dependent upon time, which of itself is imperishable:

ana_dinidhanah ka_lah, time is without beginning or end].

1.164.03 The seven who preside over this sevenpwheeled chariot (are) the seven horses who

draw it; seven sisters ride in it together, and in are deposited the seven forms of utterance. [The

seven: either the solar rays or the seven portions of a year: ayana (solstine season), month,

fortnight, day, night, hour; seven horses: seven wheels and seven horses are the seven solar rays;

seven sisters: either the rays of the run, or the six seasons and the aggregate year of the six

double and one intercalary month; seven forms of utterance: seven notes of music as employed

in chanting the praises of the Sun; or, if gava_m is used in the sense of water, the seven forms

may be the seven divine rivers].

1.164.04 Who has seen the primeval (being) at the time of his being born; what is that endowed

with substance which the unsubstantial sustains; from earth are the breath and blood; but where

is the soul; who may repair to the sage to ask this? [Tha endowed with subtance: asthanvantam

yad anastha_ bibharti = lit., that which having bone the boneless sustains; the boneless is the

prakr.ti of the sa_n:khya, or the ma_ya_ of the veda_ntins, which is formless matter, or spiritual

illusion, from which the material and visible world proceeds; where is the soul: bhu_mya_ asur-

asr.g-a_tma_ kva svit: bhu_mi = sthu_la s'ari_ra, gross body; asuh = breath, the su_ks.ma

s'ari_ra, or suble body; asr.j = blood, the aggregate elements of which the body is formed;

a_tma_ or cetana_, the thinking principle, although connected with gross and subtle form, is

nowhere perceptible as a separate object, and not to be apprehended, either by pupil or teacher].

1.164.05 Immature (in understanding) undiscerning in mind, I inquire of those things which are

hidden (even) from the gods; (what are) the seven threads which the sages have spread to

envelop the sun, in whom all abide? [Immature: pa_kah = lit. ripening, being or making mature;

here, it is equated with paktavyah, what is to be matured; apakvamatiraham, I of immature mind;

seven threads: sapta tantu_n = seven forms of the soma sacrifice, or the seven metres of the

vedas; the seen: vatse bas.kaye adhi: vatse = sarvasya niva_sa bhu_te; bas.kaye = a_ditye; the lit.

meaning is, a yearling calf, just as vatsa also means a calf; the term vatse is already used, hence,

bas.kaya = time or the sun].

1.164.06 Ignorant, I inquire of the sages who know (the truth); not as one knowing (do I inquire),

for the sake of (gaining) knowledge; what is that one alone, who has upheld these six spheres in

the form of the unborn? [What is that one alone: yas tastambha s'ad ima_ raja_m.si ajasya ru_pe

kim apisvidekam: the 'one' is: 1) the orb of the ungenerated sun on which the six seasons depend;

2) satyaloka, whence there is no return, the stay of the other six worlds or regions; 3) the sole

form of the unborn creator].

17

1.164.07 Let him who knows this (truth) quickly declare it; the mysterious condition of the

beautiful ever-moving (sun); the rays shed (their) milk from his (exalted) head investing his form

with radiance; they have drunk up the water by the paths (by which they were poured forth). [By

the paths: the solar rays, which sedn down rain and also reabsorb water].

1.164.08 The mother, (earth), worships the father, (sun), with holy rites, for the sake of water;

but he has anticipated (her wants) in his mind; whereupon desirous of progeny, she is penetrated

by the dews of impregnation, and, (all) expectant of abundance, exchange words (of

congratulation). [Exchange words: metaphocial account of the agency of the sun sending rain

upon the earth and its consequent fertility].

1.164.09 The mother, (sky), was associated in (sustaining) the burden of the fulfiller of desires,

(the earth); the embryo (water) rested within the (womb of the) clouds; thereupon the calf

bellowed, and beheld the omniform cow in the three combinations. [The calf bellowed: the cloud

thundered; the omniform cow: vis'varu_pyam ga_m tris.u yojanes.u = the earth diversified by

various crops in consequence of the co-operation of the cloud, the wind, and the rays of the sun].

1.164.10 The one sole (sun), having three mothers and three fathers, stood on high; none ever

over-weary him; the (gods) on the summit of the sky take counsel respecting him in language all-

comprehending (but) not extending to all. [Three mothers and three fathers: the three worlds,

earth, sky , heaven; and the three deities presiding over them: agni, va_yu, su_rya; in language:

vis'vavidam va_cam avis'vaminva_m = speech or discourse, knowing all, or which may be

known by all; or, that which does not extend to all, a-sarvavya_pini_m; speech = thunder:

va_cam garjitalaks.an.am].

1.164.11 The twelve-spoked wheel, of the true (sun) revolves round the heavens, and never

(tends) to decay; seven hundred and twenty children in pais, Agni, abide in it. [Twelve-spoked

wheel: the twelve signs of the zodiac: dva_das'a_ram dva_das'a

san:khya_kames.a_dira_s'ya_tmakaih ma_sa_tmakairva_ araih ratha_n:ga_vayavayairyuktam;

the term may also mean twelve months; seven hundred and twenty children: nights and days;

three hundred and sixty of each: sapta ca vai s'ata_ni vim.s'atis'ca sam.vatsarasya_hora_tra_h sa

es.ohah smma_nah (Aitareya A_ran.yaka 3.2.1)].

1.164.12 They have termed the five-footed, twelve-formed parent, Puris.in, when in the further

hemisphere of the sky; and others have termed in Arpita, when in the hither (portion of the sky);

shining in his seven-wheeled car), each (wheel) having six spokes. [Puris.in: fr. puris.a, water;

puris.in = the sun, as the source of rain; the first five feet are the five seasons, the dewy and cold

seasons forming one; the twelve forms are the twelve months, or twelve a_dityas; arpita =

adhi_nam or para_yattam, dependent upon, and applicable to the sun, as dependent upon, or

influenced by, the course of the year, or recurrence of the solstices; moving quick or slow

according to his southern or northern declination; in the hither portion of the sky: upare = where

living creatures are delighted--uparamanta asmin pra_n.inah; or, it may mean a year, va_

sam.vatsarah; it may be related to the first line of the hymn: divah pare ardhe, in the further part

of the sky; upara may imply the nearer or hither part, referring to the two ayanas, or solstices; the

seven wheels are the seven rays, or the seven days of the week, the six spokes are the six

seasona].

1.164.13 All beings abide in this five-spoked revolving wheel; the heavily-loaded axle is never

heated; its eternal compact nave is never worn away. [Five-spoked wheel: the five seasons; or the

cycle of five years].

1.164.14 The even-fellied, undecaying wheel, repeatedly revolves; ten, united on the upper

surface, bear (the world); the orb of the sun proceeds, invested with water, and in it are all beings

18

deposited. [Ten: the ten organs of sense, or he five lokapa_las, guardians of the world, and five

classes of human beings; upper surface: utta_na_ya_m, or the upper part; u_rdhvatana_ya_m, or

the pole, i_s.a_ya_m; or the earth spread above, upari_ vistr.ta bh_mya_m; the orb of the sun:

su_ryasya caks.us. = lit., the eye of the sun, either the display of the nature or radiance of the sun,

or his orb, being, as it were, the eye of all; sarvasya caks.uh stha_ni_yam va_ man.d.alam].

1.164.15 Of those that are born together, sages have called the seventh single-born; for six are

twins, and are moveable, and born of the gods; their desirable (properties), placed severally in

their proper abode, are various (also) in form, and revolve for (the benefit of) that which is

stationary. [Six are twins: six seasons, made of two months each; the seventh is the intercalary

month, which has no a_ditya to preside over it; the six seasons are also r.si, r.s.ayah = ganta_rah,

goers; a r.s.i is present in the sun's car in each of the twelve months; revolve for the benefit: the

seasons are diversified by classes of temperature, produce, for the benefit of the world].

1.164.16 They have called thes, my virtuous females, males; he who has eyes beholds; the blind

man sees not; he whois a sage son understands this, and he who discriminates is the father of the

father. [Males: an instance of grammatical mysticism: ras'mi, a ray of the sun, is here personified

as a female, is properly a noun masculine; the father of the father: the sun is to be considered as

the father of the rays of light, which are the cause of rain, or the fosterers or parent of the earth;

the sun is, therefore, the father of the father, and he who knows this is identical with the sun].

1.164.17 The cow, holding her calf underneath with her fore-feet, and then above with her hind-

feet, has risen up; whither is she gone; to whom has she turned back when half-way; where does

she bear young; it is not amidst the herd. [The cow is the burnt-offering and the calf is Agni and

the positions of the two indicate the station of the offerer with respect to the sun; or, the cow may

typify the solar rays collectively and the calf the worshipper].

1.164.18 He who knows the protector of this (world) as the inferior associated with the superior,

and the superior associated with the inferior, he is, as it were, a sage; but who in this world can

expound (it); whence is the divine mind in its supremacy engendered.

1.164.19 Those which (the sages) have termed descending, they have also termed ascending; and

those they have termed ascending, they have also called descending; and those (orbits) which

your, Soma and Indra, have made, bear along the worlds like (oxen) yoked to a twain. [Those

which: the rays of light, or the planets changing their relative position as they revolve; Soma and

Indra: the moon and the sun; Indra is one of the twelve A_dityas or identical here with the sun].

1.164.20 Two birds associated together, and mutual friends, take refuge in the same tree; one of

them eats the sweet fig; the other abstaining from food, merely looks on. [Two birds associated

together: the vital and supreme spirit, jiva_tma_ and parama_tma_, are here alluded to using the

metaphor of the two birds; eats the sweet fig: pippalam sva_du atti: the vital spirit enjoys the

rewards of acts. dvau dvau pratis.t.hitau sukr.tau dharmakarta_rau: two species of souls to be

intended as abiding in one body (Nirukta 14.30)].

1.164.21 Where the smooth-gliding (rays), cognizant (of their duty), distil the perpetual portion

of ambrosia (water); there has the lord and steadfast protector all beings consigned me, (though)

immature (in wisdom). [Smooth-gliding: supran.a = supatanah s'obhana gamana ras'mayah, the

goers easily or beautifully, the rays of the sun; consigned me: A_ditya has admitted, or admits

me, the reciter of the hymn, to the sphere of the sun].

1.164.22 In the tree into which the smooth-gliding (rays) feeders on the sweet (produce), enter,

and again bring forth (light) over all, they have called the fruit sweet, but he partakes not of it

who knows not the protector (of the universe). [The tree: the orb or region of the sun; he partakes

not of it, who: tan na unna s'ad yah pitaram na veda: pitaram = pa_laka, cherisher, protector; the

19

sun, the supreme spirit].

1.164.23 They who know the station of Agni upon the earth; the station of Va_yu that was

fabricated from the firmament; and that station of the Sun which is placed in heaven, obtain

immortality. [yadga_yatre adhi ga_yatram tras.tubha_d va_ trais.t.ubham: perhaps, a mystical

reference to the text of the Veda, a knowledge of which is essential to final felicity; ga_yatra is

derived from ga_yatri_ the earth; it is the pada, or station of Agni; trais.t.ubha is identified with

the firmament, and the place of Va_yu; ja_gat is identified with the sun: ja_gat, the solar region

(Taittiri_ya Sam.hita_ 2.2.9.5-6)].

1.164.24 He constructs the prayer with the ga_yatri_ metre; with the prayer (he constructs) the

Soma, and with the tris.t.ubh metre the couplet (or triplet); with the couplet (or triplet) he

constructs the hymn with (verses of) two or four distichs; and with the syllable they construct the

seven metres. [ga_yatren.a parimimi_te arkam: he, severally measures the mantra with the

ga_yatri_ metre;or, a part being put for the whole, with any Vedic metre; tr.s.t.ubhena va_kam:

va_ka signifies either dvr.ca or tr.ca ru_pam, the form or phrase of two or three hymns; or, it may

imply a su_kta; va_kena va_kam: the first va_ka is interpreted as su_kta, when repeated it

implies the varga or anuva_ka; if va_ka signifies a couplet or triplet, is may be applicable to the

su_kta; aks.arena sapta va_n.i_h = the seven generic metres of the Veda with the syllable, the

syllable being the chief element of the metre; ga_yatri_ has eight syllables; trs.t.ubh has eleven

syllables; jagati_ has twelve syllables. The classification of the metrical system of the Vedas is

ascribed to Brahma_ or the r.s.is, the priests].

1.164.25 With the hymns in the jagati_ metre he fixed the rain in heaven, and surveyed the Sun

in the rathantara. They have declared three divisions of the ga_yatri_ metre, whence it surpasses

(all the rest) in force and majesty. [Fixed the rain in heaven: sindhum dvi astabha_yat: Brahma_,

at the time of creation, fixed the sheder of water, udakasya syandakam, in the sky; or, a refernce

is to A_ditya: ja_gato va_ es.a ya es.a tapati: he may be termed ja_gata who gives heat (to the

world); rathantara: a portion of the Sa_ma; Praja_pati beheld the sun in the hymn which sustains

it: tada_dha_ra bhu_ta_ya_m r.ci; ga_yatra metre: ga_yatrasya samidhas tisra a_huh: samidh

signifies pada, a division of a hymn; of which ga_yatri_ metre has three].

1.164.26 I invoke the cow that is easily milked, that the handy milker may milk her; may Savita_

accept this our excellent libation, that his heat may (thereby) increase; it is for this, verily, that I

earnestly invoke him. [The cow is the cloud, the milk is the rain; Va_yu or win, is the milker; the

metaphor is continued in the following three hymns, where the calf is the world or mankind

anxious for the rain, as the cause of abundance].

1.164.27 She comes lowing, abounding in rich (products), desiring her calf in her mind;may this

cow grant her milk to the As'vins; may she thrive for our great advantage.

1.164.28 The cow bellows for her calf, (who stands) with winking eyes, and lows as (she

proceeds to lick his forehead; she utters a cry, as, anxious, she sees the moisture in the corners of

his mouth, and nourishes him with her milk.

1.164.29 He, too, bellows, and the cow utters inarticulate sounds, as, encompassed by him, she

repairs to her stall; (influenced) by her instincts, she acts like a human being, and, radiant,

manifests her nature. [Life reposes: anat s'aye ji_vam ejat, life-breathing comes to repose,

reposes or abides].

1.164.30 Life endowed with breath, eager (in discharge of its functions), reposes, steady, in the

midst of its (proper) abodes; the life of the mortal body, cognate with the mortal frame, endures

immortal (sustained) by (obsequial) offerings. [By obsequial offerings: svadha_bhih putra

kr.taih, by offerings made by the sons].

20

1.164.31 I have beheld the unwearied protector of the universe, the sun, travelling upwards, the

downwards by various paths;invested with aggregative and diffusive radiance, he revolves in the

midst of the regions.

1.164.32 He who has made (this state of things) does not comprehend it; he who has beheld it,

has it also verily hidden (from him); he, whilst yet enveloped in his mother's womb, is subject to

many births, and has entered upon evil. [He who has: Man; Nirukta, considers wind as the cause

of rain and alludes to it allegorically].

1.164.33 The heaven is my parent and progenitor; the navel (of the earth) is my kinsman; the

spacious earth is my mother. The womb (of all beings) lies between the two uplifted ladles, and

in it the parent has deposited the germ (of the fruitfulness) of the daughter. [My parent: na_bhir

atra bandhu: na_bhi is related to me pita_ janita_, i.e. the moisture of the earth, by which corn is

abundant, and which, as derived from the rain of heaven, makes the latter the parent and

progenitor of man; bandhuh = bandhika_, binding or supporting; this word is an epithet of

pr.thivi_, the earth; two uplifted ladles: utta_nayos' camvor yonir antar: the uplifted ladles are

heaven and earth, and the womb of all beings between them is the firmament, the region of the

rain; the parent has deposited: the father, the heaven, may be regarded as identical with either

A_ditya or Indra; the daughter is the earth, whose fertility depends upon the rain deposited as a

germ in the firmament].

1.164.34 I ask you, (institutor of the rite), what is the uttermost end of the earth; I ask you, where

is the navel of the world. I ask you, what is the fecundating power of the rain-shedding steed; I

ask you, what is the supreme heaven of (holy) speech. [The next hymn answers the questions].

1.164.35 This altar is the uttermost end of the earth; this sacrifice is the navel of the world; this

Soma is the fecundating power of the rain-shedding steed; this Brahma_ is the supreme heavn of

(holy) speech. [This altar: eta_vati_ vai pr.thivi_ ya_va_ti_ vedih, such or so much, verily, as the

earth, so much is the altar; it is the essence of the whole earth (Taittiri_ya Sam.hita_ 2.6.4); the

navel of the world: na_bhi = sannahana, the binding together of man with the mans of

subsistence, or the crops that spring from the rain which falls as the consequence of sacrifice or

of oblations; holy speech: the texts of the Vedas, of which Brahma_, or the priest, is the author ir

expounder].

1.164.36 The seven (sustaining), the embryo (rain) for half a year, the fecundating (element) of

the world, abide, by appointment, in the various functions of Vis.n.u. By their intelligence they

pervade in thought all around (them), for they are intelligent and diffusive. [The seven: the solar

rays, sapta_rdhagarbha_h; either retaining the rains for half a year, i.e. during the dry months, or

abiding in a part or half of space, or in the mid-heaven or firmament. Vis.n.u is the pervading

sun; vya_pakasya A_dityasya, in whose various duties of cherishing the world, the solar rays are,

by direction, pradis'a_, especially employed].

1.164.37 I distinguish not if I am this all; for I go perplexed, and bound in mind; when the first-

born (perceptions) of the truth reach me, then immediately shall I obtain a portion (of the

meaning) of that (sacred) word. [I distinguish not: na vija_na_mi yadiva idam asmi: this may be

read as: yadi va idam, that I am like that which this is; or, if I am this; in either meaning, the

philosophical implication is the identity of individual and universal spirit].

1.164.38 The immortal cognate with the mortal, affected by (desire of) enjoyment, goes to the

lower or the upper (sphere); but (men beholding them) associated, going everywhere (in this

world together); going everywhere (in other worlds together); have comprehended the one, but

have not comprehended the other. [Affected by desire or enjoyment: svadhya_ gr.bhi_tah = lit.,

seized by food; i.e., any sensual gratification; have comprehended the one: they have not

21

distinguished between body and soul; or, they have not made any distinction between the three

kinds of bodies with which soul is invested, the gross body, the subtle body, and the union of the

two].

1.164.39 All the gods have taken their seats upon this supreme heaven, the imperishable (text)

of the Veda; what will he, who knows not this, do with the Veda? but they who do know it, they

are perfect. [Upon this supreme: r.co aks.are parame vyomani: r.k = all the Vedas; aks.ara:

yena_ks.aram purus.am veda satyam (Mun.d.aka Upanis.ad 1.2.13)].

1.164.40 Cow, may you be rich in milk through abundant fodder; that we also may be rich (in

abundance); eat grass at all seasons, and, roaming (at will), drink pure water.

1.164.41 The sound (of the clouds) has been uttered, fabricating the waters, and being one-

footed, two-footed, four-footed, eight-footed, nine-footed, or infinite in the highest heaven. [In

the highest heaven: the sound gauri_: clouds or sky, as differently originated; in one station,

ekapadi_, from the clouds; in two, dvipadi_, from the clouds and sky; in four, the four quarters of

space; in eight, the four points and four intermediate points of the horizon; or from them and the

zenith, navapadi_, nine-stationed; articulate speech, gauri_: single as the crude form only, double

as declension and conjugation, fourfold as nouns, verbs, prepositions and particles; eightfold as

the eight cases, including the vocative; and ninefold as the same, with the addition of

indeclinable; articulate sound, gauri_: diversified according to the nine parts of the body whence

it may be supposed to proceed, navel, chest, throat; the highest heaven is hr.daya a_ka_s'a,

ethereal element of the heart, as the basis of speech, mu_la_dha_re].

1.164.42 From her the clouds shed abundant rain, and thence (the people of) the four quarters

live; thence the moisture spreads (to the grain), and the universe exists. [From her: the sound of

the clouds or sky, the thunder].

1.164.43 I beheld near (me) the smoke of burning cow-dung; and by that tall-pervading mean

(effect, discovered the cause (fire); the priests have the Soma ox, for such are their first duties.

[The Soma ox: uks.a_n.am pr.s'nim apacanta: pr.s'ni = Soma; uks.a_n.am = the shedder or

bestower of the reward of the sacrifice].

1.164.44 The three, with beautiful tresses, look down in their several seasons upon the earth; one

of them, when the year is ended, shears (the ground); one, by his acts, overlooks the universe; the

course of one is visible, though not his form. [The three: Agni, who burns up the earth; the Sun,

who revives it by his light, and the rain which he sends; and Va_yu, the wind, who contributes to

the fall of rain].

1.164.45 Four are the definite grades of spech; those Brahman.as who are wise know them;

three, deposited in secret, indicate no meaning; men speak the fourth grade of speech. [Four are:

catva_ri va_kparimita_ pada_ni: the language of the mantras, the kalpa, the bra_hman.a and

laukika, or current speech (Taittiri_ya Samhita_ 1.31.2); those bra_hman.as: bra_hman.a_ ye

mani_s.in.ah: bra_hman.a_ = those acquainted with the s'abdabrahma, brahma as the word, or,

the yogis, mystics; fourth grad eof speech: va_k, speech, was created fourfold, three kinds of

which are in the three regions, the fourth amongst the pas'us; the form on earth, associated with

Agni is in the rathantara; the form in the firmament, associated with Va_yu, is in the

Va_madevya mantras; that which is in heaven, with A_ditya, is Br.hati_, or in the thunder

(stanayitnau); whatever else was more than this was placed amongst the pas'us, lit., animals; here

the bra_hman.as are implied: atha pas'us.u tato ya_ va_g atiricyate ta_m bra_hman.es.u adaduh;

thus, the bra_hman.as speak both languages, that of the gods and that of man (tasma_d

bra_hman.a_ ubharyo va_cam vadanti ya_ ca deva_na_m ya_ ca manus.ya_n.a(m (Nirukta

13.9)].

22

1.164.46 They have styled (him, the Sun), Indra, Mitra, Varun.a, Agni, and he is the celestial,

well-winged Garutmat, for learned priests call one by many names as they speak of Agni, Yama,

Ma_taris'van. [Hi, the Sun: Sun is assumed; Nirukta assumes the Agni: agni is all the divinities

(Aitareya Bra_hman.a 2.3)].

1.164.47 The smooth-gliding wafters (of the rain, the solar rays), clothing the waters with a dark

cloud, ascend to heaven; they come down again from the dwelling of the rain, and immediately

the earth is moistened with water.

1.164.48 The fellies are twelve; the wheel is one; three are the axles; but who knows it? within it

are collected 360 (spokes), which are, as it were, moveable and immoveable. [The wheel is the

year of twelve months; the three axles are the three doubble seasons, or hot, wet and cold; and

the three hundred and sixty spokes are the days of the lunar-solar year; stanah s'as'ayah, s'aya_na,

sleeping; dehe vartama_nah, abiding in the body].

1.164.49 Sarasvati_, that retiring breast, which is the source of delight, with which you bestow

all good things, which is the container of wealth, the distributor of riches, the giver of good

(fortune); that (bodom) do you lay open at this season for our nourishment.

1.164.50 The gods sacrifice with sacrifice, for such are their first duties; those mighty ones

assemble in heaven, where the divinities who are to be propitiated (by sacred rites) abide.

[Where the divinities: yatra pu_rve sa_dhya_h santi deva_h: sa_dhya_h = karma-devah,

divinities presiding over or giving effect to religious acts, yajn~a_di sa_dhanavantah; or, the

term may mean those who have obtained the portion, or the condition of gods, by the former

worship of Agni, or the sa_dhya_s = a_dityas, or the an:girasas, or deities presiding over the

metres, chando abhima_ninah; sa_dhya_s are named among the minor divinities in Amarakos'a].

1.164.50 The uniform water passes upwards and downwards in the course of days; clouds give

joy to the earth; fires rejoice the heaven.

1.164.52 I invoke for our protection the celestial, well-winged, swift-moving, majestic (Sun);

who is the germ of the waters; the displayer of herbs; the cherisher of lakes replenishing the

ponds with rain. [Replenishing the ponds: abhi_pato vr.s.tibhis tarpayantam, satisfying with rain

the reservoirs, salila_dha_ra_n; abhi_pata = favourably, willingly, a_nuku_lyena].

The ritual pragmatics of a Vedic hymn: The 'riddle hymn' and the Pravargya ritual by Jan EM

Houben, 2000, Journal of the American Oriental Society, 120 (4), pp. 499-536.

Abstract:

Thc present paper explores the relation of the "riddle hymn," Rgveda 1.164, with the Pravargya

ritual, one of the few rituals that are explicitly referred to in the Rgveda. Starting from a few

verses which have a well-established and generally acknowledged relation with specific episodes

in the Pravargya ritual (about which we have detailed information only from later texts), this

paper shows that several other enigmatic verses yield a convincing interpretation when placed in

the context of the Pravargya. The ritual interpretations can, moreover, serve to clarify and

harmonize some of the traditional, more philosophical interpretations of the verses. Thus, the

findings have important implications for our understanding of the early development of Vedic

ritual and also of Indian thought and philosophical speculation.

The mind of man is framed even like the breath And harmony of music. [1]

23

1.1 IT IS NOW one hundred twenty-five years since Martin Haug presented his paper on "Vedic

riddle-questions and riddle-aphorisms" to the scholars of the Academy of Sciences in Munich.

Ever since, Rgveda 1.164 has been a continuous challenge to students of the Veda. [2] Important

attempts to understand this hymn stem from Rgveda translators, such as Ludwig, Geldner,

Renou, and Doniger, [3] and, indirectly, from those working on two parallel hymns in the ninth

book of the Atharvaveda, AV (S) 9.9 and 10--Henry and Whitney. [4] Deussen, Thieme, Kunhan

Raja, Janert, Agrawala, Brown, Johnson, and Singh also wrote special studies on 1.164 or parts

of it. [5]

1.2 Haug was not only the first to translate the verses of Rgveda 1.164--traditionally attributed to

the seer Dirghatamas--and study them in detail, he was also the first to address the problem of

the original employment and ritual context of the verses. His suggestion was that the whole

hymn is a collection of riddles once employed at the ritualized discussion (brahmodya) in the

Asvamedha or similar ritual contexts; for the brahmodya in the Asvamedha the Srauta sources

indeed prescribe verses 34 and 35 (or very similar ones). [6] The verses of our hymn, according

to Haug, do not form a coherent whole, but he admitted occasional relatedness between small

sets of verses (Haug 1875: 457; 460-66).

Some later scholars sought to improve on the interpretation of the verses by trying to discern

larger thematic groupings: Deussen saw the whole hymn as a "song of unity," [7] Geldner found

that the verses can at least be thematically grouped, [8] and Brown presented the hymn as having

"three great themes, which are Agni [Fire], the Sun, and the Sacrifice, all closely interconnected,

while the treatment of them is augmented by statements about Vac [Speech] as the Absolute." [9]

Other scholars have rather emphasized the unrelatedness of the Verses--e.g., Renou, [10]

Edgerton, [11] and Thieme [12]--even if these verses were formulated in the same kind of

enigmatic language. [13] A quite loose interconnection between the verses was apparently also

assumed by Roth in 1892, when he considered 1.164 to be a collection of riddles, two of which--

viz., 30 and 38 [14]--deal with the universal problem of the relation between body and soul. [15]

As is well known, Roth's position, according to which the Rgveda is a collec tion of "natural"

lyrical poetry having little or nothing to do with later Indian literature, including the ritual texts,

[16] was not accepted in its extreme form by later scholars, who highlighted numerous

continuities. [17] In the 1892 article, Roth argues especially against construing words in

meanings known only from later ritual sources, but he does not explicitly reject Haug's

suggestion that the occasion for which the riddle-verses were intended was that of a sacrificial

session--thus leaving open the possibility that the hymn and its verses were intended to be recited

in a sacrificial context (whether or not corresponding with descriptions in later ritual texts). [18]

Johnson, in 1980, made a useful distinction between a riddle proper and an enigma--the former

expressing a "question or verbal puzzle," the latter being "designed to express a meaning

intrinsically enigmatic" and "using special means to suggest understandings of reality not

ordinarily perceived or experienced" [19]--and discussed a few of the verses of 1.164 (20-22) as

enigmas rather than riddles. [20] But as context for these verses he maintained the one proposed

by Haug: that of the ritual discussion or brahmodya. Johnson spoke of a "symposium," and

described its nature, function, and aim with much imagination, but with few philological data to

support his view. [21]

24

Thus, scholars after Haug have proposed numerous alternative interpretations for problematic

verses, but with regard to the problem of the original context, if it was taken into account at all,

no one ever seriously challenged Haug's suggestions. [22]

2.1 After more than a century of research on the Rgveda and vedic ritual it is time to take a fresh

look at this problem. We start with a consideration of the applications which the vedic ritual

tradition recognizes for RV 1.164 or parts of it. Although these became solidly established only

in a post-rgvedic age, they may very well continue some older tradition. Under these

circumstances, the strongest possible confirmation that this is the case would be a direct

reference in the verses to an actual performance of the ritual acts for which the later sources

indeed prescribe the verse. Next, a verse may be suitable to but not necessarily connected with a

specific rite. Finally, a verse may be entirely unsuitable, In the latter case, its contents may point

to another ritual context, or to no specific context at all. [23]

The verses with a strong ritual connection enable us to search for the ritual context that is best

suited to the hymn as a whole. [24] This, in turn, may lead to new or additional insights

regarding other verses of the hymn. Just as in the case of the direct indications in a verse of a

particular ritual context, there is no contemporaneous source that can confirm or disprove

alternative interpretations of verses (apart from other, usually multi-interpretable rgvedic verses).

The best confirmation we can aspire to regarding such new interpretations is that they lead to

mutually reinforcing positive probabilities.

It is here assumed that the presence of ritual forms, which we know must have been involved in

certain ways, can provide important directions in the precarious project of interpreting rgvedic

hymns. But even the best solutions to problems of understanding the symbolic language of the

hymns that can be thus arrived at are "intermediary," to the extent that the ritual itself is a

symbolic form. We do not arrive at ultimate referents. The problem pointed out long ago by

Derrida (1978) that there is no safe point where the structures of interpretation are anchored in

"real presences" remains. The "intermediary" anchoring in the symbolic forms of ritual seems

nevertheless one of the few directions in which scientific progress in Rgveda interpretation is

still possible. [25]

2.2 With Haug (1875: 460) we can neglect those applications of verses that are clearly

secondary, such as that of the first forty-one verses as Vaisvadevasastra in the Mahavrata

ceremony (AiA 5.3.2), and the recitation of the whole sukta as expiation by a brahmin who has

stolen gold (Rgvidhana l.14; [26] Manusmrti 1l.250). [27]

2.3 It is true that the srautasutras prescribe verses 34 and 35 in a brahmodya in the Asvamedha

(see n. 6), as Haug observed. We may even add that the content of the verses--in which one of

the four questions is: "what is the seed of the stallion?" and the answer: "this soma is the seed of

the stallion"--suits quite well the context of a horse sacrifice, which in its classical form includes

the pressing and offering of soma. [28]

2.4 But we find in RV 1.164 also several other verses with a well-established ritual application.

In 26ab it is said: upa hvaye sudugham dhenum etam suhasto godhug uta dohad enam "I call

25

hither this cow easy to milk; and a dexterous milker shall milk her." In the Pravargya, according

to the srautasutras, this verse is pronounced by the hotr priest when the Pravargya pot is fully

heated and has been worshiped, and the adhvaryu sets out to milk the cow. [29] Placed in this

context, the statement presents neither a riddle nor an enigma. It is just plain language. Verse 26

continues with a prayer to god Savitr for "the best stimulation" (srestham savam) and concludes

with another statement that suits the context in the ritual situation in which it is employed:

[a]bhiddho gharmas tad u su pra vocam "the Gharma (pot) is heated: this I hereby announce."

[30] With this last pada it has become clear that the verse does not refer to just any milking of a

cow, but to the milking of a cow in connection with a Gharma offe ring. This makes the verse

exclusively suitable for the Pravargya ceremony (from among the rituals known to us from the

srautasutras). [31]

Two subsequent verses, 27-28, and moreover vs. 49 (see Appendix for translations), present no

major problem either, if they are placed in the context for which they are prescribed in the

srautasutras: the milking of the Gharma cow, to which first a male calf is brought near to trigger

the flow of the cow's milk. [32] The milking is done by the adhvaryu, to whom reference is made

by the word suhasta in 26b. [33] (See figure 3: the adhvaryu milking the Gharma cow.) Also vs.

40, prescribed in connection with the cow used in the Pravargya, has no direct riddle or enigma

character. [34]

2.5 Apart from the verses strongly related to the cow and milking in the Pravargya, there is

another verse with a well-established relation with the Pravargya, namely verse 31.

All yajurvedic sources (MS 4.9.6; KathA 2.101i-l15; TA 4.7; VS 37.14-20) make this stanza part

of the avakasa mantras, that is, mantras 'accompanying the watching (avakasa)' [viz., of the

heated pot]. [35] These are to be recited by all priests and the sacrificer as they reverently watch

the fully heated Pravargya pot.

According to its first word, the verse gives expression to a certain vision (apasyam), and as such

it suits the occasion of watching the heated pot. [36] Its language is rich in imagery (instead of a

direct reference to the pot as the object of seeing, a gopa 'herdsman' is mentioned), but there is no

indication that the srauta application in the Pravargya would be secondary. Below we will see

that it suits the occasion even better than so far realized. While all relevant yajurvedic sources

place it in the context of "watching the heated pot," the rgvedic srauta sources make this verse, or

rather RV 10.177.3, which is identical, [37] part of the long recitation of the hotr priest that

accompanies the heating and fanning of the pot by the adhvaryu and his helpers; this episode

immediately precedes the watching and worshiping of the pot. Apart from the application in

these two related and contiguous episodes (below, these two episodes will be called A2 and A3),

I am not aware of any alternative application in t he srauta ritual. [38]

2.6 Going by the number of verses with a strong, and generally accepted, ritual connection, we

may at this stage regard a further investigation of the relation of the hymn with the Pravargya as

most promising.

The Pravargya is to be performed on behalf of the sacrificer by six priests, the adhvaryu and his

26

assistant the pratiprasthatr (belonging to the Yajurveda), the hotr (belonging to the Rgveda), the

prastotr (belonging to the Samaveda), the brahman (belonging to the Atharvaveda or to any

Veda) and the agnidh. The classical form, as described in the srautasutras, occurs only in the

context of a Soma sacrifice. Table 1 provides an overview of the classical ritual. Episodes A-D

constitute the regular Pravargya performance on three or more days preceding the day on which

the actual pressing of the soma juice begins. Figures 1-5 provide further representations of

episodes A-D. In [sections][sections]2.4-5 above, we have already found references to episode B,

the milking, and episode A, the heating and fanning (with sub-episodes A2 and A3).

In addition, an episode P may be distinguished: the preparatory procedure, preceding the regular

performances (A-D). In P the clay pot and other implements are prepared. Episode R is the

solemn disposal of the pot and implements after the last regular performance.

It should be briefly mentioned that the classical sources also know of a special procedure, the so-

called Avantaradiksa, a year-long "initiation," which is to accompany the study of the Pravargya

mantras by an advanced vedic student (brahmacarin). [39] This takes place in an entirely

different context, between teacher and pupil. There will be some occasion to refer to it later.

3.1 If we think through the well-established connection with ritual episodes of the verses

mentioned in [sections][sections]2.4-5, there arises an important problem: the sequence of the

verses can in no way be right: the sequence is contrary to the sequence of actions as prescribed in

the srautasutras. What is more, the sequence suggested by the verses in 1.164 seems structurally-

-not to say physically--impossible, even on the basis of the actions directly implied by the verses

(i.e., independent of the ritual as described in the srautasutras). [40]

Verse 31 presupposes that the pot is at its hottest, and this is the case when the pot has been

heated and fanned for some time by the adhvaryu and his helpers. Only then the pot is watched

and worshiped with the avakasa mantras (episode A3). Alternatively, verse 31 (in the form of its

equivalent 10.177.3) applies to the heating and fanning just before the moment when the pot is at

its hottest (episode A2). But the milking of the cow (episode B with, e.g., RV 1.164.26) takes

place only after the worshiping with the avakasa mantras (which include RV 1.164.31).

3.2 The impossibility of the sequence becomes even more pronounced if vs. 29--even though it is

not prescribed in the srauta ritual--is also taken as a verse directly related to the Pravargya.

Already Haug took it this way, and other scholars followed him. [41] There are indeed good

reasons to do so, as the wording of vs. 28 (a: gaur amimed; [42] b: matava u; d: mimati mayum)

clearly continues in vs. 29, padas ab, with gaur and mimati mayum. Sayana took the continuance

quite literally, and explained 29ab as a further remark on the Gharma cow (gauz) and the male

calf (vatsam in 28, sa in 29a).

More likely, however, gauh is here used in a frequent rgvedic metaphor for "milk" or "ghee

(clarified butter)." [43] In that case, the hapax dhvasani in 29b can be associated with the

participle dhvasayat, which occurs twice [44] in another hymn of Dirghatamas, in both cases in

connection with fire. The first padas,

aydm sa sinkte yena gaur abhivrta

27

mimati mayum dhvasanav adhi srita,

can then be rendered as:

This one is humming, by which the cow (the milk)

is enveloped.

She (the milk) lows a towing (when she is) placed

on the sparkling (fire).

Anyone familiar with the Pravargya ritual will recognize here the episode that immediately

follows the milking of the cow, viz., the adding of some freshly milked milk to the heated pot

that is still enveloped in flames. (See table 1, episode C.) "This one" (ayam) in 29a then refers to

the heated pot rather than to the calf. [45] The boiling ghee (clarified butter) in the pot makes a

humming sound. When the milk is added to the heated pot, the boiling and burning ghee

"explodes," just as any boiling and burning oil "explodes" when water is thrown on it--hence the

household wisdom not to try to extinguish burning oil with water. This produces a sound which

is here compared to the lowing of a cow. Something else happens: a fiery pillar of flames and

steam arises from the pot. [46] (The shape of the latter directs the force of the "explosion"

upwards, hence the pillar-shape; see figures 4a, b.)

A precise reference--so far generally overlooked--to this is found in the last pada of 29:

vidyud bhavanti prati vavrim auhata

Transforming herself to lightning (vidyut), she pushed back her covering.

Here, the milk (i.e., the "cow" of pada a) added to the heated pot and the boiling ghee in it,

produces in an instant a lightning-like phenomenon, which pushes back (rises up from) the pot,

her covering. [47] Also pada c is perfectly suited to this occasion:

sa cittibhir ni hi cakara martyam

She, with her cracklings, has indeed put down the mortal.

One may compare figure 4a for the spectators' natural reaction to the sudden appearance of a

pillar of fire. One may stay even closer to the ritual event and interpret "the mortal" as a

reference to the clay pot which is pushed down. Previous interpreters, from Sayana to Luders,

took padas c and d of this verse only as a reference to cosmic (adhidaiva) events. [48] These

interpretations are not entirely excluded by the adhiyajna interpretation arrived at here (with

either of the two variants for c, depending on whether martya refers to the mortal participant at

the rite or to the pot), but the adhiyajna interpretation suits more directly and precisely, and

28

would, moreover, have been basic to any adhidaiva interpretation when it was indeed intended.

3.3 This new, improved interpretation of vs. 29 perfectly suits the wording of the verse, and it is

also fully in harmony with the preceding verses from 26 onwards. But the conflict with vs. 31

has become sharper: in the hymn this verse follows those referring to milking and adding milk to

the heated pot (episodes B and C), whereas the episode to which 31 applies (episode A) should

precede. There would be no point in cooling down the pot before adoring it as equal to the sun.

Nor would the adding of milk to the pot produce a phenomenon--a sudden pillar of steam or fire-

-as referred to in the srauta texts and yajurvedic sources (and apparently also in padas cd of vs.

29) if the heat of the pot is not at its peak.

With this we have discovered an important "fault line" in the heart of the hymn--somewhere

between 29 and 31.

4.1 Before turning to vs. 30 to investigate this fault line, and in order to decide whether this verse

suits the Pravargya episodes B and C (hence vss. 26-29), or rather episode A and, more

specifically, A2 and A3 (hence vs. 31), we have to discuss another problem: how well is verse 31

suited to the occasion for which it is generally prescribed, namely the heating of the pot, which

culminates in watching and worshiping it?

The verse is as follows:

apasyam gopam anipadyamanam

a ca para ca pathibhis carantam

sa sadhricih sa visucir vasana /

a varivarti bhuvanesv antah //

Remaining close to the direct meanings of the terms, one may translate:

I saw the herdsman, never taking rest, wandering hither and thither on his pathways. Enveloping

himself in those that converge, in those that spread out, he moves around and around [49] in all

beings.

The verse has frequently been taken as a reference to the sun, ever since Haug (1875), who was

aware of its ritual application in the Pravargya. This corresponds well with the yajurvedic

sources, which discuss the verse as the first of the avakasa mantras: they all interpret it as

referring to the sun (TA 5.6.4: asau va adityo gopah; KathA 2.101i-104: [aditya] ... esa ... imam

llokams tejasavrnoty; [50] and SB 14.1.4.14: esa vai gopa ya esa tapati). [51]

The interpretation that "the herdsman, never taking rest, wandering hither and thither on his

pathways" refers to the sun seems generally acceptable, [52] even if we take into account that the

rgvedic poets could have had various cosmologies in mind. [53] More problematic are

"enveloping himself in those that converge, in those that spread out," and "he moves around and

29

around in all beings." What would this mean in reference to the sun? Haug (1875) took the

converging and spreading things in which the herdsman clothes himself as the rays of the sun (as

gavas, fem. pl.), but did not address the problem of "moves around and around in all beings"--he

even neglected to render this phrase in his translation. Ludwig (1888) supplies rays ("strahlen")

to "those that converge, those that spread out," and translates the final phrase as ... wandelt er

einher innerhalb der welten"; he apparently did not perceive the problem this poses for the sun-

interpretation. Henry (1894) interprets the herdsman likewise as the sun and translates the final

phrase as "it roule a travers les mondes," thus suggesting an "astronomical" interpretation of the

phrase--which is unconvincing in the light of the other rgvedic occurrences of bhuvanesv antah:

RV 1.157.5 (in another hymn of Dirghatamas), 8.101.14, 10.183.3 (and 10.177.3 = 1.164.31).

Geldner (1951), like Haug aware of the application of the verse in the Pravargya and the

accompanying sun-interpretation, proposed that vs. 31 nevertheless refers originally to prana

'life-breath', just as do vss. 30 and 38. The term prana is not found in these verses (cf. Bodewitz

1992: 51), but this can still be justified by referring to the "riddle"-character of the hymn. As a

term it is anyhow quite rare in the Rgveda. [54] Nevertheless, in vs. 4 of 1.164 some terms occur

which conceptually overlap with prana, namely asu 'life, spirit', [55] and atman, probably in an

older meaning 'life-breath'. [56] The herdsman as sun, "in diesem Sinne schon fruhzeitig

umgedeutet" (Geldner 1951, I: 233), would bean early reinterpretation, and the application of the

verse in the Pravargya would be secondary. His strongest argument in the wording of the verse is

the last pada, which remained problematic in the interpretation of his predecessors. The

Atharvaveda has the same phrase in 10.2.7cd (with a riddle character), w here it certainly does

not refer to the sun, but probably to a prana-like concept (the word is again not used). [57]

According to Geldner a double sense is intended in 1.164.31: it would refer not only to prana but

also to its cosmic (or adhidaiva) equivalent, the wind. Not mentioned by Geldner is the fact that

already TA 5.6.4 refers not only to the sun-interpretation of the verse, but also to a prana-

interpretation: prano vat gopah "the herdsman is actually prana." In the rgvedic Kausitaki

Brahmana, in the section dealing with the Pravargya (KB 8.4), the whole hymn RV 10.177

(including 10.177.3 = 1.164.31), to be recited during the fanning and heating of the pot (episode

A2), is said to deal with prana or wind (as a bird, patanga). [58] Also in JUB 3.37.1-5, verse RV

10.177.3 = 1.164.31 is interpreted as a reference to prana (though not in the context of the

Pravargya ritual).

While the final phrase of vs. 31 remained problematic in the sun-interpretations, here it is the

preceding "enveloping himself in those that converge, in those that spread out" that is puzzling.

On the basis of the atharvavedic parallel (AV 10.2.7cd), one may supply apah 'waters'. For the

prana this would refer, according to Geldner, to the "bodily waters of life" ("Lebenswasser des

Leibes"); in the case of the wind, it would apply to the rain water. Is the latter part of the

interpretation satisfactory? Do the rain waters converge and spread out with reference to the

wind? In 164.47 we also find the expression apo vasanah, but here the rays of the sun seem to be

intended. This would rather point in the direction of a "cosmic" interpretation of vs. 31 as a

reference to the sun. But can we then maintain the prana-interpretation at least on an adhyatma

level, where it seems rather reasonable, both in the light of AV 10.2.7 and because of its

suitability to the final phrase in 31? [59]

4.2 Confronted with these contradictions and partly unconvincing implications of the suggested

30

cosmic and personal (adhidaiva and adhyatma) interpretations, I propose now to take a closer

look at the ritual interpretation (adhiyatma). Soon after the heating and fanning have begun, the

ghee in the pot [60] has started to boil (see figure 5). The boiling which starts during the heating

(episode A2) continues also during the watching and worshiping of the fully heated pot (episode

A3), as the latter remains surrounded by flames.

We now see that within the heated pot that is being watched and worshiped, there is "something"

that envelops itself in a fluid, viz., in the boiling ghee, and the envelopings (nir-nij, f.) or streams

or currents (dhara, f.) of ghee are constantly converging and spreading out in all directions

(within the confines of the pot). The enigma-character of this verse is enhanced by leaving the

"something" which thus envelops itself undesignated. If the poet could have been persuaded to

designate it, we do not know whether he would have spoken of prana, or rather of, for instance,

asu (the term actually used in vs. 4). In any case, the concept must have been largely overlapping

with that of prana in later texts (from the Atharvaveda--e.g., AV 11.4--onwards, cf. Bodewitz

1992; 1986: 343).

This interpretation perfectly suits the well-established ritual context of the verse, the watching

and the heating of the pot. As well, a ritualistic (adhiyajna) interpretation does not exclude a

microcosmic (adhyatma) or macrocosmic (adhidaiva) one. On the contrary, it can clarify and in a

way harmonize the prana/wind-interpretation and the sun-interpretation, and support both with

the single ritual symbol of the heated pot with boiling ghee. Also the "spiritual" interpretation as

suggested by Gonda (1963: 28) may be part of the intended (adhyatma) meaning. [61] But the

verse does not exclusively refer to a "mystical, supranormal beholding or visionary

experiencing," as Gonda thought, but also to n concrete perception in a well-defined ritual

context. [62]

4.3 Having seen that vs. 31 suits its occasion--heating and watching the pot--even better than has

been so far realized, we now turn to the next problem: what is the place of vs. 30? Is it more

closely associated with vs. 31 and the heating and watching of the pot, or with the group 26-29

and the milking of the cow and eventually the pouring of some milk into the pot?

The text of the first half of this verse is:

anac chaye turagatu jivam

ejad dhruvam madhya a pastyanam /

A literal translation is now probably enough to decide the issue:

Breathing, life is resting (yet) quickly moving, trembling (yet) stable, in the midst of its watery

abode. [63]

Even more clearly than vs. 31 this must refer to the "breathing life" (the "something" of vs. 31)

that brings to "life" the boiling ghee (fig. 5). The streams or currents of the boiling ghee are here

referred to as pastyanam: in vs. 31 as "those that converge and those that spread out." With this,

31

Luders' macrocosmic (adhidaiva) interpretation of pastyanam as a reference to "Himmelsfluten"

(1959: 705) is not necessarily invalidated: rather it has received anchorage in the ritualistic

context and the corresponding adhiyajna interpretation.

We still have the second half to interpret:

jivo mrtasya carati svadhabhir

amartyo martyena sayonih //

This may be translated as:

The living one moves about according to the specific capacities of the dead; [he is] immortal,

having a common birthplace with the mortal.

The statement is (intentionally) enigmatic, yet on the basis of our insights so far it should not be

overly difficult to uncover its purport. The "living one" must again be the "something" of vs. 31,

where it is personified as a "herdsman." Here, jiva is masculine; in the first pada it was neuter.

With regard to the distinction between these two, Geldner's proposal--the neuter is life or the

force of life, the masculine is the soul--is more convincing than Renou's attempt to associate

jivam with collective neuters like jatam, bhutam, and bhuvanam, In the first pada there seems no

place for such a collective interpretation of jivam. However, instead of Geldner's "soul" for the

masculine form, one may also think of prana, asu, or atman in its older (associated?) meaning

"life-breath." Moreover, jiva (m.) 'the living one' may be seen as an anticipation of the gopa (m.)

of vs. 31.

The "dead" or "dead one" must then be the pot--dead if without life-breath. Whatever the further

implications may be of the statement that the living one, life-breath, "moves about according to

the specific capacities [64] of the dead one," in the ritual context it refers to the limitations set by

the dimensions of the pot to the peculiar movements of that "something" which makes the heated

ghee boil and bubble. Also the final pada. "[he is] immortal, having a common birthplace with

the mortal," is suggestive of wider implications regarding the "life-breath." But in the ritual it

must refer to the lifeless clay pot, which is born as a "life-containing" though "mortal" pot when

it is heated, [65] and the "immortal" "life-breath" which manifests itself in the pot. This happens

on the fire, the common birthplace or womb (yoni) of both.

4.4 In the same vein we may interpret verse 38, which is usually taken together with vs. 30. It

runs as follows:

apan pran eti svadhaya grbhito

martyo martyena sayonih \

ta sasvanta visucina viyanta

ny anyam cikyur nd ni cikyur anyam \\

32

It will suffice to give a literal translation with interpretative explanations inserted:

He [the living one, jiva, prana in the boiling ghee] recedes and goes forward, held fast by [his or

the pot's] own capacity, immortal, having a common birthplace [the fire] with the mortal [the

"enlivened" clay pot]. These two [the mortal, the clay pot; and the immortal, the life-breath] are

always going apart, in separate directions. Although people see the one [the clay pot], they do

not [normally] see the other [the living one, jiva prana]

4.5 Verses 30-31 and 38 are thus to be regarded as intimately related to the Pravargya, especially

to episodes A2 and A3. Not only do they refer to a central element in these episodes--the pot

with boiling ghee--they also seem to have these episodes as their most natural ritual context. If

this context is accepted as most probably original for all three verses, one may infer that the

classical ritual as prescribed in the srautasutras has correctly preserved this context in the case of

vs. 31 only, while 30 and 38 were at some point ousted by alternative verses.

Of the intervening verses, 32 has been interpreted as a reference to prana (Geldner) or the sun

(e.g., Brown). Verse 33 deals with an embryo and birth: it is hence relevant to the "initiation"

implied in the Pravargya [66] and especially to the period of special study devoted to the

Pravargya mantras, the year-long initiation called Avantaradiksa (see section 2.6). Verse 36

seems to be a continuation of 33, as observed by Geldner. The intervening vss. 34-35 (cf. n. 5

and [sections]2.2), contain four questions and answers, dealing among other things with speech,

[67] a theme also in the Pravargya. [68] Verse 37 deals with obtaining "a share in speech," and

like 36 it seems related to the theme of "initiation." Verse 39 deals again with speech and with

aspects of speech which are generally hidden, but known to those who "are sitting here together"

(ime sam asate).

I will here merely make a few observations on these verses. First, it can be argued that their

subject matter as briefly explained above is suitable, in a general way, to a recitation

accompanying the heating and fanning and, subsequently, the watching of the pot; to the extent

that more specific references are made (esp. in vss. 30-31, 38), these seem to point to A2-A3 as

the original context.

Second, the expression "those who are sitting here together" (ya ime sam asate) in 39d seems to

indicate A2 rather than A3 as the context, since in the former both the hotr and (most of the time)

the adhvaryu and his helpers are sitting down. During the worshiping with the avakasa mantras

the priests and the sacrificer are standing. [69] The act of fanning is moreover consonant with the

theme of prana, which is prominent in a number of verses in our group (in any case in 30-31 and

38, perhaps also in 32).

Finally, there is, apart from 30-31 and 38, one more verse with a very clear and convincing

connection with the Pravargya that has been so far entirely overlooked, vs. 37:

na vi janami yad ivedam asmi

ninyah samnaddho manasa carami /

33

yada magan prathamaja rtasya

ad id vaco asnuve bhagam asyah //

This may be rendered as:

I do not know just what (what kind of thing) it is that I am; concealed, bound (blindfolded), I

wander in my mind. When the firstborn of the rta has come to me, I immediately obtain a share

of this speech.

Already Oldenberg (1909: 159-60) hesitatingly proposed a connection between this verse

(together with the preceding one) and the Diksa: first being concealed and next receiving a

"share of speech" (cf. the vagvisarga in the Diksa) clearly evokes the basic structure of a

brahminical consecration or initiation. [70] Oldenberg's suggestion was not picked up by any of

the later scholars dealing with RV 1.164. But once we have seen the strong connection between

several other verses in RV 1.164 and the Pravargya, it is natural to think of a relation of 37, not

with the well-known Diksa for the Soma sacrifice, but with the Avantaradiksa of the Pravargya.

[71] As mentioned earlier ([sections]2.6), the Avantaradiksa has to accompany the study of the

Pravargya mantras. It is to take place outside the village [72] and entails several restrictions on

speaking. At the beginning of the Avantaradiksa, fire, wind, and the sun are worshiped. The

student is then blindfolded and has to spend the night in complete silence, witho ut lying down

(he may stand or sit). The next morning, the teacher takes away the blindfold and obliges the

student to observe several objects (including a fire and the sun) and has him recite a mantra of

praise to the sun. [73] After the dark and silent period, the student can be regarded as obtaining a

"share in speech"; he may also be expected to have an experience of "new life." [74]

An important additional level of interpretation suggests itself when we place this verse--evoking

critical moments in the Avantaradiksa--in the context of the Pravargya: it is not only the student

who was blindfolded and hidden, and then obtained a new "share in speech." The same can be

said of the object which is in the center of the actual performance that we accept as context for

verses 30-31, 38: the Pravargya pot. With regard to this pot (plus the two spare ones) some

peculiar prescriptions are given. The preparation of the pot from clay is to take place at a

secluded spot. When it has been prepared and baked according to the rules, it is to be wrapped in

a black antelope's hide, [75] and is hung some place apart. [76] There the pot is to remain until

the performance of the Pravargya starts. Thereupon, the pot is heated and receives "life" when

the ghee starts to boil--and starts to produce a soft, bubbling (breathing) sound. [77] The

correspondences between vs. 37, the initiatory procedures of the firs t two days of the

Avantaradiksa, and the procedures relating to the Pravargya pot are given in table 2. While the

first half of vs. 37 refers back to the final episode of the preparation of the pot--preceding the

main performance--the second half places us again in the context of the heating and fanning of

the pot (A2). As a whole, verse 37 therefore perfectly suits the context to which its neighbors,

esp. vss. 30-31 and 38, clearly belong.

5.1 We may now attend to the place of our newly discovered Pravargya-related verses in the

34

hymn as a whole. As we have seen, verses 26-29 have a solid connection with two subsequent

episodes in the Pravargya, B and C. As a group, verses 30-31 and 38, associated with episodes

A2-A3, seem "misplaced" in relation to 26-29. It can be said that the "milk verses," 26-29,

presuppose or require--have an expectancy (apeksa) for--something equivalent to verses 30-31,

related to the heating (and/or watching) of the pot. But these verses should precede 26-29, in

accordance with the ritual sequence. Similarly, verses 30-31 and 38 require or "expect"

subsequent verses related to the episode of milking. We will study the problem of expectancy

later ([sections][sections]6.2, 7.1ff.), and begin by investigating whether there are any candidates

for "milk verses" to go with 30-31 and 38.

5.2 Some good candidates can indeed be found in vss. 40-42. In [sections]2.3, we have already

mentioned that vs. 40 is prescribed in connection with the cow used in the Pravargya. The text

and translation of RV l.164.40 are as follows:

suyavasad bhagavati hi bhuya

atho vayam bhagavantah syama /

addhi tmam aghnye visvadanim

piba suddham udakam acaranti //

May you, enjoying good pasturage, become happy; and we too should like to be happy. [78] Eat

always grass, o[you cow that are] not for slaughter; drink pure water, coming hither.

The rgvedic srautasutras (AsvSS 4.7.4 end; SankhSS 5.10.33) prescribe the recitation of l.164.40

at the end of the Pravargya performance, after the participants have partaken of the remnants of

the offering (end of episode D). According to the Taittiriya srautasutras, e.g., ApSS

9.5.4 (but not Baudhayana [79]), the adhvaryu should let free the Gharma cow at the moment he

hears the hotr recite 1.164.40c, addhi trnam aghnye visvadanim. The Katyayanasrautasutra,

representing the tradition of the White Yajurveda, connects 1.164.40 with another act: if it is

being recited by the hotr, fodder and water are to be given to the Gharma cow (KSS 26.6.24: this

act is said to be prescribed only by some ritual authorities; no reference is made to a release of

the cow). The verse has also found application in the Agnihotra, where it is prescribed in case the

Agnihotra cow bellows with hunger (cf. AsvSS 3.11.4).

A verse identical with 1.164.40 occurs in the Atharvaveda, in hymn 7.73 (apart from the

occurrence as AV 9.10.20). The brahman recites the verse corresponding to 1.164.40 together

with other verses from this so-called "Gharma-sukta" (including vs. 8, which corresponds to

1.164.27) after the offering to Indra and before the one to the Asvins (episode D). [80]

If we take the classical Pravargya procedure of the Taittiriyas as a point of reference and place

the verse in the context of the release of the cow, the "coming hither" in pada d could be

interpreted as an anticipation of the next performance: may the cow then too come and give milk

35

for the Gharma offering. But there is nothing in the content of the verse which would make it

exclusively suitable to the release of the cow. Although the relation between the Pravargya and

this verse must be considered old since it occurs both in a rgvedic and an atharvavedic hymn

with strong connections with the Pravargya, [81] the tradition with regard to the precise

application of this verse is by no means unanimous (as it was in the case of 1.164.31).

With a more direct and straightforward interpretation of "coming hither," vs. 40 invites a cow to

come, rather than bidding it good-bye. It would then be more fully parallel to vs. 26, in which a

milch cow and a skillful milker are invited to come. Verse 40 would be equivalent to 26 and suit

one and the same ritual situation: the calling of the cow to be milked. The encouragement to eat

grass and drink pure water in vs. 40 suggests that the cow was not only invited verbally but also

was offered food and water. [82]

5.3 That verse 41 is a reference to speech, or the deified Speech, is an old and generally accepted

idea, expressed not only by Sayana and modern interpreters. It apparently already underlies the

quotation of this verse in TB 2.4.6.11, among other verses dealing with speech. These include a

verse corresponding to RV 8.100.11, in which Speech is quite explicitly identified with a milch

cow (dhenur vak). Elsewhere in the Rgveda too, the cow seems to be a symbol of speech or of a

speech-related faculty such as the art of poetry (cf., e.g., 1.139.7, 4.41.5, 6.48.13 and Geldner's

notes). The somewhat problematic word gauri in vs. 41, often but quite wrongly translated as

"Buffelkuh" or "buffalo cow" (e.g., by Geldner), may hence be taken as equivalent to the milch

cow in RV 8.100.11, and as a continuation of the aghnya "[cow] not to be killed" or "[cow] not

for slaughter" in vs. 40.83 The animal referred to here should be the domesticated cow--

presumably Bos indicus, subfamily Bovinae--rather than its wild relativ e, Bos gaurus, not to

mention the buffalo, which belongs to a different subfamily (Bubalus bubalis). Whatever their

etymology and mutual relation, two words gaura are to be accepted in the Rgveda: a color-word

(which characterizes milk in RV 10.100.2), and one referring to a kind of cattle, Bos gaurus (if

this is indeed meant), reddish brown to black, except for its legs. [84] We may very well assume

the former in the case of 1.164.41.

The whole verse is as follows:

gaurir mimaya salilani tdksaty

ekapadi dvipadi sa catuspadi \

astapadi navapadi babhuvusi

sahasrakssard parame vyoman \\

This may be rendered thus:

The cream-colored [cow] has lowed, creating floods (of milk); one-footed, two-footed, she [has

become] four-footed; having become eight- and nine-footed, she is thousand-syllabled in the

final abode.

36

The first pada of this verse would suit the milking of the cow. The speech- and poetry-related

terminology in the last three padas of the verse suggest an identification of the Gharma cow with

speech. The expressions "two-footed, four-footed" have already occurred in this hymn in a

speech-related context, in vs. 24c vakena vakam dvipada catuspada "with (or according to) the

two-footed, the four-footed recitation (he forms) the (larger) recitation." With "eight-footed and

nine-footed" one may compare RV 8.76.12, where reference is made to an "eight-footed, nine-

sided speech." [85] In this line of reasoning, the "one-footed" speech would refer to the

occasional occurrence of single-footed stanzas (as, e.g., RV 10.20.1). The thousand-syllabled one

(f.) in the final abode or highest heaven (parame vyoman) suggests some transcendent aspect of

speech. [86]

It is tempting to suggest an additional adhiyajna interpretation of the last three padas. After the

milking, the milk is poured into the heated pot. We already saw the "cow=milk" metaphor in vs.

29, where the "cow" was in the pot. On this ritual occasion, one may speak of a "cow" which is

ekapadi "having a single footing or position." The form eka-padi is then a feminine adjectival

compound from eka with padi 'footstep, footing', [87] rather than with pad 'foot'. This also better

suits the speech-related interpretation, since it is normally the pada 'footstep, footing' rather than

the pad 'foot' that is a verse-foot.

When the milk has been added to the boiling ghee in the heated pot, a fiery column arises, and

one can speak of a "cow" that has two locations, the pot and the atmosphere. From here on we

are getting close to the adhidaiva interpretation offered by Yaska (Nir 11.40) and Sayana: the top

of the fiery column expands in the next moment, [88] and one may speak of a "cow" with four

footings, namely the four directions (Sayana: dikcatustayadhisthana). With the intermediate

directions and, finally, the zenith direction (or the sun), we can explain astapadi and navapadi in

41c, which are to be interpreted as "having eight, nine footings" (or possibly as "having [made]

eight, nine footsteps, strides"). [89] In this interpretation, again, the culmination is a transcendent

"cow" in a final abode where it is sahasraksara, in the sense that it has a limitless capacity to

create sound (thunder). [90] At this point the interpretation converges with the previous "speech"

interpretation.

5.4 The identification of vs. 41 (according to both interpretations offered) continues in vs. 42:

tasyah samudra adhi vi ksaranti

tena jivanti pradisas catasrah \

tatah ksaraty aksaram

tad visvam upa jivati \\

From her the oceans flow in all directions, by this the four quarters of space are living; thereupon

flows the syllable [the non-flowing or imperishable]; on it the whole world subsists.

While the wording allows a "speech" interpretation, it also allows an interpretation of the

37

transcendent cow as "rain-giver." [91] The presence of this verse immediately after a verse

suitable to the adding of milk and the arising of the fiery column, suggests that the underlying

idea was similar to the one expressed in the yajurvedic formula that accompanies the same

episode in the classical ritual: when the fiery column arises the adhvaryu says: "Svaha! I offer

you (the milk) to the rain-winning beam of light (the beam of light which wins rain for the

worshiper)!" (TA 4.8.4 [16], cited in note 46). Apparently, the fiery column arising from the

heated pot was associated or identified with solar rays, which take up water from the earth only

to give it back later in the form of rain. According to KathA 2.123, commenting on a very similar

mantra, "the very offering which goes up from here, that one makes rain fall down from up there;

with a special offering he leads down rain from heaven." [92]

6.1 After vs. 42 comes a verse that has up to now remained unclear, but which may be

satisfactorily interpreted as a reference to part of the preparatory episode P, viz., the fumigation

of the Pravargya pot, as I explained elsewhere (Houben 1991: 30-31). Verse 43 discontinues the

references to the milking and the pouring of milk in the hot pot of vss. 40-42. It contains, for the

third time in this hymn, the word apasyam; this word occurs also at 31a (apasyam), and also in

1d.

This suggests that verses 30-42 form a self-contained section belonging to the Pravargya

episodes A (vss. 30-39) and B-C (vss. 40-42); it may be regarded as a "liturgy" for these

episodes. [93] In the structure of the whole classical ritual (episodes A-D), which is centered

around an offering to the Asvins (episode D, for which suitable and probably older material is

found in the Rgveda: cf. 5.30.15; see Houben 2000), episodes A-B-C seem to be a later, but

apparently still rgvedic, ritual extension; and for this ritual extension 1.164 provided the

necessary mantras. Thematically, the "milk verses" of the "liturgy" of verses 30-42 largely

overlap with the well-known verses 26-28 (to which 29 may be added); verses 26-29 must then

belong to an originally alternative "liturgy." Thus, in 1.164 the contours emerge of three distinct

"liturgies" of which vss. 30-42 constitute the middle one: verses 26-29 are the milk-verses

belonging to the first, and 49 is the milk-verse of a (smaller or more rudimentary) third "li turgy"

(comprising vss. 43-52; see below). The classical ritual has apparently selected a limited number

of stanzas from these formerly distinct "liturgies" belonging to episodes A-B-C of the ancient

(late rgvedic) Pravargya ritual.

6.2 We may now return to the group of verses 26-29 ([ss][ss]2.4, 3.2). As a group it has a solid

connection with two subsequent episodes in the Pravargya, B and C. But it is followed by a self-

contained section, vss. 30-42, belonging to Pravargya episodes A-B-C. These "milk verses" 26-

29 presuppose or require contextually--have an expectancy (apeksa) for--something equivalent to

30-31: verses related to the heating of the pot (episode A). Are there any verses preceding 26-29

in accordance with the ritual sequence, which could refer or apply to the heating of the pot?

7.1 An excellent candidate is found in the very first verse of the hymn. It is a verse which has

been subjected to much scrutiny and discussion, and several quite divergent interpretations have

been proposed. The first three padas of verse 1 of RV 1.164 are as follows:

asya vamasya palitasya hotus

38

tasya bhrata madhyamo asty asnah \

trttyo bhrata ghrtaprstho asya

A literal translation would be:

This dear, aged priest has a ravenous middle brother; his third brother has ghee on his back.

These padas contain some rather uncommon words that have an uncertain primary meaning:

palita, asna. Other words are clear as to their primary or literal meaning, but their intended

referent is doubtful: hotr, bhratr, ghrtaprstha. It is impossible to discuss here all interpretations

proposed, but I will mention some of the suggested solutions to the most important problem of

interpretation: who are the three brothers? One of the possibilities mentioned by Sayana is that

they are sun, wind, and fire; according to Haug (1875) they are the fire in heaven (the sun), the

fire in the clouds (lightning), the fire on earth. Ludwig (1888) is similar to Haug, but fire on earth

is the Garhapatya; for Geldner (1951) the three are the fires of the classical ritual, Ahavaniya,

Daksinagni, and Garhapatya; for Brown (1968) they are Agni's original form as "first born of the

rta" (?), lightning, the terrestrial Agni.

Skipping for the moment the first and middle brother, we turn to the third one, referred to as

ghrtaprstho "having ghee on his back." [94] He was apparently felt to be the least problematic

brother: all interpreters take him as the "terrestrial fire"--Ludwig and Geldner more specifically

as one of the three sacrificial fires, the Garhapatya. [95] The word ghrtaprstha occurs nine times

in the Rgveda, and often applies to Agni (e.g., RV 5.37.1, 10.122.4); but also the barhis grass is

said to be "ghee-backed" (RV 1.13.5,7.2.4), and, likewise, a wave of water (l0.30.8). [96] In the

case of 1.164.1, no one has ever asked whether ghrtaprstha could refer to a very specific form of

the terrestrial Agni. This seems quite possible: the Pravargya pot which is anointed with ghee

before it is placed on the heating mound, and on which ghee is poured during the heating and

fanning, is perceptibly and most literally "ghee-backed." Enveloped in flames it is naturally

looked upon as a form of Agni. [97] With this small but co nsequential deviation from the

generally accepted interpretation of the third brother as the "terrestrial fire," the whole hymn

would get a strong connection with the Pravargya ritual from the very beginning. Is this new

interpretation just an alternative possibility, or are there reasons to take it as a better one?

It may be considered superior if it leads to better interpretations of the verse as a whole and of

adjoining verses. It can be shown that, indeed, especially verses 4 and 5 contain a rather clear

reference to the Pravargya pot (see Appendix). This adhiyajna reference does not necessarily

contradict understandings at a non-ritualistic level; it may even support and clarify some of them.

Moreover, I will suggest an interpretation, plausible in the context of the hymn itself, of a group

of verses which invited various interpretations already in vedic times, namely verses 20-22. My

interpretation further reinforces the interpretation of verse 1, even though this last does not

depend on it.

7.2 The first brother is referred to in the phrase asya vamasya palitdsya hotus. Asyd vamasya "of

39

this beloved" occurs at one other place in the hymn, namely in pada b of verse 7: asyd vamasya

nihitam padam veh "the hidden location of this beloved bird." This is an important lead which

should not be neglected. The expression here (see Appendix) is as enigmatic as that in verse 1:

the intended referent remains unidentified. Still, although there are several disagreements on

details, from Sayana to Geldner and Luders, all agree that "the beloved bird" is here the sun (cf.

Luders 1951: 305, 311). The sun as bird occurs quite frequently in this hymn, cf. 46b: divyah sd

suparno garutman; 52a: divyam suparnam. Also in another hymn of Dirghatamas (1.163.3), the

sun appears as bird (patamga).

The idea of (a form of) Agni being intimately related to the visible sun--as suggested here by the

brother-relation between the sun and the terrestrial fire or Pravargya pot--is not uncommon in the

RV: cf. the Dirghatamas hymns 1.141.4 and 1.143.2; and further 1.95.3, 4.40.5, 5.6.4, 10.45.1,

10.88.10. Also the sun or heavenly Agni as aged hotr priest is not without rgvedic parallels: cf.

the old hotr in 2.7.6, 6.62.4, and the immortal hotr in 4.41.1. As for palita, which is usually said

to mean, first of all, "grey" and "grey-haired" (cf. Mayrhofer 1996: s.v.: "grau, ergraut,

altersgrau, greis"), on the basis of other occurrences one has to conclude that it may simply mean

"old" or "aged" in contradistinction to yuvan 'young', e.g., in RV 1.144.4, also Dirghatamas

hymn. The palitd in 10.55.5, also opposed to yuvan, has been interpreted as the sun in Nir 14.18

and BrhadD 7.81.

7.3 It may be assumed that the middle brother is located between the first and third one. Since we

have already decided in favor of the sun-interpretation for the first brother (on the basis of,

among other things, the parallel expressions in la and 7b), and since we take the third one as the

terrestrial fire, more specifically the Pravargya pot, the middle brother must be situated

somewhere in the intermediate space. Two candidates present themselves from this perspective:

the wind, and lightning. Because of the "fiery" character of the other two brothers, lightning may

be expected to be primarily intended; [98] this agrees with the interpretation of many scholars

since Haug. [99]

The specific word used to indicate the middle brother is asnah. At one place in the Rgveda an

instrumental plural from a stem asna must contextually mean "stone (used for pressing the

soma)"; this asna seems a secondary formation related with asman 'stone', gen. sg. The latter also

has the meaning "thunderbolt," e.g., RV 1.172.2, 2.30.5. [100] At four other places in the RV,

excluding 1.164.1, the meaning "stone" seems contextually impossible.

At one of these places (1.173.2), asna is connected with mrga, and may be a derivation of as 'to

eat': arcad vrsa vrsabhih sveduhavyair mrgo nasno ati yaj juguryat "May the bull (Indra) sing

together with the bulls (the priests) who offer sweat, that he may drown out (or shout down) (all

others) like a ravenous wild animal" (cf. Geldner 1951: ad loc.). We note that, although the

direct, etymologically defensible meaning seems here to be "ravenous," the epithet should

highlight the noisy character of Indra, the "god of thunder" (cf., e.g., RV 1.52.6). This asna in the

meaning "ravenous" or "voracious" may apply here to lightning as the middle brother. In that

case, the "dear" or "lovely" (vama) aspect of the first brother (the sun) is contrasted with the

"ravenous" aspect of lightning, which is elsewhere--viz., in RV 10.87.5--said to be injurious

(himsra). [101] The other places (RV 2.14.5, 2.20.5, 6.4.3) do not give much help in establishing

40

the meaning of asna since there it seems to be a proper name of a d emon. [102]

Thus, we end up with an interpretation of the three brothers as (a) the sun, (b) lightning, and (c)

the terrestrial fire, specifically the Pravargya pot. The three brothers may all be considered

specific forms of Agni. Since one of the three brothers seems to be a bird (on the basis of the

paralleled expressions in la-7b), we may expect that all three are birds.

7.4 We now turn to the final pada of verse 1:

atrapasyam vispatim saptaputram \\

A literal translation is not all that difficult:

In this one I saw the lord of the communities with seven sons.

It is, first, apasyam (imperfect) that deserves some comment. Already Oldenberg drew attention

to the occurrence of this word in another hymn of Dirghatamas, viz., 1.163 (vss. 5 and 7) and

spoke of an "Ausdrucksgewohnheit" (habit of expression) of the author. In 1.163 it occurs even a

third time: in vs. 6. In 1.164 we have already seen one other occurrence: in vs. 31 (here accented

at the beginning of the pada). [103] In addition, vs. 43 has arad apasyam "I saw from afar." In

most of these occurrences (especially those in 1.163), as in many of the other sixteen occurrences

in the RV, [104] the context favors the acceptance of apasyam with the connotation of a

visionary experience.

According to Paninian grammar, the imperfect (LAN) would place the action referred to in the

more remote past, whereas the aorist (LUN) refers to a recent past (Astadhyayi 3.2.84, 110-11).

[105] Often, this also applies to Vedic (Hoffmann 1967: 151-57), [106] although the aorist is

found with regard to events of the remote past as well, namely when facts are simply stated

(Hoffmann's "konstatierende Gebrauch des Ind. Aor."). Gonda (1962: 112-29) argued, however,

that the Vedic system of past tenses deviates from the system of classical Sanskrit in another

dimension as well: the imperfect is found with regard to a past which clearly includes a very

recent past or even the present. In such cases, according to Gonda, the imperfect usually

manifests a function which it has in common with old Greek, viz., the durative, emphasizing an

expansion in time (versus the punctual aspectual function of the aorist). Hoffmann criticizes

Gonda's view with reference to cases where an imperfect is used even though no expansion in

time has been expressed, [107] but even if this criticism is accepted, there are still the cases

where the imperfect is rather clearly used with regard to actions that are not remote in time, or

which directly concern the speaker or the present. [108] This is not the place to pursue this

discussion any further. But it is clear that the issue of the aspectual functions of the rgvedic

imperfect may still be regarded as open.

Hence, no decision can be made at this moment whether the specific use of apasyam with

reference to a visionary experience--and one which seems to be vividly remembered and to some

extent repeated at the moment of reciting the verse--is to be considered an idiomatic exception to

the general rule, [109] or rather an exemplary instance of a durative use of the imperfect. [110] It

41

is striking, in any case, that the form occurs thrice in our hymn, and that the first occurrence

favors a context (the heated Pravargya pot, in a visionary association with the sun) similar to the

one for which vs. 31 is traditionally prescribed: watching the Pravargya pot during heating, and

after full heating (episodes A1 and A2), in the latter case to the accompaniment of yajurvedic

mantras that give expression to the relation between the heated Pravargya pot and the sun.

The next word to be discussed is vispatim 'the lord of the communities'. Interpretations of this

"lord" vary: Sayana thinks of the sun; Haug (1875) mentions Agni, Indra, and Agni as kavi or

hotr as possibilities; Ludwig (1888) translates "stammesfurst"; Geldner (1951) translates

"Stammherr," and remarks that the Garhapatya "aus dem die anderen [viz., Feuer] entnommen

werden" is "der eigentliche Stammvater"; Brown (1968) holds "the lord of the tribes" to be a

reference to Agni.

The word vispati occurs several times in the RV, and, indeed, it often refers to Agni "lord of the

communities" (e.g., RV 1.12.2, 8.23.13). But in 8.25.16ab ayam eka ittha puru-uru caste vi

vispatih the word clearly refers to the sun (Sayana: to Mitra). The ritualistic context which we

suggest for this verse, namely the heating and watching of the pot, does not give a direct and

definite clue to the interpretation of this vispati. It is the subject of a vision catalyzed or

occasioned by the heated Pravargya pot, but, of course, one cannot tell for sure where the

priestpoet's vision was directed in that situation. Still, if we assume that the later Pravargya

ritual--as it finds expression in the yajurvedic avakasa-mantras (among them 1.164.31)--reflects

some of the earlier insights expressed in the first verse, one expects the vispati to be some

universal aspect of the sun or Agni which unifies the heavenly form, the terrestrial form, and the

intermediary one. The gopa 'herdsman', who was discerned in verse 3 1 (though belonging to a

different "liturgy"), would then be parallel to the vispati of verse 1.

Finally, saptdputram in association with vispatim is not immediately clear. The next two verses

(see Appendix), however, contain several references to "groups of seven." It is likely that these

verses elaborate in some way the vision of the "lord of the communities with seven sons."

According to Geidner's translation and explanation, verse 2 deals with "the solar chariot as

visible symbol of the year or of time"; verse 3 with "the sacrificial chariot." In 2a there could be

a reference to seven rays (rasmi, masc.) of the sun, but these rays are usually not active in yoking

it (cf. AV 7.107 and, with regard to time, 19.53.1). The seven in 2a are therefore rather the seven

priests (or the seven primordial seers as priests), employing the sun or the year as regulator of the

sacrificial cycle. The seven horses of the sun, mentioned elsewhere in the RV (1.50.8 and 9;

4.13.3), are, as far as I can see, always mares, and as such not directly applicable to "the lord of

the communities with seven sons." In 3a the grou p of seven persons therefore rather refers to the

priests-seers as well, who are "seven sons" of the vispati of 1c. Verse 2 then refers to the sun as

regulator of the cosmic time, verse 3 to a sacrificial cycle that derives from the former.

A slightly different possibility, which I do not want to leave unmentioned here, is to take the

"lord of the communities," in the light of verse 31 and its ritual context, as "life-principle (of sun

and all creatures)" or "(cosmic) prana"; or at least to accept a close connection between the solar

"lord of the communities" and a notion which is in later vedic texts commonly expressed as

prana. The seven sons could still be the priests-seers, who perhaps, in the light of some vedic

42

texts [111] and of some aspects in the classical Pravargya, [112] may be associated with the

seven pranas (i.e., a sevenfold notion later on crystallizing in the concept of the "seven pranas" or

"seven vital airs").

7.5 As announced in section 7.1, I will now sketch an interpretation of verses 20-22, plausible in

the context of the hymn, which reinforces the interpretation of verse 1. For reasons of space, I

cannot go into an evaluation of a number of earlier contributions to the interpretation of these

verses (esp. Geidner and Renou in their annotated translations, Thieme [1949], and Johnson

[1980]), nor into a consideration of its connections with other vedic passages (apart from making

brief references to resonating passages in the Rgveda). The verses are as follows:

dva suparna sayuja sakhaya

samanam vrksam pari sasvajate /

tayor anyah pippalam svadv atty

anasnann anyo abhi cakasiti // 20

yatra suparna amrtasya bhagam

animesam vidathabhisvaranti /

ino visvasya bhuvanasya gopah

sa ma dhtrah pakam atra vivesa // 21

yasmin vrkse madhvadah suparna

nivisante suvate cadhi visve /

tasyed ahuh pippalam suadv agre

tan non nasad yah pitaram na veda // 22

A literal translation is not extremely difficult:

Two birds, companions and friends, embrace a common tree. One of the two eats the sweet fig.

The other one looks on without eating.

Here, where birds, in congregation, [113] vigilantly sing of their share in immortality, the lord of

the entire world, the herdsman, the sage, entered me, the immature one.

The tree in which birds eating honey all nestle and breed--in its top, they say, is the sweet fig; be

who does not know the father does not reach it.

43

The first crucial question is: who are the birds? The birds are here called suparna 'well-winged'.

Elsewhere in our hymn, either the sun (vss. 46, 52) or the sun's rays (vs. 47) are called suparna.

Moreover, in 7b vi refers to the sun as a bird, and the parallelism in expression with 1a (asya

vamasya) suggests that verse 1 deals with three birds, one of which is the sun. Referring to

Thieme 1949, Geldner 1951, Renou 1967, Brown 1968, Johnson 1980 for some alternative

interpretations, I submit that the two birds in vs. 20 are the two more immediately perceptible of

the three birds of verse 1, viz., the sun and the Gharma pot; lightning, the elusive middle one, is

left out. [114]

Suparna may be taken primarily as one of the synonyms for bird, such as vi, garutmat. The

oriole--rather than Thieme's eagle (1949: 59), who does not eat fruit--may have been at the basis

of the specific image of birds eating a sweet fig in a tree (cf. Johnson 1980: 48-52, who refers

further to Dave 1951).

Initially, that is, when taking into account only verse 20, one will probably tend to identify the

bird that is looking on without eating as the sun, [115] and the other bird as the Gharma pot

(which "eats" [116] the ghee that is poured into it during the heating and fanning). The ghee is

then what is referred to as the "sweet fig." [117] In this interpretation, for the first time (cf.

Thieme, Geldner, Johnson on this verse), the verb pari sasvajate can retain its primary meaning

quite naturally: it means "embrace" and this is what the Gharma pot, at its root or lowest

branches, and the sun, at the top, do with the tree; merely sitting on a tree is not "embracing" it.

This leads us to some further questions: what is this tree in which the birds are sitting, and what

is the sweet fig in it? As Thieme (1949) and more recently Vasil'kov (1995) have pointed out, the

idea of the universe or cosmos as a tree is an old one, and it is widespread in Indo-European

mythology. Vasil'kov rightly separates the image of the "normal" world-tree and that of the

inverted tree (for the latter cf. Katha Upanisad 6.1): "The motif of honey (or the water of life) at

the top, as well as the motif of a man hanging on a branch, are never connected with the

'inverted' tree: they are always associated with a 'normal' world-tree, a tree of this world"

(1995:261). The "honey" or "water of life" appears in 1.164.20-22 as the sweet fig and the

honey. The tree top is the vault of heaven; according to a verse in another rgvedic hymn, god

Yama drinks (or has a "symposium") together with the gods in a tree with beautiful foliage (RV

1.135.1).

Since the sweet fig is said to be at the top in 1.164.22, it is difficult to maintain our initial

interpretation, "ghee"; rather, the sweet fig is the light of life, inspiration, knowledge,

immortality (cf. Thieme 1949: 63ff.). It is the sun which already partakes of this "life" and

"inspiration," and the Gharma pot becomes the bird which is "looking on without partaking" of

it. [118] The absence of a statement that also the first bird is looking does not exclude that it is

the sun (it is not said the bird is not looking).

In vs. 21 the "immature" or "raw" one (pakam) is the Gharma pot. It is being heated on the fire

(whose arcayah 'flames' are "birds' m. pl.) and is standing in the sun (whose rasmayah 'rays' are

"birds," m. p1.), and all are situated in a single sacrificial cosmos (the tree of vs. 20). [119] In

this contextually quite likely interpretation of the basic enigmatic items in the verse, it becomes

44

closely parallel to verse 37cd ([ss]4.5). There, it was prathamaja rtasya, that is, Agni, who

brought life (prana) to the pot and gave it a "share in speech" (ghee starts making a bubbling

sound). Here, it is "the lord of the entire world, the herdsman, the sage" who enters the pot. As in

37, vs. 21 contains an "autobiographic" reference through the first person pronoun ma. This can

again be taken as a reference back to an initiatory experience in the Avantaradiksa, when the

student is allowed to see the fire and sun after having been blindfolded for a night. The herdsman

(gopa) of vs. 21 and the father of 22 correspond to him who is "seen" as herdsman (gopa) in vs.

31, and as lord of the communities (vispati) in vs. 1.

7.6 Having shown the aptness of verses 1 and 20-22 to an adhiyajna interpretation in terms of the

Pravargya and Avantaradiksa, and having briefly indicated their parallelism with vss. 30-39, as

well as their suitability for recitation during the heating and fanning of the Pravargya pot, our

"first liturgy" for episodes A-C of the Pravargya (parallel to vss. 30-42, the "middle liturgy") is

almost complete. The verses between 1 and 20, some of which have already been referred to, are

mainly devoted to the Sun or to its temporal correlate, the Year, and as such they are suitable for

recitation at the heating of the pot until it "shines together with the Sun," as the Taittiriya mantra

TA 4.7.1(3) has it. Current translations differ in details of interpretation, which are generally of

no consequence for the ritual application of the verses. Verses 26-29, as we have seen, belong to

the milking of the cow and to the pouring of the milk in the heated pot. In between these two

groups are verses 23-25, which contain st atements on metres and melodies and their relation,

application, and capacities. I am not aware of an identifiable episode or sub-episode in the

classical Pravargya which would correspond to these verses. But it may be noted that also in the

"middle liturgy" attention is paid to "sacred" and "sacrificial" speech just before the "milking

mantras" (namely in vs. 39, which deals with the verse, the syllable, their cosmic importance,

and the importance of knowing it). In the yajurvedic mantras associated with the heating and

fanning there are a number of verses dealing with the metres (TA 4.6.1-2[1]). It is part of the

adhvaryu's recitation which starts after a long recitation of the hotr, when the fire enveloping the

Pravargya pot is blazing up high (cf. van Buitenen 1968: 88).

8.1 Having identified a first and a second liturgy, we are left with ten verses, 43-52. The

occurrence of apasyam "I saw" in verse 43 has already been pointed out ([ss][ss]6.1, 7.4). As we

saw, the expression occurs at two other places in the hymn, vss. 1 and 31, towards the beginning

of the first and second "liturgies' and refers there to a visionary experience, as it does also

elsewhere in the RV. The entire verse 43 is as follows:

sakamayam dhumam arud apasyam

visuvata para enavarena

uksanam prsnim apacanta viras

tani dharmani prathamany asan

It may be translated as:

From afar I saw the smoke of dung, in the middle, on the farther side of this nearer one. The

45

heroes cooked the spotted bull. These were the first regulations.

The "smoke of dung" has usually been interpreted as the smoke of cow-dung (in accordance with

Sayana's paraphrase of sakamayam dhumam as sakamayam suskago-mayasambhutam). The

implications of the verse remained obscure. [120] As already briefly indicated in an earlier

publication (Houben 1991: 30f.), this enigmatic verse starts to make much more sense if the

"smoke of dung" is understood as the smoke of the dung of a horse or stallion. Stallion's dung is

actually used in the ritual preparation of the Pravargya implements for the fumigation of the pot

at the Garhapatya, just before it is baked (cf. van Buitenen 1968: 60). In the classical ritual, the

preparation of the pot is part of the duty of the adhvaryu; the participation of the hotr is nowhere

explicitly prescribed. Yet, he must have been "around," since the preparation of the pot is done

after the priests for the sacrifice have been chosen and installed. Though there have been shifts in

priestly functions since the Rgveda, it may be assumed that its vers es were also in older times

recited mainly by the hotr verse 43 could then give expression of the hotr's perception (less likely

the yajamana's of the fumigation. [121]

If the one perceiving the smoke of stallion dung stands at the eastern door of the sacrificial shed,

[122] he sees the fumigation "in the middle, on the farther side of this nearer (fire, sc. the

Ahavaniya)." Otherwise, visuvata para enavarena may mean "in the middle, above this lower

one," i.e., it says that the heavy smoke of stallion's dung is just above the Garhapatya. [123]

The uksanam prsnim "spotted bull" cooked by the heroes (the priests) may very well be

interpreted as the milk-and-ghee mixture (with spotted appearance) to be heated and offered in

the Pravargya. The words uksan and prsni occur together also in RV 9.83.3; although this hymn

forms part of the book of Soma hymns and is also employed at some occasions in the classical

Soma sacrifice, it was at an early date apparently also deemed suitable for recitation at the

Pravargya (cf. Gonda 1979: 254f.). Brhaddevata 6.134 considers this to be a hymn in praise of

the Gharma representing the sun and the soul (surya and atman.) [124]

In the light of this interpretation, recitation of vs. 43 at the beginning of the heating and fanning,

or else during the preparation of the pot, would be very suitable. It thus forms the beginning of

the third liturgy.

8.2 The next verse, 44, presents the three forms of Agni in a riddle-like formulation:

trayah kesina rtutha vi caksate

samvatsare vapata eka esam /

visvam eko abhi caste sacibhir

dhrajir ekasya dadrse na rupam //

Three long-haired ones show themselves in due season;

46

during the year one of them shaves;

one surveys everything by means of his powers;

of one the rushing is seen but not his form.

The classical solution (Nir 12.27, Sayana, Haug 1875, Geldner 1951) is: the terrestrial fire burns

the earth (cf. RV 1.65.8, 6.6.4, l0.l42.4), [125] the sun sees everything, and only the wind's

rushing is perceived; the three are long-haired through flames, rays, and lightnings, respectively.

Verse 44 thus parallels the first three padas of verse 1, and together with 43 it makes a suitable

start of a recitation accompanying the heating and fanning of the Pravargya pot (episode A).

8.3 We have already identified ([sections][sections]2.4, 6.1) verse 49 as the "milking verse" of

the third liturgy (episode B). Where do the preceding verses (45-48) fit in? The first two contain

reflections on speech, while the other two deal with the sun and the year. As such they appear

most suitable to episode A. The whole section associated with this episode (vss. 43-48) is

relatively short compared to the sections in the other two liturgies (cf. below, [sections]9.1).

8.4 In vs. 49, which maintained its role as "milking verse in the classical Pravargyn (in episode

B), the cow named Sarasvati is invoked to make its teat ready for suckling. In the ritual the male

calf is allowed to suck its mother's teat when this verse has been recited; the milking for the

sacrifice takes place immediately afterwards. As we have seen, the first two liturgies contained

references also to the subsequent events (episode C): the pouring of milk in the heated pot, and

the fiery pillar and cloud which rise to heaven (vss. 29, 41). The rain-giving capacities of this

cloud (and/or its macrocosmic parallel, the rain-cloud) were especially indicated in the second

liturgy, vs. 42. Is anything corresponding to this found in the third liturgy? References to

capacities to produce rain are, indeed, prominent in the two concluding verses of the hymn, 51-

52. The last one mentions Sarasvat, a heavenly, rain-giving male counterpart to the earthly, milk-

giving cow Sarasvati of vs. 49. Verse 51-52--verse 51 in a different metre, anustubh--are thus

quite suitable as continuations of vs. 49 and as accompaniment to episode C. They may be taken

as parallel to vs. 42, which also made a general statement on "something" (contextually: the

transcendent cow of vs. 41) from which oceans flow and on which the four directions live. Still

missing is a reference to the arising of a fiery pillar--the ritual event so dramatically expressed in

vss. 29 and 41--to link the milking in 49 with the rain in 51-52.

The verse that is left, 50, is mainly a general statement on the primordiality of the sacrifice:

yajnena yajnam ayajanta devas

tani dharmani prathamany asan /

te ha nakam mahimanah sacanta

yatra purve sadhyah santi devah //

With the sacrifice the gods sacrificed to the sacrifice:

47

these were the first regulations.

These greatnesses reached up to the vault of heaven,

where the ancient Sadhyas reside as gods.

The second pada, "these were the first regulations," is identical with the last pada of vs. 43

(beginning of third liturgy). The whole verse also occurs as concluding verse in 10.90, the

famous Purusasukta. The second pada places the events referred to in a primeval age. The drama

of vss. 29 and 41 is still missing. The third pada could nevertheless apply to the rising of the

fiery pillar and fiery cloud from the heated pot in which milk has been poured. The recursive

application of the sacrifice in the first pada is perhaps reflected in the offering (pouring) of milk

in the pot for the sake of the Gharma offering which is to take place later on in the Ahavaniya

fire: this is an offering to an offering. [126] Still, the "fit" between verse and ritual event seems

not as close here as in previous cases, and the ritual application here suggested on the basis of the

context (which need not exclude interpretations of the verse with which we are familiar,

beginning with Sayana) could be a secondary one. [127] By co ntrast, this highlights the

closeness of "fit" in other crucial verses.

9.1 We have thus found that a clear pattern of three "liturgies" emerges from 1.164 if we take

seriously its connection with the Pravargya, a connection which is already generally accepted

and well established for some verses. The three liturgies belong to three episodes in the

Pravargya, namely A-B-C (see table 1). As pointed out ([ss]6.1), it may be surmised that the

liturgies in 164 were intended to accompany newly developed parts of a more ancient, rgvedic

Gharma offering, which was in some respects quite different from the Gharma offering in the

classical Pravargya (for instance, in the older form the pot could be of metal, RV 5.30.15). The

three liturgies formed the source of 1.164 which, with its 52 verses, is an exceptionally long

hymn in a collection in which numerical regularity rules supreme (cf. Oldenberg 1888: 222;

Witzel 1995: 311). The proposed tripartition leads to three liturgies in decreasing order of

number of verses--just as in groups of hymns addressed to a particular deity, these are usu ally in

decreasing order of the number of verses.

The tripartition has been arrived at on the basis of the meaning and (especially ritual)

implications of the verses. We may now also have a look at the distribution of metres. Here we

find that the main divisions arrived at are further accentuated. The hymn's main metre is tristubh

(4 x 11), several verses are in jagati (4 x 12) (both often with a number of irregularities), one is in

prastarapada (11 11 / 8 8), and one in anustubh (4 x 8). [128] While several jagatis and verses in

which tristubh and jagati padas are combined occur in the first liturgy, it has been pointed out by

Oldenberg that such a variation need not be significant. [129] It is still noteworthy that the final

verse of our first liturgy (vs. 29) is in the jagati metre rather than the dominant tristubh. Also the

shift from the verses dealing with the birds in the tree, 20-22 (which in our interpretation

continue and round off a theme started in vs. 1), to the three verses dealing with the sacred

speech and melodies employed in the ritual is marked by the jagati metre in vs. 23. [130]

48

The second liturgy ends (vs. 42) with a quite exceptional metre, the prastarapada which is

employed nowhere else in the entire Rgveda. As in the first liturgy, at the end of the A section

attention is drawn to sacred speech employed in the ritual. In the second liturgy, this happens in a

single verse, 39, with the deviant scheme of two tristubh padas, two jagati (11 11 / 12 12).

In the third liturgy all verses are in tristubh (with irregularities) except one, the penultimate,

which is in anustubh (which is also in another respect exceptional or at least remarkable, see

below). While the A sections in the first two liturgies ended with one or more verses (metrically

partly marked) dealing with sacred speech employed in the ritual, the A section of the third

liturgy deals with sacred speech employed in the ritual in the middle (vss. 45-46, preceded and

followed by twice two verses dealing with other subjects, without metrical distinction).

A further comparative remark on the three liturgies of 1.164 is in place here. As we have seen, in

the third liturgy the section associated with episode A (vss. 43-48) is relatively short compared to

the A sections of the second liturgy (vss. 30-39) and the first liturgy (vss. 1-25). The whole

procedure of sufficiently heating and fanning the pot is a lengthy one. In the classical Pravargya

the hotr's recitation is even considerably longer than the one of our first liturgy. It may therefore

be suggested that the A section of our third liturgy is only a group of supererogatory verses,

which may be added to the A section of either of the two other liturgies.

There are also some differences in the focus and structure of the three A sections. In the A

section of the first liturgy the sun-interpretation of the Pravargya is dominant (with much

attention to the sun as year). The theme of prana is rarely hinted at (perhaps in vss. 1, 4, and 21).

The A section of the second liturgy seems mostly focused on prana (though this term is not

used). In the brief A section of the third liturgy speculations on speech are striking (vss. 45-46, in

the middle rather than at the end). After a verse on the ritual and its primordial performance (43),

the enigmatically formulated reference to three forms of Agni (vs. 44) corresponds with the first

verse of the first liturgy; the last two verses of the A section of liturgy three link up with verses

in the A section of liturgy one (47 [rightarrow] 7; 48 [rightarrow] 11).

9.2 We have seen that the association with the Pravargya works out quite well throughout the

hymn. Still, there are the two verses 34-35 that in the classical sources form part of a ritual

discussion (brahmodya) in the Asvamedha, the elaborate royal horse sacrifice. In the classical

sources, the Asvamedha comprises a number of smaller rituals which can also occur

independently. These include the Agnicayana, which in turn comprises Soma sacrifices, Istis and

... Pravargyas. It may hence be surmised that the elaborate form of the Pravargya reflected in

1.164 had a special relation with the extensive ritual of the royal horse sacrifice. The occurrence

of 1.164 immediately after two hymns in praise of the sacrificial horse (1.162 and 163) could

lend further support to this hypothesis. Also some of the formulations in these hymns--e.g.,

163.5--6 according to which the horse's body or head is flying to heaven as a bird--suggest

intimate connections with 164 (apart from the fact that they are attributed to a single author--

which in itself suggests an intimate connection between horse sacrifice and Pravargya, at least

the specific Pravargya of 1.164).

Or, if we adopt a different perspective, the classical Pravargya ritual, which appears to be

49

structurally close to the one presupposed in 1.164, contains several elements that point to a

special connection with horses: apart from the horse dung used for fumigating the pot, a horse

also plays a role in fetching the clay; and use is made of peculiar horse-shaped plates; the so-

called Rauhina cakes are placed on these before they are offered in the fire. These

interconnections lead to another supposition: that the post-rgvedic organizers of the ritual formed

and described the classical Pravargya ritual after the model of the elaborate form of the

Pravargya connected with the royal horse sacrifice, and allowed this form to accompany even a

simple Soma sacrifice (where the elements connected with the horse seem mostly and originally

out of place). If the classical Pravargya is indeed "abstracted" from a larger ritual complex

centering around the sacrifice of a horse, [131] already including a form of the Agnicaya na, yet

another problem appears in a different light: that of the close similarity and partial overlap of the

srautasutra descriptions of the preparation of the Pravargya pot and the Ukha pot (cf. Ikari 1983).

In such a ritual complex the preparation of these two pots would be adjacent (as in the classical

horse sacrifice) or overlap. [132]

If the situation as suggested above is acceptable, verses 34-35, which also according to their

content would suit a horse sacrifice (in some pre-classical form), may have entered the

speculative section of the recitation of section A of the second liturgy easily and naturally.

9.3 All three liturgies and especially their A sections testify to an intensive reflection on

fundamental realities. The authors avail themselves of what may be called a "special language"

to formulate their thoughts. The words and syntax of this "special language" are similar to those

of the "common language" of Vedic Sanskrit, but the special language is nevertheless

characterized by some systematic differences, especially with regard to the semantic function of

the words.

The significance of this special enigmatic language of 1.164 and its relation to later

developments in Indian thought deserve to be highlighted. We may start by paraphrasing some

observations of Porzig (1925: 654ff.) with regard to the special language ("Sondersprache") of

riddles and enigmas (according to Porzig, applying also to those of other cultures). While

linguistic meanings otherwise pertain basically to a single fact, riddles or enigmatic expressions

always refer to all facts of a similar sort--where similarity is found in the place which a certain

fact occupies in the totality of the world. The ideas and "meanings" underlying enigmatic

expressions presuppose that an understanding of the totality of the world is available. The cow

should occupy a certain place in the life of the community when clouds and dawns are

meaningfully to be called "cows." Both the special and the common language constitute a

"world": the "world" of its linguistic community. But while the common language seeks to

represent t hings directly, as such, without ambiguity, the special language gives the "meaning"

of things in their inner relatedness; hence this special language of riddles and enigmas becomes

as polysemic as the world when "seen from inside," i.e., from the point of view of these inner

relationships. The structure of the world view of the common language becomes accessible only

if it is studied thoroughly, the speakers have their "world" but do not know it. The "world" of the

special language, on the contrary, shows its framework first. So much emphasis is placed on this

framework of structural relationships that single facts fade away behind them. The special

language posits the world as a system. This was a conscious act which created a dividing line

50

between the knowers and the ignorant, and which made initiation necessary. The sociological

dimension of this special language is, therefore, that its knowledge provides access to a certain

community, the cohesion of which is formed precisely by that language and the wor ld view

incorporated in it. [133]

As we have seen, a "world system," in which the life-principle, breath, and inspiration (or all

three in one) of the individual (microcosm) are intimately connected with those of Agni, whose

highest manifestation is the sun (macrocosm), is much more prominent in RV 1.164 than Porzig

could suspect when he formulated the views paraphrased above. Porzig also did not realize how

much and how systematically the world view expressed in the hymn is paralleled and

"illustrated" in the ritual. Although we have given only a few hints, it may further be noted that

the "special language" of 1.164 is continuous with that of many other rgvedic hymns and their

enigmatic and mythological statements, even if the specific system expressed in 1.164 (and in the

classical Pravargya) seems to be relatively unique. A direct correspondence may be found in a

hymn such as 10.177; hymns such as 10.114 and 10.135 contain strong resonances, but their

authors seem to have dealt with similar mythologemes in divergent ways.

Against this background, the intensity but also divergence of the reflections given in the

Pravargya liturgies of 1.164 come to the fore in verse 12, in which--quite unusually for the

Rgveda--reference is made to two alternative views: according to some the sun as year resides in

the upper half of heaven, according to others in the lower half. Both views are formulated in the

"special language" of enigmas. Even more remarkably, in two verses of the third liturgy, 46 and

51, the author goes beyond the images and symbols of the hymn, steps beyond its "special

language," outside its language game. In vs. 46 he observes that a single reality underlies the

numerous mythological notions--Indra, Mitra, Varuna, Agni, the heavenly bird [134]--to which

the inspired priests address themselves: a reflective, "philosophical" statement is juxtaposed to

the mythology pervading 1.164 and most of the Rgveda. In vs. 51 the author gives in simple and

direct terms the rain theory [135] that is formulated elsewhere (vss. 7, 47, partly in 52) in the

otherwise dominant enigmatic language of the hymn. It is not difficult to see connections

between vs. 46 and upanisadic reflections on a single reality that becomes diverse with different

names (e.g., ChandU 6.1.3-6), and between vs. 51 and upanisadic doctrines of fire and the cycle

of water (ChandU 5.3-10, BAU 6.2, KausU 1). [136]

We see, moreover, that the hymn and ritual, if their intimate interconnections are highlighted,

turn out to be strongly focused on associating the Gharma pot (world of ritual), the initiate

(microcosmos), and the sun (macrocosmos), and especially the life-principle, prana, and

inspiration in all three. It is not difficult to see a connection with upanisadic reflections on the

intimate relation and ultimate identity of individual soul and universal soul.

If RV 1.164 is placed back where it apparently belonged, in the heart of the Pravargya ritual,

fresh light falls also on a more specific problem in the early history of Indian thought. The

Brhadaranyaka Upanisad, which forms the last six adhyayas of the fourteenth book of the

Satapatha Brahmana, contains a section on a so-called "honey doctrine" (BAU 2.5 = SB 14.5.5).

According to the translator, R. E. Hume, this section deals with "the corelativity of all things

cosmic and personal, and the absoluteness of the immanent Soul" (1931: 102). [137] The latter

51

part of this section refers to Dadhyanc Atharvana and the Asvins: it is said that this "honey" (i.e.,

the "honey doctrine") was disclosed to the Asvins by Dadhyanc Atharvana through the head of a

horse, and in support of this statement RV 1.116.12 is quoted:

tad vam nara sanaye damsa ugram

avts krnomi tanyatur na vrstim /

dadhyan ha yan madhv atharvano vam

asvasya sirsna pra yad im uvaca //

That formidable deed of yours (which you did) for gain, [138] o heroes, I make known, as

thunder (makes known the coming) rain: that Dadhyanc Atharvana declared to you two that

which is "honey" through the head of a horse.

In an earlier section of the SB (14.1.1.25) devoted to the Pravargya, the same verse is referred to

and connected with the story that Dadhyanc Atharvana explained the knowledge of the

Pravargya and how the Soma sacrifice is made complete with it. And in SB 14.1.4.13, in the

explanation of a formula containing the word madhu 'honey', reference is made to Dadhyanc

Atharvana giving to the Asvins a doctrinal explanation called "honey" (madhu nama

brahmanam). According to Sarikara (on BAU 2.5.16), these earlier places in the SB already hint

at the very upanisadic "honey doctrine" explained in BAU 2.5 = SB 14.5.5. In the early

references, however, only that much is said concerning the "honey doctrine" as is relevant to the

Pravargya, while the secret part dealing with knowledge of the self is not stated there. Thus,

Sankara distinguishes between a "honey doctrine" dealing with the Pravargya ritual, and a

"honey doctrine" concerning knowledge of the self propounded in the upanisad, but his

comments remain unsatisfac tory in that he gives no hint how these two quite diverse doctrines

should be linked. [139] With RV 1.164 placed in the Pravargya, however, the focus of this ritual

on associating the initiated and the sun (and the Gharma pot) becomes apparent. Verses such as

7, 47, and 51 point to the mutual relation of heaven and earth. We further saw that "honey" and a

sweet fig played a special role in a few verses, 20-22. RV 1.164 does not contain statements

exactly similar to those found in BAU 2.5, but it shows that there was scope for elaboration of

very similar themes in the heart of the Pravargya. It is no longer difficult to see connections to

the upanisadic Madhu brahmana.

10. While the preceding treatment of RV 1.164 is open to numerous interpretational elaborations,

adjustments, and variations, the most important conclusion to be drawn is that the alignment of

the symbolic language of the hymn and the symbolic forms of the Pravargya ritual (together with

the Avantaradiksa) greatly advances the interpretation of both. We saw emerge a complex ritual

structure, with the Pravargya and Avantaradiksa linked in a novel and revealing way, [140] and

directed to eliciting experiences and reflections with regard to the fundamental forces of

individual and cosmic life. This ritual structure functioned as a "laboratory" of early speculative

reflection, from which connections can be made to upanisadic speculation and philosophy.

Already in the early testimony of Rgveda 1.164 we see that the authors occasionally step beyond

mythology and ritualism, beyond the "limits" of their "Sondersprache" and ritual, and juxtapose a

52

'philosopheme" with the mythologemes of their tradition (esp. vs. 46). While the ritual seems to

have functioned as a stabilizing structure, there were open-ended elements which invited

elaboration and speculation, and, hence, unavoidably also diversification. It is not likely that the

whole complex of ideas and textual and ritual structures I have sketched above in broad outline

was entirely homogeneous. Rather the contrary. The variations resulting from the elaborations

and speculations seem to have affected not only theoretical views (expressed in terms of the

"Sondersprache," cf. 1.164.12) but also the form of the mythologemes involved. For instance,

while a Gharma-wind-sun complex underlies the three Pravargya liturgies of RV 1.164, the

Atharvaveda, in hymns 9.9 and 10, together corresponding to RV 1.164.1-46, brings in also the

moon (AV 9.10.9); in khila 3.22 of RV, the first four verses of which are recited by the hotr in

the classical Pravargya, verses 5-10 deal with sun and moon. [141]

How long did the ritual structure continue to function as a "laboratory" of early speculative

reflection? Yajurvedic influences have apparently standardized the Pravargya to the relatively

homogeneous form which we know now from the various sutras; [142] but the standardization

seems to have choked or blocked the creativity of rgvedic poets. Philosophical reflection

continued in situations as known from the upanisads: in discussions between students, brahmins,

and kings. Did the Avantaradiksa Pravargya complex in that period continue to function at least

as an effective context for initiation of the Veda student? The Yajurvedins, in any case,

transmitted all relevant rules of the Avantaradiksa and the Pravargya. But the structures that have

emerged from our study seem to have been lost sight of and apparently also had fallen out of use

already at the time of interpreters such as Sayana, whom one can hardly expect to have

knowingly remained entirely silent about them. [143]

For the earlier period, however, it seems that Paul Deussen was, after all, not so wrong in

emphasizing the extraordinary importance of 1.164 in the history of Indian philosophy. [144] As

in ancient Greece, philosophy developed in dialogue with the mythologemes of a sacred

tradition. But there it was the written transmission of ideas which enabled subsequent thinkers to

deal with similar problems and make progress in certain directions. [145] In ancient India, where

writing came into use for transmitting philosophical thought at a later date than in Greece (cf.

Falk 1993; Houben, forthcoming b), it was initially the ritually stabilized transmission of ideas

which enabled successive thinkers to do the same.

My acquaintance with thc so-called riddle-hymn Rgveda 1.164 dates from 1984-85. I would like

to thank Henk W. Bodewitz for discussing in detail problems in the verses and interpretations

proposed by numerous scholars, both in 1984-85 and when I started to write the present paper.

An abbreviated version was presented at the 208th meeting of the American Oriental Society,

New Orleans, April 5-8, 1998. I am grateful to Alexander Lubotsky and Arlo Griffiths for their

detailed comments. I also profited from discussions with Jan C. Heesterman as well as Thomas

Oberlies. Some cxcellent suggestions for improvement were made by two anonymous referees of

JAOS. I am very much indebted to Mr. Selukar Maharaj and Mr. Nana Kale, who allowed me to

be present at and to film and photograph their performances of Vedic rituals; this clarified much

of their dynamic structure, which would have remained largely obscure if textual sources only

had been taken into account. The investigations on which this article is based were supp orted by

the Netherlands Organization for Scientific Research (NWO) from 1996 to 1999.

53

(1.) Wordsworth, "The Prelude" (1805 version), I.351-52.

(2.) Cf. W. N. Brown: "Translators and commentators who have dealt with the asya vamasya

hymn (Rgveda 1.164) have generally characterized it as difficult, or obscure, or [as] a series of

riddles loosely connected or disconnected, or in other terms expressed a greater or less[er] degree

of frustration" (1968: 199 [53]).

(3.) A. Ludwig (1876-88, 2: 579-84; 5: 445-57); K. F Geldner (1951, 1: 227-37); L. Renou

(1967: 88-93); W. Doniger O'Flaherty (1981: 71-83). The most recent complete translation of the

Rgveda is that of T. Elizarenkova (into Russian), of which I have so far seen only the first two

parts, covering mandalas I-IV [1989] and V-VIII [1995]. In her translation of 1.164 she mostly

follows Geldner and Renou. Mention may further he made of R. T. H. Griffiths' rather free

translations of the Rgveda and Atharvaveda (1892, 1896). Hillebrandt (1913: 103-5) translated

part of 1.164 (cf. also Hillebrandt 1927, 1929, as referenced in the "Verzeichnis wichtigerer

Stellen" in both volumes). Two quite divergent earlier Indian commentaries on the hymn, of

Sayana and of Atmananda, have been published by Kunhan Raja (1956), together with an

annotated translation of the verses.

(4.) V. Henry (1894: 107-14, 143-57; Oldenberg's review [1896: 180ff.; 1939ff.] contains

valuable critical remarks); W. Whitney (1905, 2: 552-61).

(5.) See Deussen 1920: 105-19; Thieme 1949: 55-73 and 1987; for the others mentioned, see the

bibliography. A. Wunsche (1896) gave an important place to RV 1.164 in his study of the

"Riddle of the Year" in world literature. Of interest is Thompson 1997, with much attention to

RV 1.164.

(6.) Cf. AsvSS 10.9.2-3, SankhSS 16.6.5-6 (the hotr asks, the sacrificer answers); BSS 15.28-29

and ApSS 20.19.6-7 (here the hotr asks, the brahman answers; cf. also TB 3.9.5.5 and Dumont

1948:482); KSS 20.7.14-15 (here the sacrificer asks, the adhvaryu answers; cf. also SB 13.5.2.21

and Dumont 1927: 189 [[ss]550]).

(7.) Deussen (1920: 105-19) had few followers in strongly emphasizing a pervasive thematic

unity in RV 1.164--as an "Einheitslied" dealing with the "unity in diversity" of phenomena.

(8.) Geldner: "Die Str[ophen] lassen sich z.T. gruppenweise ordnen, ohne feste Dispositionen des

Ganzen" (1951, 1: 227).

(9.) Brown 1968: 199 [53]. Brown approached the hymn primarily as a literary product and tried

to solve its problems with methods of literary criticism. RV 1.164, according to him, deals with

notions which seem to give it "consistency and purpose and explain why it was composed"

(1968: 200 [54]). He also tried to explain the "argument" of the hymn (1968: 207ff. [61ff.]),

though one may doubt whether there really is one. A "literary approach" was also adopted by

Doniger O'Flaherty (1981); and further by Johnson (1980), who made use of a modem text-

analytical terminology when addressing a few verses of 1.164.

54

(10.) "... the hymn (1.164) which is but a string of enigmas..." (1960: 35).

(11.) "This long hymn consists mainly of disconnected riddles, the answers to which are mostly

unknown or at best conjectural" (1965: 51).

(12.) "Wie wohl auch vielen anderen Vedologen schien es uns richtig, von der Voraussetzung

auszugehen, dass es sich urn eine Sammlung von Ratseln oder in Ratselform gakleideten

Allegorien handelt, die inhaltlich nur locker miteinander verkunpft sind, die sich aber doch

thematisch beruhren--insofern namlich, als sie befasst sind einerseits mit Dingen der kosmischen

Ordnung--dem Jahreslauf, dem Gang der Sonne und den Erscheinungsformen des Mondes, dem

Himmel bei Tag und bei Nacht und dergleichen--und andererseits mit Gegenstanden und

Ablaufen des Rituals" (1987: 329).

(13.) According to Porzig, to whose work Thomas Oberlies kindly drew my attention, RV 1.164

is a group of riddles, which are ordered "nicht nach den Verratselten, sondern nach den

verratseladen Gegenstanden" (1925: 648). Porzig's "alternative" solutions to several of the

"riddles" of 1.164 are not very convincing, but some important observations are made on the

language of riddles (or one could say, enigmas) as "Sondersprache" which presupposes certain

social facts (the existence of a group of "knowers") and an attitude (paying attention to

underlying connections between things rather than to their phenomenal appearances).

(14.) This separation of two thematically parallel verses by others that in Roth's view apparently

deal with something else, is in harmony with his assumption that the hymn is a "collection of

riddles."

(15.) "Mit solchen Ratseln hat sich auch die alte Spruchdichtung beschaftigt, von welcher wir da

und dort in vedischen Buchern Proben finden, namentlich aber eine ganze Sammlung von Versen

in Rv. 1.164" (Roth 1892: 759).

(16.) Cf. "Vorwort" to the Sanskrit-Worterbuch (St. Petersburg, 1855), 1: v, according to which

the vedic hymns are not "Schopfungen einer theologischen Speculation, auch nicht aus dem

Boden jener fest umschriebenen minutiosen liturgisehen Praxis erwachsen, sondern sie sind

ihrem grossten Theile nach Erzeugnisse der altesten religiosen Lyrik, deren Ausubung eben so

wenig an Familien oder Kasten gebunden war als die Darbringung des taglichen Opfers und

Gebets...."

(17.) Oldenberg speaks of Roth's idea of the Rgveda as "Naturwuchsige Poesie," and observes

that Roth did not know much about the texts on the sacrificial ritual, with which in that time only

Weber and Haug had some familiarity (Oldenberg 1905: 5,7). On the reactions of later vedic

scholars, cf, also Gonda 1975: 56ff.

(18.) Note that the very first verse suggests that its author is standing in front of a fire and that it

has usually been interpreted as such, already in the time when Roth Wrote his article; cf.

Ludwig's translation of the verse (we will modify this usual interpretation later on). This suggests

a general sacrificial context, and Roth made no explicit objection to this. Roth also accepted that

55

the rgvedic people were engaged in daily sacrifice and prayer (cf. citation in note 16).

(19.) "The enigma originally stated a mystery, being so designed to express a meaning

intrinsically enigmatic. Brahman verses were intentionally allusive, deliberately obscure

language sets using special means to suggest understandings of reality not ordinarily perceived

or experienced. The enigma conceals its meaning in or by its own formulation, and must be

contemplated to have its full effect." And further, "[t]hough riddle implies something dark or

puzzling, it is formally distinct from enigma and paradox. The riddle expresses a question or

verbal puzzle. It usually contains its own answer in a series of clues that, when correctly

perceived, often in terms of an underlying image, will give its solution" (Johnson 1980: 32-33).

(20.) Cf. the distinction, in French, between and "devinette." Henry discussed the two atharvanic

hymns AV 9.9 and 10 as collections of devinettes, while Renou, more appropriately, speaks of

RV 1.164 as Phymne aux enigmes (cf. also Renou and Silburn 1949 on 1.152 as a "hymne a

enigmes"). The two notions are of course not mutually exclusive. RV l.164.34 can be regarded as

a set of riddles, but their corresponding answers in 35 are couched in enigmatic statements such

as: "this altar is the farthest limit of the earth" and "this Brahman(-priest) is the ultimate heaven

of speech."

(21.) Cf. esp. pp. 3-25 on the "Sacrificial symposium as context of Rg Vedic speculative

images," and pp. 42-65 on "The enigma of the two birds in the fig tree."

(22.) Without referring to Haug's suggestions, Porzig regarded the hymn as consisting of riddles

similar to those asked in discussions between vedic student and father or teacher, or between

brahmin and king (1925: 646f.).

(23.) For discussions on the problem of the relation between the Rgveda and vedic ritual, cf.

Bergaigne 1889; Renou 1962; Gonda 1975: 83ff.; Witzel 1997: 288ff.

(24.) The hymn as collection of verses may, of course, turn out to be divisible into smaller units

at a later stage (it does, as we will see below); but it did become a whole at a certain moment,

and apparently has remained a whole since its inclusion in the Rgveda.

(25.) Even here, the present paper does not provide "safe results"; it would be methodologically

naive to claim definiteness and safety for any interpretation. Rather, the paper is the report of an

interpretational experiment in the ritual direction sketched above.

(26.) Corresponding to Rgvidhana 1.26.2 in Gonda 1951: 32.

(27.) AV 9.9.1, which corresponds to RV 1.164.1, is referred to in KausikaS 18.25 with the

pratika asya vamasya, in a section on ceremonies for prosperity (pustikarma). Darila and Kesava

explain that both 9.9 and 9.10 are to be recited in full. The pratika asya Vamasya is also found in

AVPar 32.22.

(28.) See Appendix for a translation of these and other important verses, which are here not

56

discussed in detail.

(29.) Cf. AsvSS 4.7.4; SankhSS 5.10.1; van Buitenen 1968: 96.

(30.) Hoffmann cites this verse and especially the last pada as a clear case of the use of the

injunctive in a "Koinzidenzfall": "Beim Koinzidenzfall besteht die bezeichnete Handlung im

Aussprechen des Satzes (z.B., ich danke)" (1967: 251); in other words, it corresponds to what is

now usually called a performative or speech act. The form vocam is not only injunctive but also

aorist, the "punctual" aspect of which suits the occasion of a "Koinzidenzfall" quite well (cf.

Gonda 1971: 129).

(31.) A similar idea was expressed by Oldenberg in his review of Henry 1894. About RV

1.164.26-29 Oldenberg writes: "Handelt es sich aber wirklich um Ratsel, welche von uns gelost

sein wollen? Ich mochte glauben, dass die Verse... zunachst ihren deutlichen Mittelpunkt im

Ritual der Gharmafeier haben...; dass dabei Parallelisierungen der rituellen Kategorien des

grossen Weltlebens mit unterlaufen, wie die Yajustexte von derartigem voll sind, soil nicht

geleugnet werden, aber diese Parallelisierungen kommen doch ganz in zweiter Linie" (Oldenberg

1896: 182). Here, and on his more general point that the ritual is more important in RV 1.164 =

AV 9.9, 10 than was recognized by Henry, I fully agree with Oldenberg.

(32.) More precisely, the verses are recited just before the actual milking for the Gharma offering

(which is anticipated in 26): After 27 (recited by the hotr; when the cow comes), 49 is recited (by

both the hotr and the adhvaryu) when the calf is brought near to the cow, and 28 (by the hotr)

when the calf is led away by the adhvaryu: AsvSS 4.7.4; SankhSS 5.10.2, 5, 6; van Buitenen

1968: 96ff.

(33.) In the RV, suhasta commonly refers to the adhvaryu or an officiant performing an

adhvaryava duty (5.43.4, 9.97.37), just as sujihva (e.g., 1.13.8) and suvac (10.110.7) refer to the

hotr (cf. Hillebrandt 1897: 12).

(34.) Henry, on the equivalent AV 9.10.20, has to admit: "aussiest-ce une benediction, et a peine

une enigme." As I will argue below ([sections]5.2), in the srauta ritual the recitation of 1.164.40.

has shifted from its original place.

(35.) The term was wrongly rendered as "litany of the occasions" by van Buitenen (1968: 92,

[sections]23 n.3), and, strangely enough, also by Gonda (1979: 266). A correct explanation is

found at Gonda 1969: 22, where the term is said to refer to "certain mantras during the recitation

of which the eyes must be fixed on a particular object" (cf. also Caland, who speaks of "verses

'destined for gazing at,'" in his translation of SankhSS 5.9.27). The word avakasa apparently

contains a nominal form of [sqrt]kas in the meaning "to look, watch" (cf. avacakasat 'seeing',

e.g., RV 8.32.22). Avakasa 'looking' (rather than 'opening, occasion') also, e.g., in prsad-

ajyavakase, BSS 15.28 end. See, further, Houben 1991: 118, n. 70 and 120, n. 79.

(36.) Cf. Gonda 1969: 22.

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(37.) As a whole, hymn RV 10.177, consisting of three verses, has an intimate relation with the

Pravargya. An investigation and discussion of this relation, and the relation between the identical

10.177.3 and 1.164.31, must be postponed to another occasion.

(38.) Cf. also Gonda 1979: 261 and 270, n. 105.

(39.) For a more comprehensive overview of the Pravargya and the Avantaradiksa the reader

may be referred to van Buitenen 1968. In a forthcoming paper, I argue that the Avantaradiksa of

the Pravargya is a "rudimentary initiation" brought to completion by a performance of the

Pravargya; usual translations of Avantaradiksa as "intermediate" or "intermediary" initiation are

beside the point in the case of the Avantaradiksa of the Pravargya.

(40.) Often, no clearly identifiable ritual stages are implied in the verses of a hymn, but if they

are, the sequences normally correspond--apart from various deviations which started in the

atharvavedic and yajurvedic versions of the texts. Bosch (1985) showed that the verses of the

Apri-suktas most probably followed the sequence of an ancient animal sacrifice. The sections

which follow may be regarded as an investigation of the hypothesis that such correspondence is

also found in RV 1.164, in spite of the discrepancies perceived initially.

(41.) Cf., e.g., ad loc.: Ludwig, Oldenberg, Geldner, Luders, Renou.

(42.) Cf. Schaefer 1994: 164f.

(43.) Cf. RV 9.32.3 atyo na gobhir ajyate, and similar combinations between go and anj in 5.1.3,

5.3.2; further, Grassmann 1875: s.v. go, meanings 11, 16, 17, and 18.

(44.) RV 1.140.3 and 5, where dhvasayat probably means 'sparkling'. The basic meaning of

[sqrt]dhvams/dhvas seems to be 'to scatter, sprinkle, turn into dust' (cf. Mayrhofer 1996: s.v.

dhvams "zerstieben, zerstauben, zerbrocklen"). This solution is more natural than that of H.-P.

Schmidt (1963: 16f., on 1.164.29) which dissociates dhvasanav from the immediately following

adhi srita and at the same time has to supply a noun expressing where the "cow" is placed.

(45.) The pot and the calf are parallel in that they are both receivers of milk from the cow. As we

will see, the calf in 1.164.5 and 9 may metaphorically refer to the heated pot.

(46.) The srautasutras speak only of steam arising from the pot (e.g., udyantam usmanam

anumantrayate in ApSS 15.10.2). Steam arises when the pot is less hot and contains less boiling

ghee. The accompanying formulas in the Taittiriya tradition, TA 4.8.4 (16) svaha tva suryasya

rasmaye vrstivanaye juhomi and (18) suryasya tdpas tapa, however, do suggest a more fiery

phenomenon than steam.

(47.) The latest comprehensive interpretation in which an attempt was made to place the verse in

a larger context of vedic (reconstructed) cosmologies is that of Luders (1959: 362-68-cf. van

Buitenen 1968: 32-33 for criticism of Luders misunderstandings regarding ritual details of the

Pravargya). According to Luders (1959: 368) the last pada refers to "das grosse Mysterium" that

the milk throws off her covering, her earthly appearance, and transforms herself into lightning

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which makes the people hide away: this would indicate the thunderstorm which follows the

Pravargya; Haug, following one of the suggestions of Sayana connects the pushing back of the

covering unconvincingly with the sky becoming clear after a thunder storm.

After this paper was largely finished, I found that Schmidt had correctly interpreted this verse as

a reference to this stage in the ritual: "Nun wird aber der Topf mit Milch gar nicht ans Feuer

gesetzt, sondern die Milch in den gluhend gemachten Topf gegossen, wodurch der

herausschiessende Blitz erzeugt wird ... Die Worte vidyud bhavanti schliessen es aus etwa an das

spatere Stadium der Zeremonie zo denken. ..." (1963: 16f.). In support, he referred to the later

ritual of the srautastitras (p. 16, n. 2), without, however, mentioning the difficulty pointed out in

the preceding footnote, viz., that these speak of steam rather than flames or a lightning-like

phenomenon arising from the pot.

(48.) The validity of three different categories of viewpoints in the interpretation of vedic verses

has been recognized from early times onwards. The brahmanas contain the earliest explicit

references to adhyatma interpretations, relating to the person; adhidaiva or adhidaivata

interpretations, applying to the deities and the cosmos; and adhiyajna interpretations, applying to

the ritual. Cf. Oldenberg 1919: 57f.; Houben 1997: 69.

(49.) Cf. Schaefer 1994: 192f.

(50.) That Witzel's conjecture aditya for a damaged text-part in KathA 2.104 must be correct is

apparent from the following sentences, up to imam llokams tejasavrnoti "covers these worlds

with light" (Witzel 1972: 40-42).

(51.) AiA 2.1.6, quoting and explaining 1.164.31 (or the identical 10.177.3?), does not give an

explicit identification of gopa, but probably the sun was thought of (the cardinal points are

mentioned in the interpretation: sa sadhricih sa visucir vasana iti sadhricis ca visucis ca vasta ima

eva disah).

(52.) According to Luders (1959: 613) the identical verse 10.177.3 definitely refers to the sun,

and the same interpretation would be possible in 1.164.31, as well, in spite of Geldner.

(53.) A difference in cosmological standpoint is directly referred to in this hymn in vs. 12;

different ways of representing a single object are referred to in vs. 46.

(54.) Five occurrences in total, three in book 10: 59.6, 90.13, and 189.2; two elsewhere: 1.66.1

and 3.53.21. In 1.164 it is absent.

(55.) Mayrhofer's "Existenz" (apart from "Leben" and "individuelle Existenz [auch nach dem

Tode]" [1992, s.v. asu]) is semantically not convincing for the RV (cf. this verse in 1.164, and

the compound asu-niti, where asu is clearly something more concrete).

(56.) Mayrhofer 1992, s.v. atman: "Hauch, Seele, Selbst." The reflexive use is already attested in

RV 9.113.1. There is no connection with the roots an 'to breathe' or av/va 'to blow', as supposed

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earlier (e.g., Grassmann 1875, s.v. atman), cf. Mayrhofer; Bodewitz 1991: 48. Nevertheless, on

account of its co-occurrence with vata 'wind', e.g., RV 1.34.7; 7.87.2; 10.168.4, it is likely that

rgvedic atman was associated with the meaning 'breath'.

(57.) sa a varivarti bhuvanesv antar apo vasanah ka u tac ciketa. Whitney's translation: "he rolls

greatly on among existences, clothing himself in the waters; who indeed understands that?"

(1905: 568).

(58.) The corresponding place in the rgvedic Aitareya Bruhmana, 1.19, says only that 10.177.1-2

and some other verses are "appropriate." The recitation of 10.177.3 = 1.164.31 is, in the Aitareya

tradition, postponed (but still applied within episode A2; AiB 1.19 end, and AsvSS 4.6.3). Cf.

also Gonda 1979: 238-40.

(59.) Luders, speaking of RV 10.177.3, thinks it definitely refers to the sun in the light of the

context of the small hymn 10.177, "[w]ie immer man sich hinsichtlich der Strophe in 1.164

entscheidet" (Luders 1959: 613). Renou (1967) thinks even vs. 31 in hymn 164 refers primarily

to the sun ("qui se cache dans les eaux celestes"), but leaves open a secondary prana-

interpretation. Elizarenkova (1989: 648) considers both a sun-interpretation, and a prana/wind-

interpretation possible.

(60.) Ghee was poured both in it and over it when it was installed at the "heating mound"

(pravrnjantya khara); cf. van Buitenen 1968: 71 10,72; 12,74 14. According to Baudhayana,

probably the oldest srautasutra of the Taittiriya tradition, and Bharadvaja and Vaikhanasa, the

pot is filled with ghee already when verse TA 4.5.2(8) ("whom the priests anoint. . . ") is

pronounced by the adhvarya (ApSS 15.7.5 and Caland's n. 2); according to ApSS the adhvaryu

anoints or fills the pot at this moment. According to Manava, ghee is poured into the pot at an

earlier moment (van Buitenen 1968: 72 [ss]12 n. 3). According to Katyayana the pot is already

filled with ghee when it is placed on the mound (van Buitenen 1968: 74 [ss]4 n. 1).

(61.) Gonda apparently applied Geldner's interpretation of 10.177 (as referring to "das innere

Licht der seherischen Erkenntnis und Erleuchtung im Herzen") at 1.164.31.

(62.) Thus, the gazing on the pot accompanied by mantras may be considered one of those

situations where the spectator was believed "to derive some advantage from looking on a mighty

being or event, to participate in its essences ..." (Gonda 1969: 55), even though Gonda did not

mention it as such. Also, the gazing while formulas are being pronounced may have been

considered effective in transmitting some potency to the pot, and conducive to receiving the

favor of that potency in return (cf. Gonda 1969: 52, on "reciprocity" in "man's relation to the

divine powers").

(63.) I hope to give my reasons for translating pastya as "(watery) abode" elsewhere, but I note

already that here it seems unlikely that the difference in gender in the cases of pastya f.--pastya

n. and a few other Vedic word-pairs (cf. Brereton 1981:94f note 45) does not imply some

difference in meaning or connotation (cf. varsa 'rainy season' and varsa 'rain'), even if we do not

succeed in appreciating and translating the difference in each case. Cf., further, Geldner ad loc.

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and his references to earlier discussions. Note that it is not necessary to make any emendation in

the transmitted text (as earlier scholars were wont to do).

(64.) For svadhabhjh, cf. Mayrhofer: "etwa Eigenheit, Eigenkraft, gewohnte Art, Wohnsitz"

(1996, s.v. svadha). To be rejected is an interpretation in which the word is associated with the

svadha exclamation in funeral ceremonies and with these ceremonies themselves (cf. Haug 1875-

criticized on this point by Roth 1892-and Renou's cautious proposal in this direction).

(65.) In our second variant of the adhiyajna interpretation of vs. 29c (above, [sections]3.2) the

word martya also stood for the pot: but there its complement was a "cow" which transformed

itself to lightning, and the episode in the ritual was quite different.

(66.) The classical Pravargya ritual has an "intiatory" character in the sense that its (yajurvedic)

mantras give and deal with, but also hide and protect, knowledge of man (prana and speech) and

the cosmos (sun, rain, also cosmic prana or wind). Cf., e.g., the introductory "peace-invocation":

"Adoration to speech, the spoken and the unspoken...," and the prayer in the avakasa mantras:

"confer on us speech, born of tapas and devoted to the gods." The "initiatory" character of the

Pravargya is further evident from, among other things, restrictions on teaching and performing

the Pravargya (e.g., SB 14.1.1.26, 14.2.2.46), its place in aranyaka sections (so with the Kathas

and Taittiriyakas and in the SB), the reference to an unidentified doctrine called madhu in

relation with the Pravargya (KathA 3.226; SB 14.1.l.18ff., 14.1.4.13). The "dramatic" fiery pillar

which arises when the milk is added to the heated pot perfectly suits the "initiatory" character of

the Pravargya (cf. Kaelber 1978).

(67.) Speech, one of the major themes of 1.164 according to Brown (1968), is explicitly referred

to (as vak) in vss. 10,37, and 45. In addition, there are numerous references to speech-related

concepts: seven voices (vs. 24), metres, metrical speech and chant (vss. 23-25), the verse, the

verse-"quarter" (patio) and the syllable (vss. 38, 41, 45), etc. In the light of 39 and 41, it could be

argued that also 40 and 42 participate in the "speech as a cow" metaphor.

(68.) Thus, the introductory "peace invocation" (the purva-santi) of the Taittiriya Pravargyn

mantras (TA 4.1) starts with: "Adoration to speech, the spoken and the unspoken, to this speech

be adoration." Much of what follows in this "peace invocation" is also relevant to the theme of

"speech." When the freshly baked pot is cooled down by pouring milk over it, two of the

formulas pronounced are "let speech flow over on you," and "flow over on speech" (TA

4.3.3[11]). "Speech Sarasvati" is further the seventh in a mixed list of breaths and vital powers to

which ghee oblations are offered when the Pravargyn pot is being put in place to be heated. Later

on, in the avakasa mantras (episode B), the heated pot is addressed in terms such as: "lord of all

speech," "father of hymns," "thought of the inspired poets." The same set of mantras also

comprises the prayer, "confer on us speech, born of tapas and devoted to the gods." In addition to

the explicit references to "speech," there are references to related concepts , such as metres and

metrical speech, e.g., in a set of formulas to be pronounced when the pot is being heated (episode

A), TA 4.6.1-2(1).

(69.) Cf. yathalokam (comm.: yathasthanam) avasthaya in ApSS 15.8.16.

61

(70.) Oldenberg (1896: 180) merely expresses his doubts about Henry's naturalistic interpretation

and suggests that the solution should be more "sakrifikal," but gives no hint as to the direction

such a ritualistic interpretation might take.

(71.) I will speak here of an "Avantaradiksa" also with regard to the time of the Rgveda, although

this term, as reference to the specific procedures connected with the study of the Pravargya

mantras, seems to have come into use only much later, after the time of the Satapatha Brahmana.

The idea (and heuristic hypothesis) is that something very similar to the Avantaradiksa is

apparently hinted at in verse 37 of 1.164.

(72.) More precisely, "on an uncultivated piece of land from which the roofs of village houses

cannot be seen" (khile 'cchadirdarse, BSS 9.19, ApSS 15.20.2).

(73.) The mantra, TA 4.20.3 (pratika) or TB 2.5.8 (3), equivalent to RV 10.73.11, does not speak

of the sun but of birds (seers, the Priyamedhas) going to Indra for protection, of the removing of

darkness and the filling of the eye (with light). According to ApSS 15.20.10, however, the verse

is recited in praise of the sun.

(74.) Here I assume that prathamaja rtasya refers primarily to a universal form of the god Agni,

Agni as "inner light," for which one may compare the hymn to Agni Vaisvanara RV 6.9, a short

hymn having stylistic and thematic resonances with 1.164. This Agni "belonging to all men"

resides in the heart (cf. RV 10.5.1) and is intimately related to the faculty of speech (vac), as

pointed out by Luders (1959: 628f.).

(75.) According to Baudhayana it is placed in a basket (khari) and covered with a black

antelope's hide and next hung in a sling in the northern part of the sacrificial hall (BSS 9.4).

(76.) According to BSS 9.4 it is hung "in such a way that the wife does not see it" (yatha patni na

pasyati tatha; VadhSS 13.3.23-24 similarly has asakase strinam).

(77.) The intended advent of the "inner" Agni Vaisvanara in the student is paralleled (confirmed

or triggered?) by the fire and sun which are pointed out to him during the Avantaradiksa, and

which burn or shine on the pot, whose ghee starts bubbling during the Pravargya.

(78.) On bhuyah (aorist optative) and syama (present optative) in a and b, cf. Gonda 1962: 172.

(79.) The important Taittiriya Baudhayana Srautasutra does not refer to the hotr's recitation of

1.164.40, and remains silent on the setting free of the cow (BSS 9.12). The same applies to

Manava, another branch of the Black Yajurveda (MSS 4.3).

(80.) For verses of AV 7.73 recited by the brahman during the milking and offering, see van

Buitenen 1968: 99, 105, 109-10; some verses of this hymn are recited by the hotr; cf. van

Buitenen 1968: 100, 113.

(81.) The association of 1.164.40 with the Agnihotra may hence be considered secondary.

62

(82.) A confirmation for locating l.164.40 earlier in the ritual can be found in AVPaip 20.11,

which contains many verses similar to AV(S) 7.73, but in a different sequence that often suits the

brahman's recitation better (cf. van Buitenen 1968: 99, note; Gonda 1979: 251f.). The verse

AVPaip 20.11.3 (corresponding to RV 1.164.40 and AV[S] 7.73.11) appears here immediately

after the verses which in the ritual accompany the calling of the cow and the introduction of the

calf (vss. 26-28 in RV 1.164), and immediately before a verse corresponding to RV 1.72.5,

which the hotr recites when the actual milking for the Gharma by the adhvaryu begins. Whatever

their originally intended sequence in perhaps initially separate liturgies (on which more in [ss]7),

if the sequence in the existing rgvedic and atharvavedic hymns has anything to do with a

sequence in performance, the verses were apparently (within certain limits) shifted back and

forth in different versions of the ritual.

(83.) Cf. Mayrhofer 1992, s.v. aghnya; Schmidt 1963; Narten 1971.

(84.) Otherwise, the fact that the redactors of the AV were not satisfied with gaurir and accepted

gaur in instead may point to a semantic shift in the animal word gaural gauri.

(85.) Oldenberg (1912) relates these numbers to the structure of the hymn 8.76, which consists of

triplets in the Gayatri metre, so 3 x 3 x 8 syllables. The eight feet would then, a bit unexpectedly,

correspond to eight syllables (rather than metrical "feet," i.e., lines or padas).

(86.) With van Buitenen (1959), it can be generally accepted that in the older period the

connotation "syllable" was always prominent in the term aksara, along with its analytical

meaning "nonflowing" or "imperishable."

(87.) The following interpretation of 41bc also stands only if "footstep" is accepted as meaning

of pada. However, Mayrhofer's brief rejection of "Statte, Ort" as a meaning of pada does not

convince me (Mayrhofer 1992, s.v. pada). Apart from Luders' argument on padam veh (1951:

303ff., contra Geidner) which presupposes pada 'footing, position', one may refer to RV 2.35.14

and 3.54.7, where this meaning is definitely to be accepted (at both places: pade form of stha). In

any case, neither a "Zusammenfliessen" of IE *pedo 'footstep' and *pedo 'footing' (considered

"unwahrscheinlich" by Mayrhofer), nor a semantic shift starting from *pedo 'footstep' can be

excluded.

(88.) Cf. figure 4a, where the column is about to expand.

(89.) Thus, Sayana explains navapadi: uparidigapeksaya suryena va navadigadhisthana.

(90.) An early exegesis of this verse in the JUB (1.10.1-2; cf. van Buitenen 1959: 180 [163])

suggests an interpretation of sahasraksara as "having a thousand imperishable or inexhaustible

(streams)," as this word is juxtaposed with ayutadhara.

(91.) The former was emphasized by van Buitenen (1959), the latter by Luders (1951: 284,

292f.); both are in my view applicable and "underpinned" by the ritual context and corresponding

63

adhiyajna interpretation of the preceding verses.

(92.) ya va ita ahutir udayate, sumuto vrstim cyavayati. svdyaivahutya divo vrstim ni nayati.

(93.) To vss. 34-35 we will return below, [ss]9.2.

(94.) Since ghr 'to sprinkle' is a productive root in the RV, an interpretation "whose back has

been ghrta, 'sprinkled' (with ghee)" must be deemed synchronically feasible. Etymologically,

ghrta 'ghee' may go back to an older Indo-European root ghr 'to be/become warm' (ghrta 'heated

[butter]'). Cf. Mayrhofer 1992, s.v. ghar and ghrta; Werba 1997, s.v. ghr.

(95.) The Rgveda is already familiar with three sacrificial fires, but it seems they are not

indicated by specific names, as in the srauta ritual, Garhapatya, Daksinagni, and Ahavaniya. The

word garhapatya occurs a few times in the Rgveda, but it is not likely that it anywhere refers

specifically to the "domestic fire altar," as Hillebrandt (1897: 14) suggests (cf., e.g., Grassmann,

s.v garhapatya).

(96.) The word ghrtasnu, which is similar in meaning, applies to even more objects apart from

Agni: to Indra's horses (3.41.9, 4.2.3), to a chariot (5.77.3), to Soma (9.86.45), to heaven and

earth (10.12.4).

(97.) The association of the heated Pravargya pot and Agni is quite explicit in the yajurvedic

Pravargya mantras, e.g., in the avakasa mantras: TA 4.7.1(3) sam agnir agninagata "Agni (the

pot) has come together with Agni (the sun)." Cf. also Krick, on Agni in the classical system of

Vedic sacrifices: "... Agni selbst als Gott--z.B. in seiner Dreigestalt als Agni, Vayu und Surya,

oder als mahavirah (entflammter gharma-Topf) im Pravargya-Ritual..." (1977: 94-95). The

phonological similarity between gharma and ghrta may be considered to strengthen further the

interpretation of ghrta prstha as referring to the gharma pot.

(98.) Nevertheless, if a relation is accepted between the sun and prana (cf. Bodewitz 1992) and

between the pot and prana, Sayana's wind-interpretation does not seem impossible either,

especially if we take into account that vs. 44 suggests that lightning forms the "hair" of the wind

(as the rays of the sun and the flames of fire form the hair of the sun and fire, respectively). In

the first part of 1.164 (vss. 1-22), there are, however, no clear references to either prana (but cf.

in vs. 4: asur and atma). References to the concept of prana (without using the word) start only in

vs. 30.

(99.) Hillebrandt argued against the interpretation of the middle brother as lightning (1927: 137)

and suggested (1913: 104) that the moon was referred to either as second or as first brother. The

other brother would be the sun. In the light of the insertion of a verse which clearly refers to the

moon (AV 9.10.9, cf. RV 10.55.5) in the atharvavedic version of RV 1.164, viz., AV 9.9-10, it is

not impossible that a reference to the moon was read into the first verse also at an early date.

(100.) This meaning is most clearly suggested in the formula namas te astu vidyute, nomas te

stanayitnave, namas te astv asmane, which occurs AVS 1.13; AVPaip 19.3.9 and 15.20.8; as well

as khila 4.4 of the RV.

64

(101.) This is the only textual support I can find for assuming a characterization of lightning as

"ravenous"; cf. the thunderstorm interpretation of 10.27.22 by Porzig (1925: 651f.). Although it

otherwise does not occur in the Rgveda, this characterization does not seem improbable for a

frightening and dangerous natural phenomenon like lightning. Haug (1875) found it an unlikely

epithet (and preferred a different interpretation of asna; see next note), but Deussen (1920) saw

no problem in characterizing lightning as "verzehrend."

(102.) Rather frequently occurring forms like asnoti, asnute, etc., are nowadays usually given

under the root nas (cf. Mayrhofer 1992-96, Lubotsky 1997, Werba 1997; still under as/ams in

Whitney 1885). Although this is diachronically quite justifiable it is not convincing from a

synchronic, rgvedic perspective: one should take into account that there was, at the time, a quite

productive root as to reach, attain' (distinct from as 'to eat'). Hence, one could also think of an

asna derived from this as 'to reach, attain', meaning, e.g., "pervasive" (as suggested in Sayana's

comments on our verse; interpretation: the wind) or "reaching out." The formation with suffix -

na immediately after the root, however, does not appear to be very productive in the rgvedic

period, so that asna in this meaning (preferred by Haug on the basis of Sayana's suggestion)

would seem a somewhat far-fetched formation of the poet.

(103.) RV 10.177 has not only apasyam in its last verse (= RV 1.164.31), but also pasyanti in the

first verse.

(104.) E.g., RV 1.18.9. 3.38.6, 8.59.6, 10.114.4; RV 10.183 has apasyam in vss. 1 and 2 (all three

verses of this hymn are optionally employed in the hotr's recitation during the fanning of the

pot).

(105.) It could be argued that we need not reflect on the imperfective aspect of apasyam, since a

corresponding aorist form nowhere occurs in the Rgveda. The verb is, of course, defective in the

classical grammar; from its complement, drs, several aorist forms do occur in the Rgveda. A

closely related root, viz., spas (with an old, Indo-European initial s-: cf. Avestan spasiia, Latin

specio) also occurs in the aorist (3d sg. middle, transitive): see RV 1.10.2b: bhury aspasta

kdrtvam, translated by Geidner as: "Als er...vieles, was noch zu tun, ersah..."

(106.) Cf: also Thieme: "Im Hauptsatz ist der Gebrauch augmentierter Formen des Aorists in den

weitaus meisten Fallen mit Sicherheit von solchen des Imperfekts zu scheiden [with note: vergl.

hauptsachlich Delbruck Altindische Tempuslehre' S. 1-100. Renou, Valeur du parfait S. 29ff.]:

der Aorist druckt aus, dass die Verbalhandlung soeben vollzogen oder eingetreten ist. Das

Imperfekt, dass die Verbalhandlung der femeren Vergangenheit angehort. (Ohne Rucksicht auf

Aktion oder Aspekt.)" (1929: 6f.).

(107.) More specifically, Hoffmann (1967: 153) attacks one of the examples given by Gonda,

namely 1.116. 17 (the daughter of the sun d atis that the chariot of the Asvins). which, indeed,

was not well chosen for demonstrating direct relevance of the present. But the rejection of this

example does not constitute a refutation of Gonda's theory of a general durative function for

Vedic imperfects (in 1.1 16.17 the comparative reference to the karsman of a horse race is not

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entirely clear; in 10.111.2 the addition tavisena ravena does indeed suggest a durative

connotation of ud atisthat: "mit kraftigen Brullen hat er sich aufgerichtet" [Geldner]).

(108.) Gonda 1962: 120ff.; e.g., RV 1.133.1, 3.29.14, 8.7.1, 8.46.27. Continuity is implied in RV

10.81.4. Other examples, e.g., RV 5.45.2, should rather have been left out. Gonda (1962)

neglected the value of the injunctive, which was clearly brought out for the first time by

Hoffmann (1967).

(109.) The aorist would be expected, according to the standard view as formulated, e.g., by

Delbruck: 'Das Imperfectum hat also nie eine Beziehung zur Gegenwart, wie sie bei dem Aorist

vorhanden ist" (1888: 279).

(110.) It would then be parallel to a case like asmavam in RV 10.88.15 where the poet has

"heard" of two paths of fathers, gods and men (Gonda 1962: 122f.; Geldner's translation, "horte

ich von den Vatern" is not likely). In 1.164, especially vs. 31, according to the proposed

interpretation, the connection with the present would be even stronger and more direct if the

visionary experience with regard to the heated pot recurs or is expected to recur during the

fanning and the watching and worshiping.

(111.) Cf., in connection with the Agnicayana: SB 6.1.1.1, "The Rishis, doubtless, were the vital

airs"; 8.6.1.5, "the Rishis, the first-born, doubtless, are the vital airs, for they are the first-born

Brahman" (Eggeling); also SB 7.2.3.5, 8.4.1.5, 9.2.1.13 (all in connection with the Agnicayana).

In SB 8.4.3.6 "singing praise with seven" is associated with seven vital airs, and with the creation

of seven seers (rsi). SB 8.6.3.22 speaks of "that thread (of the sacrifice) which has been spun out

by the Rishis"; cf. with this RV 1.164.5cd where the kavis stretch out seven threads. The rsis

were the first to construct the Agnicayana: SB 9.1.2.21, 9.2.1.13. RV 10.62.4, speaking of seers

who are sons of gods (devaputra rsayah, voc.), may be compared with rsayo devajah in

1.164.15b. For the seasons as forefathers and "Ur-Rsis," see Krick 1982: 40; for pitarah and

seven rsis, Krick 1982: 93.

(112.) Cf. the offerings to the seven pranas (van Buitenen 1968: 71, and TA 5.4.4), pranahutir

juhoti ... sapta juhoti, sapta vai sirsanyah pranah.

(113.) According to the principle that in a determination of the meaning of a rgvedic word the

semantic value appearing from its employment in the hymns should carry more weight than the

meaning arrived at through linguistic reconstruction (since, in any linguistic community, words

acquire specialized meanings which overrule the etymological one), one may profitably start a

discussion of the meaning of vidatha with the mature reflections of Geldner (1898)--unduly

neglected since Oldenberg (1900) and Thieme (1949)--who could refer to earlier discussions of

various scholars (Roth, Oldenberg, Ludwig, Bloomfield, Weber). Geldner, on the basis of a

balanced consideration of a great number of places and the earlier scholarly views, observes that

vidatha is a "social notion"; it is the "guild" and especially the "learned society" or "association

of the learned," and also the assembly of priests that have come together for the sake of the

sacrifice; it may also be used for the assembly of gods (Maruts) and occasiona lly--apparently

secondarily, on the basis of the "social notion"--for groups of things or notions. After this it is to

66

be realized that all these meanings can be associated quite naturally with a vidatha derived from

either of the two frequent roots vid: vid 'to know' and vid 'to find'. In ease of the former root, the

association of the specialized semantic complex to vidatha can be understood on the analogy of

German "Rat" which is both a 'piece of advice' and an 'assembly of people giving advice' (cf.

also Greek boule, Latin "consilium" and English "counsel"; the semantic history of the latter two

is complicated by the existence of "concilium" and "council"). In case of the latter root, vid 'to

find, meet', the derivative vidatha would basically mean "meet-ing." It will then be clear that in

either case there is no semantic discrepancy between attested and etymological meaning (taking

into account that the latter specialized in a natural way) which would justify a far-fetched

analysis of the word such as th e one proposed by Thieme (1949: 35ff.) or Kuiper (1974).

According to the former it would derive from vi-dha; but the "Hauchdissimilation" through

which vi-dh-atha should lead, according to Thieme (following the wrong lead of Bartholomae

1890:41), to vidatha takes place only within a root, not between root and suffix, cf. Prothatha.

According to Kuiper vidatha would derive from vi-dayate. In both Thieme's and Kuiper's

proposals the accent is on the wrong place--Kuiper (1979) tries to give an unconvincing ad hoc

solution to this problem which would not arise in the first place in the natural and regular

derivation of vidatha from either of the two common roots vid.

(114.) Cf. 10.114, where the first verse speaks of "two neighboring hot ones" (gharma) samanta),

and verse 3 of two birds (suparna) sitting down on a young woman with flour plaits (generally

taken as a reference to the Vedi with its four corners bent outwards; also the ritual connects this

verse with the Vedi). The two gharmas may here be the fire and the sun (the latter neighboring

the former when it shines on it).

(115.) Cf. the expression sura- visvacaksas- in 1.50.2; and further 1.50.7, 4.1.17, 4.13.3, 7.60.2-

3, 7.61.1; the sun as seer: 5.44.7, 1.160.1; shining or radiating over everything: 5.54.15; seeing

widely, the whole world: 10.37.8, 10.114.4.

(116.) [sqrt]ad 'to eat' is also said of fire "eating" or consuming the offering (havis, which often

consists of ghee).

(117.) For the "sweetness" of ghee, cf. 8.24.20 vacah ghrtat svadiyo madhunas ca vocata "present

the speech which is sweeter than ghee and honey." Also RV 3.1.8, 5.42.3, 9.67.11, 10.110.10.

(118.) While one of the two birds is in vs. 20 emphatically said to be "not eating" (anasnan), we

had a middle brother (bird) that was asna in verse 1. Without taking verses 20-22 into account we

arrived at the conclusion that asna might mean there "voracious" or "ravenous" (taking it as a

derivation from [sqrt]as 'to eat', and referring to asna in RV 1.173.2). Also our alternative for

[sqrt]as 'to eat' as the root underlying asna in 1, viz., [sqrt]as/nas 'to attain', occurs in 20-22 (22d:

nasat), where "reaching the top" is required for "eating the sweet fig."

(119.) If the "singing" (abhi-svar) is taken literally, it will refer primarily to the sound of the

flames of fire (as a theme frequently reflected in statements on Agni as priest, poet, or singer,

e.g., RV 1.1.1, 5.4.3, 6.3.6); perhaps the flames of the sun were also thought to make sound--

even though we do not hear it--on the analogy of the terrestrial fire (in ChandU 1.5.1, the sun

proceeds while making an om sound). The fact that words such as arka (in RV) and varna (from

67

the brahmanas on) are used of both auditory and visual experiences suggests that semantic

associations would have been relatively natural (cf. the discussion in Roesler [1997: 253ff.] on

the close connection between light and speech/thought). For the existence of a separate root svar

'to shine', there is no basis (Mayrhofer 1996, s.v. svar and ref.).

(120.) Cf. Haug (1875: 504ff.), according to whom "der richtige Sinn dieses etwas dunkeln

Verses" is to be found in a comparison with verse 50 of our hymn, which, however, repeats only

its fourth pada (as 50b); on p. 504 be thinks the dung is that of the bull that is cooked in pada c,

on p. 506 he speaks of "Kuhmist"; further, Bloomfield 1897: 533; Geldner 1951, ad loc.; Renou

1967: 88; Brown 1968 [1978], ad loc.

(121.) The word apasyam here expresses a "real"--rather than a visionary--perception, if the

verse is recited at the beginning of the regular performance, just as verses 1ff. and 30ff. are,

according to the structures found so far. Still, the reference to a performance of the ritual in a

primeval age in the last pada may imply a visionary element.

(122.) The hotr will have to enter through this door at the beginning of the regular performance,

according to SankhSS 5.9.4; also the prastotr enters here (cf. van Buitenen 1968: 45 n. 150).

(123.) Cf. verses 17 and 18 where para enavarena is used in connection with the sun at dawn and

seems to imply "just above the horizon."

(124.) Also in 5.47.3 the words uksan and prsni occur together; there they apparently refer to the

sun, as arusah suparnah 'ruddy bird' (in a hymn to the Visve Devas). Prsni is here, however,

adjective with asman 'stone', and hence refers to a "spotted stone" (i.e., the sun as a crystal or

diamond, cf. Geldner, ad loc.) Still, a cosmic interpretation of the verse in terms of gods (heroes)

who bring to maturity (pac) the young sun (uksan, which means, esp., a young bull; cf.

Mayrhofer: "Jungstier... der seine Zeugungs-fahigkeit noch nicht unter Beweis gesteilt hat"

[1992, s.v.])--and a parallel interpretation in which the student-initiate is brought to maturity by

his teacher and the gods--cannot be excluded. The smoke of stallion's dung is then a dark rain

cloud (at the advent of the rainy season, when the Pravargya was performed). The closest "fit"

seems to obtain in the ritual interpretation.

(125.) Some uneasiness arises from the use of atmanepada vapate, while in 6.6.4, as one expects,

the parasmaipada form is used: (the flames of Agni) ksam vapanti. Does one of the long-haired

ones "shave (the earth) for himself," or does he rather "shave himself" or is he shaved? The

classical solution can be roughly maintained by interpreting vapate as "shaves himself" and

assuming that Agni's act of shaving involves a strewing (in Vedic also [sqrt]vap!) around of hair,

i.e., flames. Cf. Mayrhofer's remarks and references (1996, s.v. [vap.sup.2]) regarding the

semantics of "shaving" [less than] "strewing or scattering away hair."

(126.) Although a sacrifice (yajna) is frequently a bigger event than a single offering, the

offering to the Asvins (and the most typical offering to the Asvins is the simple Gharma offering)

is also called yajna e.g., 5.77.1.

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(127.) The identity of 50b and 43d suggests some connection or link between the two. There is

no reason to assume that the verse is more at its place in 10.90. Bloomfield (1916: 151) considers

it secondary there.

(128.) Cf. van Nooten and Holland (1994: 577, 593f.) for the general metrical properties of

mandala I and for metrical notes on 1.164.

(129.) Oldenberg regards the combination of tristubh and jagati padas as significative of a certain

sloppiness in the practice of later authors. He further thinks that it would be wrong to try to

discover underlying rules or a striving for symmetry in the variation between entire jagati and

tristubh verses, apart from the variations that mark the beginning or end of a hymn (Oldenberg

1888: 148-50).

(130.) Cf., further, the metrical notes in van Nooten and Holland 1994: 594.

(131.) Just as authors of the srautasutras have "abstracted" the description of the simple animal

sacrifice (nirudha-pasubandha) from the complex Some sacrifice which comprises some animal

sacrifices; cf. Weber 1868: 346f.

(132.) The association of the classical Pravargya with stories about severed heads of gods, seers,

and horses would also become understandable in the light of the heads to be placed in the first

layer of the fire altar; cf. the Pravargya brahmana told in different versions in SB 14.1.1, KathA,

TA 5.1; and the legend of Dadhyaric and the Asvins (see [sections]9.3); cf. also Heesterman

1985; 1993: 71-75.

(133.) On this view, the difficulty and obscurity of the hymn is not so much a matter of our lack

of background information--information on account of which the early authors and public would

have regarded the statements as rather transparent (Brown 1968: 199 [1978: 53]), nor of a

conscious effort directly aiming at obscurity (Thompson 1997: 35). Rather, the attempt to

express the inner connection of things forced the poets and thinkers to use a special language,

which unavoidably created a distinction between those who understand it and those who do not.

In the words of Porzig: "Seit es Sprache gibt, gibt es auch die beiden Strebungen des Geistes:

eine Welt zu haben rein als Tatsachlichkeit und eine Welt zu wissen als durchsichtiges System.

Die Welt als System zu setzen war stets bewusste Tat, sie schuf eine Schranke zwischen

Wissenden und Nichtwissenden, sie brachte die Notwendigkeit der Einweihung" (1925: 656).

(134.) To these terms mentioned in 46ab, pada c adds Agni (second time), Yama, and

Matarisvan.

(135.) Whether we regard it as fully or partly correct or incorrect from a modem point of view is,

of course, irrelevant to our appreciation of the theoretical attitude apparently underlying the

statement.

(136.) Cf. Frauwallner (1953: 48ff.) on this doctrine, as basically a doctrine of the cycle of water.

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(137.) Here is Hume's translation of paragraphs 1 and 15 (with minor adaptations, with some

Sanskrit words inserted, and following the Madhyandina recension): "1. This earth is honey

(madhu) for all creatures (bhutanam), and all creatures are honey (madhu) for this earth. This

shining (tejomaya), immortal (amrtamaya) Person who is in this earth, and, with reference to

oneself (adhyatmam) this shining, immortal Person who is in the body--he, indeed, is just this

Soul (atman), this Immortal, this Brahma, this All."

"15. Verily, this Soul (atman) is the overlord of all creatures, the king of all creatures. As all

spokes (ara) are held together in the hub and felly of a wheel (rathanabhau ca rathanemau), just

so in this Soul all breaths (prana), all worlds, all gods, all creatures, all these selves are held

together."

Paragraph 18, on the person (purusa) living in citadels, may be compared with SB 9.2.3.44, on

seven logs (identified as pranas) for the fire altar (Agni), seven tongues of fire (identified as

seven persons who are made into one), and seven seers (rsis).

(138.) Geldner takes sanaye with avis krnomi ("kunde ich, um belohnt zu werden, an"), but its

place would speak in favor of taking it with the Asvin's formidable deed, as also Sankara does in

his comments on BAU 2.5.16.

(139.) The gap between the two comes out clearly in the formulation of Jog and Hino: "The

Asvin-legend was narrated in the portion of Pravargya (Pravargyakanda), because performance

of the Pravargya rite was needed for the restoration of the head of the sacrifice and madhu forms

a part of this Pravargya rite. In connection with the Pravargya rite, madhu means a pot of boiled

milk and ghee. And when it is connected with the Asvin-legend madhu means 'the sweet doctrine

of the Pravargya"' (1988:xxii). Though this is not clear from Jog's and Hino's remarks, Sankara

does suggest a basic continuity of the ritual and the "philosophical" madhu when he writes: yavat

tu pravargyakarmangabhutam madhu tavad eva tatra (i.e., in the Pravargya section) abhihitam, na

tu kaksyam atmajnanakhyam.

(140.) Implications for our understanding of rgvedic initiation will be discussed in "The

Avantaradiksa, or Rudimentary Initiation of the Pravargya" (Houben, forthcoming a).

(141.) It is difficult to say whether this also affected the interpretation of other verses, e.g., those

for which modem interpreters have proposed the moon as intended referent: cf. RV 1.164.20,

which deals with the sun and moon according to Hillebrandt (1913: 105), and with the waxing

and waning moon according to Thieme (1949: 60); of the three long-haired ones in RV l.164.44

the second is the moon, according to Porzig (1925: 649), while the first (the "shaving" one) is the

moon, according to Hillebrandt (1927: 397 n. l).

(142.) Cf. Witzel 1997: 289-92.

(143.) While the great epics Mahabharata and Ramayana discuss some of the ritual aspects of the

Asvamedha in detail, references to the Pravargya are very shallow; the duty to perform it is

heavily emphasized without a hint at its possible significance, importance, or secrecy. Cf. the

Asvamedhika section of the Mahabharata (14.90.20, crit. ed.): "the knowers of the law (and) best

70

of the brahmins properly (yathavat) performed the Pravargya, and likewise these brahmins

proceeded according to the prescriptions (vidhivat), o king, with the pressing (of the Soma)"; and

Ramayana, Balakanda (13.4, crit. ed.): "After they had performed the Pravargya and the Upasad,

according to the texts (sastratah), the brahmins proceeded, according to the prescriptions

(vidhivat), with all additional rites, according to the texts (sastratah)." Had the Pravargya already

become a hollow construct when these epics were composed?

(144.) "Dieser gewaltiger Hymnus steht an der Spitze der ganzen Entwicklung der indischen

Philosophie ..." (Deussen 1920: 105).

(145.) It is well known that Plato and Socrates had a low opinion of writing as a means to

transmit philosophical thought (Phaedrus 274C-275B). According to an anecdote recounted by

Alberuni, Socrates, when asked why he did not compose books, replied: "I do not transfer

knowledge from the living hearts of men to the dead hides of sheep" (Sachau 1888: 170). This

indicates that topics similar to those which Socrates discussed were at that time already being

dealt with in writing.

ABBREVIATIONS

AiA: Aitareya-Aranyaka, ed. and tr. A. B. Keith (Oxford, 1909).

AiB: Aitareya-Brahmana, ed. Th. Aufrecht (Bonn, 1879); tr. A. B. Keith (Cambridge, Mass.,

1920).

ApSS: Apastamba-Srauta-Sutra, ed. Garbe (Bibliotheca Indica, 1882-1902); tr. Caland

(Gottingen 1921, Amsterdam 1924-1928).

AsvSS: Asvalayana-Srauta-Sutra, ed. R. Vidyaratna (Calcutta, 1864; repr. Calcutta, 1989); tr. K.

Mylius (Wichtrach [Switz.], 1994).

AV or AV(S): Athavaveda, Saunakiya version, ed. Roth, Whitney and Lindenau (Berlin, 1924);

tr. Whitney (Cambridge, Mass,, 1905).

AVPaip: Paippalada-Samhita of the AV, books 1-15, ed. D. Bhattacharya (Calcutta, 1997);

books 19-20, ed. Leroy Carr Barret (New Haven, Conn., 1940).

AVPar: Atharvaveda-Parisista, ed. Bolling and von Negelein; rev. Ram Kumar Rai (Varanasi,

1976).

BAU: Brhad-Aranyaka-Upanisad. in Eighteen Principal Upanisads, ed. V. P. Limaye and R. D.

Vadekar (Poona, 1958).

BrhadD: Brhad-Devata, ed. and tr. A. A. Macdonell (Cambridge, Mass., 1904).

BSS: Baudhayana-Srauta-Sutra, ed. W. Caland (Calcutta, 1904-23).

71

ChandU: Chandogya-Upanisad, in Eighteen Principal Upanisads, ed. V. P. Limaye and R. D.

Vadekar (Poona, 1958).

JUB: Jaiminiya-Upanisad-Brahmana, ed. and tr. H. Oertel (JAOS 16 [1896]).

KathA: Katha-Aranyaka, ed. and tr. M. Witzel, 1972.

KausikaS: Kausika-Sutra, with Darila-Bhasya, ed. H. R. Diwekar et al. (Ponna, 1972); with

Kesava's Kausika-Paddhati, ed. V.P. Limaye et al. (Poona, 1982).

KausU: Kausitaki-Upanisad, in Eighteen Principal Upanisads, ed. V. P. Limaye and R. D.

Vadekar (Poona, 1958).

KB: Kausitaki-Brahmana, ed. B. Lindner (Jena, 1887); tr. A. B. Keith (Cambridge, Mass., 1920).

KSS: Katyayana-Srauta-Sutra, with Saralavrtti of Vidyadharasarman (Kasi, 1930; second ed.,

Delhi, 1990).

MS: Maitrayaniya-Samhita, ed. L. von Schroeder (Leipzig, 1881-86).

MSS: Manava-Srauta-Sutra, ed. and tr. J. M. van Gelder (New Delhi, 1961-63).

Nir: Nirukta, ed. and tr. L. Sarup (London and Lahore, 1920-27).

RV: Rgveda-Samhita, with Sayana's comm. (4 vols.), 2nd ed. (Poona, 1972-84; incl. khilas in

vol. 4); ed. B. van Nooten and G. Holland (Cambridge, Mass., 1994); tr. Geidner (Cambridge,

Mass., 1951).

Rgvidh: Rgvidhana, ed. M. S. Bhat (Delhi, 1987).

SB: Satapatha-Brahmana (Madhyandina), ed. Weber (London, 1855); tr. J. Eggeling (Oxford,

1882-1900).

SankhSS: Sankhayana-Srauta-Sutra, ed. Hillebrandt (Calcutta, 1888); tr. Caland (ed. Raghu

Vira) (Nagpur, 1953).

TA: Taittiriya-Aranyaka, ed. Rajendralal Mitra (Calcutta, 1872); [book 5 translated in Houben

1991].

VadhSS: Vadhula-Srauta-Sutra, ed. B. B. Chaubey Hoshiarpur, 1993).

VS: Vajasaneyi-Samhita (Madhyandina), ed. A. Weber (London, 1852).

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TABLE 2

Correspondences between the first day-

night-day of the Avantaradiksa and the

procedures relating to the Pravargya pot

and heating (RV 1.164.37)

verse 37 Avantaradiksa, first day-night-day

ninyah study outside the village

samnaddhah student is blindfolded

-- student should not lie down

firstborn comes student receives "inspiration"

speech comes student is allowed to speak (recite)

verse 37 preparation of pot and heating

79

ninyah prepared out of sight

samnaddhah pot is wrapped in antelope's skin

-- enveloped pot is hung in sling

firstborn comes pot receives "life"

speech comes ghee in pot makes bubbling sound

TABLE 1

Major episodes of the Pravargya according to the srautasutras

A. Installing, heating and worshiping the pot. This episode may be subdivided into three:

A1: The Pravargya pot is placed on a special mound (pravrnjaniya-khara), north of the

Garhapatya, where it is filled and anointed with ghee, and surrounded with burning coals and

fuel sticks. The adhvaryu and two acolytes (the pratiprashatr and agnidh) circumambulate and

fan the fire, and sit down beside it.

A2: They sit around the fire and fan it while the hotr recites the verses, which include RV

10.177.3 = RV l.164.31 (the adhvaryu and his acolytes join in the om which concludes each

verse).

A3: When the pot is fully heated, all priests and the sacrificer stand up and reverently watch the

pot, reciting the avakasa mantras. These mantras include RV 1.164.31.

B. The adhvaryu and pratiprasthatr set out to milk the cow and the goat. The adhvaryu goes to

the door and calls the cow. The hotr recites RV 1.164.26, and, when the cow comes, RV

1.164.27. The adhvaryu and hotr together recite RV 1.164.49. When the cow's calf is led away

the hotr recites RV 1.164.28. The adhvaryu milks the cow to the accompaniment of recitations

by the hotr. The goat is milked without mantras.

C. Some cow's and goat's milk is poured into the heated pot full of boiling ghee, from which a

pillar of fire and flames arises. Formulas and recitations accompany this.

D. When the pot is somewhat cooled down, it is brought to the Ahavaniya, where an offering to

Indra and to the Asvins is made into the fire from the (still quite hot) pot. Next, the pot is filled

with curds, and this is offered into the Ahavaniya fire. After an Agnihotra offering, the priests

and the sacrificer partake of the remnants.

P. Preparatory procedures, preceding the first Pravargya performance:

P1: clay and other ingredients are fetched from previously prepared spots;

P2: the Gharma/Pravargya pot and two spare ones are prepared from the clay and ingredients;

P3: the implements are fumigated in smoke of burning horse dung, baked in a special pit, and

finally

80

suspended in a special place till the first performance.

R. Procedure of removal, taking place immediately after the last Pravargya performance: in a

solemn procession the implements are brought from the sacrificial shed where the Pravargya

performances took place (pracinavamsa) to the place of disposal, usually the Uttaravedi.

APPENDIX: Rgveda 1.164

The translations of the verses offered here are in no way intended to be definitive: nor are the

suggested interpretations to be taken as exclusive of alternative ones. Rather, the translations and

suggestions should point out how the verses can function in a certain ritual context, viz., that of

the Pravargya, connected with a horse sacrifice, referring back to the initiatory period called

"Avantaradiksa" of the Veda student. (My interpretative suggestions are inserted in parentheses.)

SUMMARY OF STRUCTURE

(A, B, and C refer to the episodes of the regular Pravargya performance, Table 1)

I(A) 1-22: context: fanning/heating of the Pravaxgyapot vision at the fanning/heating of the

Pravargyapot; reflections and speculations connected with Pravargya in sun-interpretation 23-25:

extra speculations on sacred speech: meters and samans and their cosmic and ritual capacities

(cf. position and contents of TA 4.6.1-2[1])

(B) 26-28: context: inviting, milking the cow

(C) 29: context: adding milk to the heated pot, fiery pillar arises; thunderstorm, lightning are

hinted at.

II (A) 30-39: context: fanning/heating of the Pravargya-pot;vision concerning the heated pot;

reflections and speculations connected with Pravargya and "prana"-life-speech-interpretation

(B) 40-41: context: inviting, milking the cow

(C) 4lbcd, 42: context: adding milk to the heated pot, fiery pillar arises; raingiving cloud is

hinted at.

III (A) 43-48: context: fanning/heating of the Pravargyapot; vision concerning the heating of the

pot; reflections and speculations connected with Pravargya in sun-interpretation, and speech.

(B) 49: context: inviting, milking the cow (Sarasvati)

(C) 50-52: arising of fiery pillar and cloud to heaven (? 50); relation between rain and sacrificial

fires; sun (Sarasvat) as giver of rain.

TRANSLATION

81

I(A)

1. This dear, aged priest (Agni as the sun) has a ravenous middle brother (lightning); his third

brother (terrestrial fire, esp. the Gharma pot) has ghee on his back. In this one I saw the lord of

the communities (the sun as organizer of cosmos and ritual) with seven sons (seven priest-seers).

2. Seven (priest-seers) yoke (employ in their sacrifice) the one-wheeled chariot (the sun as the

year); one horse (the sun) with seven names draws it.

Triple-naved, age-less, unstoppable is the wheel (the year) on which all creatures stand.

3. The seven (priests) that are standing on the chariot, as seven horses they draw it as a seven-

wheeled chariot (sacrificial time, deriving from cosmic time; a seven-fold ritual cycle?).

Seven sisters (seven voices, tones), in whom the seven names of the cows are deposited,

collectively sing songs of praise.

Note: Verse 3ab amounts to an apparent paradox which one need not avoid in one's translation

(as Geldner and others do): the paradox forces one to reflect on a different way to understand the

statement. The priests embark on an elaborate (year-long) sacrifice, they are carried forth by it

but are also the ones who make it proceed.

4. Who has seen (i.e.: no mortal can ever have seen it!; or perhaps: only someone with

extraordinary vision, cf. 18) the first one having bones (man, but also, adhiyajna, the pot) being

born when the bone-less one (the earth, clay for the pot) bore him? Where, then, was the spirit

(asu), the blood (asrj), the breath (atman) of the earth? Who can approach a knower to ask this?

5. Immature I ask in my mind, not knowing, about the hidden locations of the gods. Over the

grown-up calf (vatsa, also: the pot about to be set aglow) the inspired poets (kavi) have stretched

seven threads, in order to weave (on these).

6. Not (yet) perceiving (acikitvan, also the pot: not yet shining) I ask those here who perceive (I

shine); not knowing (I ask), in order to know it:

What is the One in the form of the unborn who propped apart these six regions? (Cf. 10 and 14).

7. He should tell it here who knows it properly: the hidden location of this beloved bird (the sun).

From the head of him (the sun) the cows (clouds) milk (rain); enveloping themselves in clothing

(water vapor) they drunk the water through the foot (through the sun beams on the earth).

8. The mother (dawn, mother of the young sun; earth, mother of the pot) gave the father (heaven)

a share, in accordance with the truthful order; for in the beginning she united with him through

her insight and thought. Recoiling, she was pierced and got the sap (or seed) in her womb.

Reverent (worshipers) approached to bring praise.

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9. The mother (also: the cow employed in the Pravargya ritual) was yoked to the chariot pole of

the Daksina (sacrificial fee, hence: sacrifice; cf. RV 1.123.1, 5); its child (also: the Pravargya

pot) was standing in the enclosures.

The calf lowed after the cow--and noticed the glittering (fem.) (viz., cow; also: ghee) among the

three teams (of priests / songs-recitations-formulas).

10. The One, carrying three mothers and three fathers, is standing upright; in no way do they

weary him. At the back of yonder heaven they (the knowing/perceiving ones?) pronounce the

speech which possesses all but does not inspire all.

11. With twelve spokes--for it does not become old--the wheel of the truthful order (the Sun as

year) turns on and on around the sky. Sons, in pairs, o Agni, seven hundred and twenty (360 days

and 360 nights), are standing on it.

12. The father (sun as year) with five feet and twelve shapes, the affluent, they say, is in the

upper half of heaven. But these others say that the wide-seeing one (the sun) is in the lower (half

of heaven), fixed in the seven-wheeled, six-spoked chariot.

Note: the propounders of various, sometimes quite divergent, theories are referred to, here (12a,

12d) and in several of the subsequent verses (15a, 16a, 19ab, 22c).

13. On this five-spoked wheel as it revolves all creatures/worlds have their support.

Its axle, carrying a heavy load, does not get heated. Never at all does it wear out in its nave.

14. The wheel and its felly, unaging, has turned around; ten yoked (horses) draw it over the

stretched out (heaven?). The eye of Surya (the sun) proceeds covered in a haze. On it are fixed

all creatures / worlds.

15. The seventh of those born together, they say, is born alone. Six form pairs (3 x 2). They are

regarded as seers born from the gods. Those desired by these (the days and nights) are arranged

in order; to the one who stands (on the chariot) those who are alternating their form (days and

nights) are trembling.

16. Though they (the seasons) are (according to their generative nature?) females they tell me

they are males (as their names are masculine?). The one having eyes will see, the blind one will

not perceive it. The poet who is a son has perceived him. He who will know these (females) will

be his father's father.

17. Below the higher one and above the lower one (i.e., just above the horizon), the cow (dawn)

has stood up, bringing a calf (the young sun) with her foot. (Or: cow = jet of milk, foot is lower

part which enters the Gharma pot/calf.) Where, to what side did she go away? Where did she

give birth? For she is not in the herd. (Just as the cow set apart for the Pravargya--the cow not for

slaughter--is not in the herd.)

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18. "Below the higher one," he who knows accordingly its (the calf's) father; "above the lower

one," showing himself to be a true inspired poet (kavi)--who (is that one who) can declare here

whence the divine mind (in the Gharma pot brought to life, in the participant receiving

inspiration) has sprung forth?

19. They say that those (the seasons) that are directed hither-wards (that are coming) are the

same as those directed thitherwards (that are going), and that those that are directed thitherwards

are the same as those directed hither-wards (cf. SB 8.5.2.10).

The things (days and nights) which Indra and you, o Soma, have created, (these things) are

drawing (the atmosphere, from light to darkness to light etc.?) as if yoked to the chariot pole of

the atmosphere.

20. Two birds (sun and Gharma pot), companions and friends, embrace a common tree. One of

the two eats the sweet fig (the "light of life and inspiration"). The other one looks on without

eating.

21. Here, where birds, in congregation, vigilantly sing of their share in immortalimty, the lord of

the entire world, the herdsman, the sage, entered me (Gharma pot / Veda-student in

Avantaradiksa), the immature one.

22. The tree in which birds eating honey alt nestle and breed--in its top, they say, is the sweet fig;

he who does not know the father does not reach it.

23. That the Gayatri (line) is based on the Gayatri (hymn) [smaller on the larger unit, rather than

the other way round], and that the Tristubh (line) is fashioned out of the Tristubh (hymn), and

that the Jagati (line) is based on the Jagati (hymn): only those who know this have attained

immortality.

24. According to the Gayatri line (/ hymn?) one makes the song of praise (from smaller to larger

unit); according to the song of praise a chant, according to the Tristubh line the recitation.

According to the two- and four-lined recitation (one makes again a larger) recitation; according

to the syllable they make the seven voices (or tones).

25. With the Jagat (Saman, melody) he established the river in heaven; in the Rathantara

(melody) he had a complete vision of the sun; there are three kindling sticks to the Gayatra

(melody), they say. (Nevertheless the Gayatra) goes far beyond the (other) two (tatas is rarely or

nowhere "therefore" in the RV) in its greatness.

I (B)

26. I call hither this cow easy to milk; and a dexterous milker shall milk her. May Savitr incite us

with a perfect incitement. The Gharma (pot) is heated: this I hereby announce.

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27. Making a hin-sound, longing for the calf in her mind, the mistress of riches has come near.

Let this (cow which is) not for slaughter give milk for the two Asvins; let her prosper for great

happiness.

28. The cow has towed after the calf which blinks its eye; she was making a hin-sound to begin

lowing. Yearning for the hot mouth (of the calf; ideally that of the heated Gharma pot), she lows

her lowing, swells with milk.

I(C)

(29.) This one is humming, by which the cow (the milk) is enveloped. She (the milk) lows a

lowing (when she is) placed on the sparkling (fire). With her cracklings she has indeed put down

the mortal. Transforming herself to lightning (vidyut), she pushed back her covering (the pot).

II (A)

30. Breathing, life is resting (yet) quickly moving, trembling (yet) stable, in the midst of its

(watery) abode (adhiyajna: in the boiling ghee). The living one moves about according to the

specific capacities of the dead (material body--adhiyajna: the pot--which is dead without the life-

principle); (he, life, prana, is) immortal, having a common birthplace with the mortal (the pot

having now "life" in it but which will again become life-less after the ceremony).

31. I saw the herdsman (Sun / prana), never taking rest, wandering hither and thither on his

pathways. Enveloping himself in those (waters, currents of boiling ghee) that converge, in those

that spread out, he moves around and around in the worlds / creatures.

32. He who made it (breath, a single breathing) does not know it; he who perceived it, from him

it has disappeared; enveloped in its mother's womb, it entered destruction, while being rich in

progeny.

33. Heaven is my father, the genitor; here is my kinship. My relative and mother is this wide

earth. My womb is in between the two outstretched receptacles (heaven and earth). Here the

father placed his daughter's embryo (in her).

34. I ask you about the farthest end of the earth; I ask where is the navel of the world; I ask about

the seed of the potent stallion; I ask about the final abode of speech.

35. This altar is the farthest end of the earth; this sacrifice is the navel of the world; this Soma is

the seed of the potent stallion; this Brahman (priest) here is the final abode of speech.

36. The seven (primeval seers who are) children of the (two cosmic) halves (heaven and earth)

(just as the initiate, cf. 33) are intent on expanding (vidharmani as inf. with Geldner) the seed of

the world at Visnu's command. Through their thoughts and mind, they, the wise ones, are

surpassers that surpass (everything) on all sides.

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37. I (Gharma pot / Veda student in Avantaradiksa) do not know just what (what kind of thing) it

is that I am; concealed, bound (blindfolded), I wander in my mind. When the firstborn of the

truthful order (Agni) has come to me, I immediately obtain a share of this speech.

38. He (the living one, jiva prana in the boiling ghee) recedes and goes forward, held fast by (his

or the pot's) own capacity, immortal, having a common birthplace (the fire) with the mortal (the

"enlivened" clay pot). These two (the mortal, the clay pot; and the immortal, the life-breath) are

always going apart, in separate directions. Although people see the one (the clay pot), they do

not (normally) see the other (the living one, jiva, prana).

39. The imperishable syllable of the verse of praise, the final abode where all the gods are

residing--he who does not know it, what will he do with the verse of praise? Only those who

know it are sitting here together.

II (B)

40. May you, enjoying good pasturage, become happy; and we too should like to be happy. Eat

always grass, o (you cow that are) not for slaughter; drink pure water, coming hither.

II (B/C)

41. The cream-colored [cow] has lowed, making floods (of milk); one-footed, two-footed, she

[has become] four-footed; having become eight- and nine-footed, she is thousand-syllabled in the

final abode.

II (C)

42. From her the oceans flow in all directions, by this the four quarters of space are living;

thereupon flows the syllable (I the imperishable or non-flowing); on it the whole world subsists,

III (A)

43. From afar I saw the smoke of dung (for fumigating the freshly formed Gharma pot just

before baking it), in the middle, above this lower one (i.e., at the Garhapatya). The heroes cooked

the spotted bull (the milk-and-ghee mixture in the Gharma-pot). These were the first regulations.

44. Three long-haired ones show themselves in due season; during the year one of them (fire,

with flames as hair) shaves (himself, strewing his hair/flames all around); one (the sun, with rays

as hair) surveys everything by means of his powers; of one (the wind, with lightning as hair) the

rushing is seen but not his form.

45. Speech is measured in four quarters (pada). The Brahmins that are wise know these (four

quarters). Three (quarters), placed in secret, (ordinary) men do not stir (employ effectively in the

ritual): (only) one quarter of speech they speak.

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46. Indra, Mitra, Varuna, Agni they call it; and then it is the heavenly bird Garutman.

One reality that is--the inspired priests speak of it as many; they call it Agni, Yama, Matarisvan.

47. The yellow birds (sun rays/flames), enveloping themselves in the (evaporated) waters, fly up

along the dark path to the sky (sun rays return to heaven by night/flames ascend through smoke).

(And then) these (rays) have returned from the seat of the truthful order (heaven), Forthwith the

earth is in all directions moistened with ghee (i.e., prosperity).

48. The felly-pieces are twelve, the wheel (year) is one, the nave-pieces three; who has

understood this? On it are placed, as it were, 360 pegs that do not wobble.

III (B)

49. This everflowing teat of yours (o cow), refreshing, with which you make all valuable things

thrive, which gives treasures, finds wealth, is liberal--Sarasvati, make this (teat) ready for

suckling (by the calf, to get prepared for the milking for the Gharma).

III (C)

50. With the sacrifice the gods sacrified to the sacrifice: these were the first regulations. These

greatnesses reached up to the vault of heaven, where the ancient Sadhyas reside as gods.

51. This water, being the very same, goes up and downward, day by day. The rains are urging on

the earth, and heav'n is urged on by the fires.

52. The great heavenly well-winged bird, the beautiful embryo of the waters, of the herbs,

bringing satisfaction straight to (us) through rains, Sarasvat I invoke for furtherance.

Note 1: Incidental reference to Pravargya episode D (offering to Asvins) in 27c; to preparatory

procedures (P) in 4, 43ab; to Avantaradiksa in 37.

Note 2: The yajurvedic avakasa mantras (e.g., TA 4.7; KathA 2.101i-1 15; VS 37.14-20) share

one stanza with RV 1.164 (viz., 31), and are thematically closely parallel to the A-parts of cycles

I-III.

The yajurvedic milking mantras are parallel to the B-parts of cycles I-III (several mantras are

identical).

The yajurvedic mantra svaha tva suryasya rasmaye vrstiva-naye juhomi "svaha ! I offer you (the

milk) to the rain-winning beam of light (the beam of light which wins rain for the worshiper)!"

(TA 4.8.4[16]) is parallel to the C-parts of cycles I-III.

http://www.academicroom.com/article/ritual-pragmatics-vedic-hymn%3A-%22riddle-hymn%22-

and-pravargya-ritual

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Transmutation Ancient Indian Concepts and Practices

B. V. Subbarayappa (1995)

The early concept of transmutation had perceivably two facets : one of converting the base

metals into gold of ever-lasting glitter, and the other of transforming the transient human body

into one of permanence with the soul. The Bhagavadgita says: ". . . The soul has neither birth nor

death; it is not slain when the body is slain; it is eternally the same. . . just as a person puts on

new garments, giving up the old ones, the soul similarly accepts new material body, giving up

the old and decaying ones".

The exalted imperishable status accorded, over the ages, to the soul in the percipience of body-

soul relationship had in it the seeds of challenge to make the material mortal body itself

immortal. The responses to this challenge, which were varied in different cultures, were often

associated with a shroud of mystery. It took some time for the human mind to cast off the

esoteric envelope and, as a first step, to conceive of rejuvenation, thus extending the longevity of

the material body, but within the concept that the body has birth and death in contradiction to the

soul.

In India, the beginnings of such endeavours can be seen in the Rigveda wherein Somarasa was

extolled as an exhilarating divine elixir. Later in the Ayurvedic classic, Susruta Samhita, Soma

elixir, it was claimed, would enable its consumer to live for ten thousand years with a youthful

body and supernatural powers. The Ayurveda, the Science of Life par excellence, has eight

divisions and one of them is entitled Rasayana, concerned with rejuvenating elixirs and processes

for arresting physical and mental decay. There are references in both the Caraka and Susruta

Samhitas to several other compositions with the claim that they would confer on the consumer a

long youthful life of thousands of years. These elixirs were mostly herbal and, what is more,

certain amount of processed gold was added to some of them to make them more effective. The

rasayana of the Ayurveda, it may be noted, was more in the nature of prolonging the life of the

material body than ‘transmuting’ it into an immortal state. Even so, it seemed to have paved the

way for speculating on the immortality of the body.

The concept of material immortality per se received its sustenance from a natural phenomenon,

namely, the perennial glitter and colour of gold, the anointed king of metals. Here was a metal, it

was believed, which had reached the highest state from the other inferior metals and possessed

imperishable characteristics. It was supposed that the other metals would undergo

transformation, eventually into the immutable gold.

The Four 'Elements' of Empedocles

There was a sort of theoretical framework too for such a supposition. The well-known Greek

thinker, Empedocles (5th century b.c.) developed a theory of four ‘elements’: Earth, Fire, Water

and Air and the four primary qualities: hot, cold, dry and moist (wet). Aristotle (384-322 b.c.)

conceived of these ‘elements’ and their qualities as emphasising the unity of matter amidst all the

changes. The ‘primary matter’, a potential one, would become Earth with the pair of primary

qualities, cold and dry; water with cold and wet; Fire with hot and dryness; and Air with hot and

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moist, thus explaining the phenomena of change. These postulates held out the possibility of

transmuting inferior metals into silver and ultimately into gold, by changing their qualities. The

most perceptible of the changes effected was the colour and the object was to bring about a

change in the colour of inferior metals to that of silver or gold. This theory was adopted by the

Greco-Roman (Hellenistic) and later the Islamic alchemists in furtherance of their twin objective

of the so-called transmutation of metals and the preparation of elixir of life for attaining material

immortality. Strange it may seem, the Indian doctrine of five elements which had provided a

theoretical foundation for the Ayurveda and for the explanation of the phenomenal world, did not

lead to concepts of the foregoing type. The Indian five ‘elements’ had also a metaphysical

undertone which often subsumed their physical concepts. Moreover, it was a holistic doctrine

and the concept of change was circumscribed by it.

The seed ideas of Indian alchemy, which made their appearance in the fifth-sixth centuries a.d.,

were at variance with the Hellenistic ones. For, its inspirational source was not in the West, but

in the Far East, in the Chinese concepts and practices. Indian alchemy had social compulsions

too. The Ayurvedic elixirs and rejuvenating treatment were reserved only for males of the upper

castes, (women were excluded), as enjoined by both the Caraka and Susruta Samhitas. But, to

live long in perpetual youth and to experience the best in life have been the goals of all human

beings. Such dispositions as these react vehemently against rigid caste-structures and privileges

of the few. They go out in search of systems which are conducive to the realisation of their goals.

In India, the tantras offered such a system and, more importantly, admitted into their fold all —

irrespective of caste, creed or sex in an esoteric, but ingenious manner. The tantric concept of

siddhi evolved certain pathways for disciplined aspirants. And inherent in that concept was the

attainment of bodily immortality with even supernatural powers (animadi astasiddhi). This was

reinforced by the mythical male-female symbolism, the union sublime of immortality.

The Chinese male-female symbolism of Yin and Yang, mercury-sulphur union of cinnabar

(mercuric sulphide) to which was attributed extraordinary powers of attaining immortality, found

a congenial home in the Indian Tantric milieu. Buddhist pilgrims and the vajrayana seemed to

have played a seminal role in this alchemical transmission.

Be that as it may, Indian alchemy of both Sanskritic and Tamilian traditions, developed a wide

variety a chemical processes for the ostensible transmutation of metals and preparation of elixir

of life, in which mercury occupied a prime position. The literature on Indian alchemy called the

Rasasastra is perceptibly voluminous and methodical in the presentation of a variety of processes

whose number is legion. Of these processes, eighteen samskaras or complex treatments, which

were adopted for the potentiation of mercury, deserve special mention:

Briefly stated, the eighteen processes concerning mercury as the central element, are as follows:

Svedana: Steaming mercury with a number of plant substances, some minerals, alkalis and salts;

Mardana: Rubbing steamed mercury in a mortar along with some plant and acidic materials;

Murchana: Triturating mercury in a mortar with some more plant extracts till it loses its own

character and form;

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Uthapana: Steaming mercury again along with alkalis, salts, the three myrobalans, alum etc., and

rubbing mercury again in sunlight so that the characteristics of mercury, freed from impurities,

are brought into play again;

Patana: Three types, viz. urdhva (upwards); adhah (downwards); and tiryak (sideways); grinding

mercury with alkalis, salts and others, and subjecting the product to distillation;

Rodhana: Mixing the distilled mercury with saline water in a closed pot to restore the ‘vigour or

potency’ of mercury;

Niyamana: Continuation of the process by steaming mercury for three days with a number of

plant products, alum, borax, iron sulphate, etc., to restrain the motility of mercury;

Sandipana: Steaming this product with alum, black pepper, sour gruel, alkali and some

vegetables substances to ‘kindle’ the desire of mercury to attain the power of assimilation;

Grasa or Gaganagrass: Fixation and assimilation of the ‘essence’ of mica (gagana) to the desired

extent;

Carana: Boiling this product with sour gruel, leaves of certain plants, alum and others for a week

so that mica is fully assimilated;

Garbhadruti: Heating and treating mercury with the desired metallic substances so that the

‘essence’ of the latter becomes ‘liquified’ and the resultant, after cooling, passes through a piece

of cloth;

Bahyadruti: Obtaining ‘essence’ of minerals or metallic substances also externally;

Jarana: Heating the mercurial product with the desired minerals or metals, alkalis and salts so

that they are fully digested or assimilated;

Ranjana: A complex process involving the treatment of mercury with sulphur, gold, silver and

copper as well as salts in such a way that mercury attains colour;

Sarana: Digesting mercury with gold or silver in an oil-base to increase its ability towards

transformation;

Kramana: Smearing mercury with several plant extracts, minerals, milk, etc., and then heating it

carefully with a view to enabling it to possess transmuting powers;

Vedhana: Rubbing the resultant mercury with a few select substances including oil so that it

acquires the transmuting power;

Bhaksana: Consuming the prescribed quality of the mercurial product which has undergone the

foregoing 17 processes, for the rejuvenation and longevity.

(This sequence was rigorously followed by Indian alchemists; but there were variations in the

choice of plants and their extracts, salts, alkaline and acidic substances, minerals and other

ingredients).

The important, through esoteric, concept which lay behind these extremely complex processes

was that the mercurial product, after undergoing sequentially the seventeen processes, was

believed to have all the powers of transmutation. At this stage, it was to be tested for its efficacy

in transmuting base metals into gold and, if the test was positive, it was to be used for the

eighteenth process. The final product, if consumed in prescribed quantity would, it was claimed,

rejuvenate the body in such a way that it would make the body as resplendent and imperishable

as gold. One could see the ideal of Philosopher’s Stone of the medieval European alchemy, in the

mercurial product emerging out of the seventeen processes.

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There are hundreds of verses in the Rasasastra texts which overtly deal with a wide variety of

processes, some simple and many complex. Three examples may be cited:

(i) Mercury, cinnabar, pyrites, alum of excellent quality borax, black pepper — each one part —

and sauvarcala salt in equal proportions to them; six parts of rock salt; powdered iron in the same

proportion; and hundred parts of the juice of Emblic myrobalan, are to be kept in a stone bowl

which is to be deposited in a heap of cow-dung. After one year, a liquid emerges out of it. This

(liquid) is divine as well as flawless, and is to be compounded with mercury admixed with pure

gold as ‘seed’. This compound possesses the capability of transmuting a thousand times its

weight of all metals into gold. (Rasopanisat, XVI, 241-245)

(ii) One part of the essence of capula (bismuth compound); two parts of mercury; four parts of

gold (as seed); and sulphur of equal proportion to that of mercury which is to be mascerated, are

to be heated in a closed crucible. Gold and capula of equal quantities are to be blended with this

mercury. If this mercury is infused with a hundred times its weight of copper, it makes the latter

red and this attains the power of transmuting a hundred times its weight of silver into gold.

(Rasasara, XV, 19-22)

(iii) One pala of powdered seed (gold); one pala of pyrites; one pala of sulphur; one pala of

mercury extracted from cinnabar; and one pala of borax — all together mascerated with the

juices of plants endowed with the properties of ‘fixation’ of mercury. Heated over fire urged by

means of a blow-pipe, mercury attains ‘fixation’ and undergoes colouration with the aid of

sulphur. Blended with an equal weight of gold by the sarana operation, it is ‘killed’ by heating in

a puta. This mercurial preparation transmutes sixty times its weight of silver-copper into

excellent gold. (Rasasara, XIV,1820)

The technique of effecting transmutation was of five kinds:

Lepa Vedha (smearing copper or silver foils with a potent mercurial product);

Ksepa Vedha (throwing such a product into the base metals;

Kunta Vedha (pouring the transmuting agent into them);

Dhuma Vedha (subjecting the base metal to the action of the fumes of mercurial preparation);

and

Sabda Vedha (effecting transmutation by the ‘impact’ of the transmuting agent)

It is well-nigh impossible even to surmise the nature and extent of chemical or other types of

reactions that occur in the process of the so-called transmutation, until an experimental

verification is attempted from the modern chemical point of view. It would, nevertheless, seem

that the colour of the ‘inferior’ metal like copper, tin or lead, would change into that of gold or

silver. The emerging colouration, might be too uniform and intimate enough with the ‘inferior

metal’ to expose, under ordinary conditions, its true colour. The specific gravity and other

physical characteristics of the so-called transmuted metal might manifest themselves, as a result

of skilful manipulation of the ingredients such as mercury or its compounds, arsenic sulphides,

pyrites, sulphur as well as the deliberate addition of the noble metals themselves.

Indian alchemists specially of Tamil Nadu, knew the distinction between the transmuted ‘gold’

and the real one. A Tamil text (Amudakalaijnanam by Agastya) states clearly that if the artificial

‘gold’ and the natural gold are separately subjected to prolonged heating or calcination, the

former gives out ashes and the real face of the metal appears, while the natural gold remains

uneffected by this method.

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The transmutation of metals and the preparation of elixir of life which were vigorously pursued

by Indian alchemists, were more esoteric than scientific, despite their attempts at classification

and selection of substances, and the use of a wide variety of apparatus (mostly earthern), for

distillation, sublimation, incineration, trituration and the like, which the Rasasastra texts describe

meticulously and in great detail. To transmute the base metals into the noble one, and to make

the perishable body an ever immortal one, were goals ever in sight, but never reached.

It was, nevertheless, a pursuit which was not without a spin-off and that was in the direction of

formulating certain mineral medicines. Mercury, sulphur, mica, arsenic and iron compounds,

alum, gems and others on the one hand and on the other, metals like gold, silver, copper and its

alloy brass, and lead were processed elaborately by using a wide variety of apparatus. Generally

it was believed by the rasavadins that the minerals and metals would not acquire the desirable

iatro-chemical properties unless they were treated with one medicinal plant or the other. The

rasasastra texts give details of the preparation of a large number of medicines, and their

therapeutic effects as well as their dosages. One of the popular preparations called Makaradhvaja

contains specially processed mercuric sulphide and stimulants like camphor, pepper and cloves.

During its preparation a certain amount of purified gold is also added.

The most important medicinal preparations, as described in the Rasasastra texts, relate to a class

of what are called the bhasma of metals and minerals. Although the process leading to the

formation of a bhasma is one of incineration of the metal or mineral concerned, the original

substance is subjected to several processes before it undergoes prolonged heating. Even the

heating known as the Putapaka, is carried out of several days with extreme care. Various types of

Putas are mentioned in the texts, recommending a particular puta for the desired product, along

with its measurement and the quantity of cow-dung cakes or husk to be used for prolonged

heating in order to obtain the most efficient composition.

This method is believed to impart extraordinary qualities, both physico-chemical and medicinal,

on to the treated substance. A bhasma is an extremely fine powder, very light and, when thrown

on water, just spreads itself as a thin film on it. Of the bhasmas, that of mica, gold and silver are

most widely used in minute quantities and are generally mixed with other medicinal

compositions.

The Siddha (medical) System which is mostly prevalent in Tamil Nadu, appears to have been

evolved from the earlier alchemical concepts and practices. Though the System had originally its

own ways of preparing certain substances of medicinal value, like muppu (a specially prepared

mixture of three salts), it assimilated gradually some of the alchemical preparations and

developed a number of mineral compositions which go under the names, bhaspam (Skt.:

bhasma), cendurams (Skt.: sindura) and cunnams (probably calcium compounds or earthly

substances).

There is no denying that the Indian alchemists had realised the importance of medicinal

preparation more than of the transmutation of base metals into gold. In the West, such a

realisation came about only in the sixteenth century a.d., as a result of the ceaseless efforts of

several thoughtful iatro-chemists led by Paracelsus. But in India, a trend in this direction could

be perceived even in the eleventh century a.d. Although the Rasasastra is not regarded as an

92

integral part of the Ayurveda, some of the medicinal compositions of the former have found a

place for themselves in the traditional medical care in India.

References

Primary Sources

Rasahrdaya-tantra of Govinda Bhagavatpada: (ed.) Jadavji Trikumji Acarya, Bombay, (eds.)

B.V. Subbarayappa et. al., (under publication by INSA) 1911.

Rasakaumudi of Jnanacandra Sharman: (ed.) S.S. Pranacarya, Lahore (1928).

Rasamrtam: (ed.) Jadavji Trikumji Acarya, New Delhi (1951).

Rasapaddhati of Bindu Pandita: (ed.) Madhava Pandita, Bombay (1925).

Rasasanketakalika: (ed.) Jadavji Trikumji Acarya, Bombay (1912).

Rasaprakasasudhakara of Yasodhara: (ed.) Jadavji Trikumji Acarya, Bombay (1912).

Rasarnava: (ed.) P.C. Rayand Harish Candra Kaviratna, Calcutta (1910).

Rasarnavakalpa: (eds.) Mira Roy and B.V. Subbarayappa, New Delhi (1976).

Rasaratnakara of Nityanatha Siddha: edited (annoon) with Hindi commentary, Bombay (1897).

Rasaratnasamuccaya of Vagbhata: (ed.) Vinayak Apte, Poona (1890).

Rasasara of Govindacarya: (ed.) Jadavji Trikumji Acarya, Bombay (1912).

Rasendracintamani of Ramachandra: (ed.) Jivananda Vidyasagar, Calcutta (1878).

Rasendracudamani of Somadeva: (ed.) Yadav Sarman, Lahore (1932).

Rasatarangini: (ed.) Sadananda Sarma, New Delhi (1953).

Rasopanisat: (ed.) K. Sambasiva Sastry, Trivandrum (1928).

The Rgveda: (tr.) H.H. Wilson, 6 vols, London (1860).

(t.) R.T.H. Griffith, Banaras, (1963) (reprint).

SECONDARY SOURCES

Holmyard, E.J., Alchemy, Penguin Books, London

(1957).

Ray P., (ed.), History of Chemistry in Ancient and

Medieval India, Calcutta (1956).

Ray P.C., History of Hindu Chemistry (2 vols), Calcutta

(1902, 1905).

Read, John, Through Alchemy to Chemistry, London

(1957).

Subbarayappa, B.V., ‘Chemical Practices and

Alchemy’, In A Concise History of Science in India,

(eds.) D.M. Bose, S.N. Sen, and B.V. Subbarayappa,

New Delhi (1971).

Taylor, Sherwood, The Alchemist, London (1958).

History of Hindu Chemistry Alchemy by Brad Yantzer

A History of Hindu Chemistry Vol 2 PC Ray (1909)

A History of Hindu Chemistry From the Ea by Francis

Anthony Mercuri

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(KMS No 35-38) Edited & Translated by: C. G. KASHIKAR 2003, 4 vols., xlv+1844pp

Baudhāyana-Śrauta-sutra

The Baudhāyana-Śrauta-sutra together with an English translation is in four volumes. The

Baudhāyana-Śrauta-sutra belongs to the Kṛṣṇa Yajurveda Taittirīya recension. It represents the

oral lectures delivered by the teacher Baudhāyana, hence is the oldest Śrautatext. The text is

revised here in the light of the variant readings recorded by W. Caland in his first edition

(Calcutta 1906), and is presented in a readable form. The mantras forming part of the Siitras have

been fully rendered into English. The translation is supplied with notes giving reference to the

mantras and explanations of the rituals. The work is expected to serve as an advancement of

Taittirīya ritualistic studies.

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Baudhayana Srauta Sutra (Ed. & Trans. CG Kashikar, 2003)

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