-
Contents
Inference Training – An Introduction Some Factors Contributing
to Poor Reading Comprehension What Inference Training Can Do About
Inference Training The Structure of Each Session Step 1 – Prior
Knowledge Step 2 – a) Word Definitions b) Elaboration Step 3 – Ask
a Question Step 4 – Hidden Sentence Step 5 – Get Visual Step 6 –
Summarise & Predict Example of a Summary Grid Tips for
Selecting Texts to use during Inference Training Tips for
Alternative Visualisation Strategies Assessment of Pupils Tips for
Developing Inference Training with EAL Pupils Appendix 1 – The
Research Outcomes in Leicester Appendix 2 – Case Studies of
Individual Children Involved in the Trial Appendix 3 –
Visualisation Proforma Appendix 4 – Text Frame Appendix 5 –
Measuring Progress in Inference Training Appendix 6 – Pupil Self
Checking Sheet Texts for Inference Training (listed separately on
next page) Inference Training Resource Acknowledgements
Supplements
1
344566778910111213
1413
14162325262728
123126
-
Inference Texts
Inference Text – Little Red Riding Hood, Leicester LEA Inference
Text - I love you Blue Kangaroo 1, Emma Chichester Clark Inference
Text - I love you Blue Kangaroo 2, Emma Chichester Clark Inference
Text - Zia the Orchestra, Janet Burchett & Sara Vogler
Inference Text - The Little Boat, Kathy Henderson Inference Text -
Billy’s Tower, Leicester LEA Inference Text - Poorly Tom, Leicester
LEA Inference Text - Henry and Mudge, Cynthia Rylant & Sucie
Stevenson Inference Text - Dear Greenpeace, Simon James Inference
Text - What made Tiddalik Laugh, Joanna Troughton Inference Text -
Tall Inside, Jean Richardson Inference Text – Nothing 1, Mick
Inkpen Inference Text - Nothing 2, Mick Inkpen Inference Text -
George Speaks, Dick King-Smith Inference Text - The BFG, Roald Dahl
Inference Text - The Legend of Spud Murphy, Eoin Colfer Inference
Text - The Hodgeheg, Dick King-Smith Inference Text - Jo and the
Package, Leicester LEA Inference Text - The Twelfth Floor Kid, Ruth
Symes Inference Text - The Oakhollow Mystery 1,Tessa Krailing
Inference Text - The Oakhollow Mystery 2, Tessa Krailing Inference
Text - Rescued by a Dog called Flow, Pippa Goodhart Inference Text
– Piggybook 1, Anthony Browne Inference Text - Danny’s Secret Fox,
Susan Gates Inference Text - The Tunnel, Leicester LEA Inference
Text - Danny, The Champion of the World, Roald Dahl Inference Text
- Walk Two Moons, Sharon Creech Inference Text - Mrs Singh,
Leicester LEA Inference Text – Piggybook 2, Anthony Browne
Inference Text – Short; In The Back Seat 1, Kevin Crossley-Holland
Inference Text – The Tower to the Sun, Colin Thompson Inference
Text – Short; In The Back Seat 2, Kevin Crossley-Holland Inference
Text – James and the Giant Peach, Roald Dahl Inference Text – The
Space Stowaway, Malorie Blackman Inference Text – The Last
Quarryman 1, Eric Johns Inference Text – The Last Quarryman 2, Eric
Johns Inference Text – An Enemy at Green Know, Lucy M. Boston
Inference Text – Coming to England, Floella Benjamin Inference Text
– Doberman, Leicester LEA Inference Text – Short; Boo!, Kevin
Crossley-Holland Inference Text – The Kelpie’s Pearls, Molly Hunter
Inference Text – The Hundred-Mile-an–Hour Dog, Jeremy Strong
Inference Text – The Witches 1, Roald Dahl Inference Text – The
Witches 2, Roald Dahl Inference Text – The Witches 3, Roald Dahl
Inference Text – The Iron Man, Ted Hughes Inference Text – Room 13,
Robert Swindells
2
2931333537394143454749515355
5957
6163656769717375777981838587
9189
93959799101103105107109111113115117119121
-
Inference Training
An Introduction
Inference Awareness Training is an intervention programme
researched by Yuill and Oakhill (1988). This is designed for
children who are able to decode text but whose comprehension levels
lag behind their decoding ability. Yuill and Oakhill researched
good and poor comprehenders with similar decoding skills. They
identified that the poor comprehenders had difficulties with
integrating ideas, language and meaning as they were reading and
did not seem to be aware of comprehension difficulties. Successes
in the research group led to new enjoyment in reading and increased
motivation. The trial in Leicester City In Leicester City, we have
taken the structure and format of Inference Training, modifying it
in part, and have trialled it in a group of six schools. This has
been based on the use of Inference training as a wave 2 “catch-up”
programme rather than a wave 3 programme. This does not preclude
its value as a wave 3 programme as some children identified with
SEN were included in some of the pilot groups.
• Each school invited to take part sent a teacher and teaching
assistant to a training day where each aspect of the intervention
was explored in depth
• The children were tested using the Neale Analysis of Reading
Ability (II) before and after the intervention period
• The intervention was carried out over a period of between 5
and 8 weeks, usually based on 2 sessions per week.
• Each session was carried out with between 4 and 6 children in
a group by either a teacher or a teaching assistant and lasted
approximately 40 minutes per session.
• Each school received a follow-up visit, discussion and
observation from the consultant leading the pilot
• Both teacher and teaching assistant attended a follow-up day
to identify strengths and issues and draw together the statistical
and qualitative information.
• Between 5 and 12 Y5/6 children in each school were identified
to be included into Inference Training groups. In total, 52 pupils
were included in the pilot.
The results The results of the trial demonstrate significant
improvements in children’s comprehension, with most children making
good (double expected progress) to excellent progress (more than 12
months progress during the 2 month period). The average increase in
reading age for the pupils was 10.8 months based on a sample of Y5
children. Although Inference Training is not intended as an
intervention that will develop decoding, the average increase in
reading accuracy over the period of the intervention was 9.7
months. For research, evaluation and case studies of individual
children involved in the pilot please see appendix 1.
3
-
EAL issues
Vocabulary
Poor backgroundknowledge
Decoding
issues
Recognising
the key words
Linking information
together
Difficulties inferring meaning from text
Poor knowledge
of story structure
Some Factors Contributing to Poor Reading Comprehension:
What Inference Training Can Do This intervention supports
children to develop necessary skills to understand text fully. It
works through:
• developing children’s understanding of the meanings inferred
through the choice of vocabulary;
• making explicit the need for, and helping to develop the way
children draw on background knowledge;
• developing understanding of the importance of linking
information in a short text in order to improve understanding.
4
-
About Inference Training For:
Groups of children identified with stronger decoding skills than
comprehension skills in reading. Between 4 and 6 children in a
group.
Duration:
6 to 8 weeks 2 to 3 sessions per week Approximately 40 minutes
per session (longer when starting Inference Training and length can
vary according to the text used.)
Carried out by:
TA who has attended training with teacher support for planning
and preparation Teacher who has attended training
Session structure: (See following pages for description of each
part of the session)
Prior knowledge activation Word definition Word elaboration Ask
a question Hidden sentence Let’s visualise Summarise
Resources necessary:
Short piece of age-appropriate text which is at a reading level
that the group can access Selection of words, each written on a
separate piece of paper, that the children understand Paper on
which to carry out visualisation exercise Picture or object
relating to the subject matter of the text to support initial
discussion if necessary
This folder provides a set of texts, which you may wish to use
for each session with suggested prompts for each section of the
session. (See appendix 7)
5
-
The Structure of Each Session
START
Adult asks pupils in pairs to share their knowledge about the
subject of the text they are about to read. This helps children to
develop background knowledge prior to reading. The adult may pick
out particular aspects of the subject for pupils to discuss. E.g.
If the short text is about a child’s sandcastle being destroyed
during a holiday by the sea. Prompt to ensure children use
background knowledge: Can you talk about a time when you went to
the seaside? For some children it may be important to provide a
picture or object to stimulate discussion.
6
54 3
21
Prior Knowledge
a) Word Definitionsb) Elaboration
Ask a QuestionHidden Sentence
Get Visual
Summarise and Predict
Step 1 Prior Knowledge
6
Step 1Prior Knowledge
1
3
6
4
25
Prior KnowledgeLets Summariseand Predict
Ask a QuestionHidden Sentence
a) Word Definitionsb) ElaborationGet Visual
-
A copy of a short piece of text is given to each pupil (Please
see appendix 1 for text examples) a) Word Definitions The text is
read together, at least twice.
E.g. Billy was howling because his whole day was spoilt. All of
his work had been broken by the wave. His mum came over to help but
she accidentally stepped on the only tower that was left. “Never
mind,” she said, “let’s go back for tea. You can build some more
towers tomorrow”. (Acknowledgement Yuill and Oakhill)
The adult asks pupils to ring some words in the text that they
would like someone in the group to explain. Each pupil asks about
one word, volunteers try to explain the meaning. (Ensure words that
you think might be problematic are included … add these if
necessary) b) Elaboration This part is a critical step in the
process. The adult gives each pupil a key word from the text on a
piece of card. Pupils have individual thinking time to unpick the
word using clues from the text (a doodle pad may be useful). Pupils
are asked to elaborate on that word in the context of the passage.
What could these words tell us about what is happening or what
could be happening? Pupils show the word and share.
E.g.
Step 2 a) Word Definitions b) Elaboration
tower … Billy’s been making tall sandcastles ... all day …
probably with a bucket and spade. Good onestake ages to do. I bet
he enjoyed himself.
howling … Billy must be a young kid … my brother howls … he’s 3.
Billy must be really cross that things are going wrong. I think
he’s really disappointed. Maybe he’s crosswith his Mum. tomorrow …
that means they
are going back to the beach again so they must be on holiday.
Mum thinks Billy’s got another chance.
wave howling tower tomorrow (build some more)
wave … they are by the sea .. it’s that sort of wave .. the sea
must be coming in … it’s wrecked most of Billy’s towers except
one.
7
Step 2a) Word Definitionsb) Elaboration
-
Pupils have to make up questions for others to answer.
E.g. Billy was howling because his whole day was spoilt. All of
his work had been broken by the wave. His mum came over to help but
she accidentally stepped on the only tower that was left. “Never
mind,” she said, “let’s go back for tea. You can build some more
towers tomorrow”.
Encourage questions, which involve “reading between the lines”.
Make sure you have some questions to use as prompts if the pupils
just ask literal questions. Don’t insist that the children answer
all the questions – it is the questioning itself that is most
important.
Why had Billy’s day been
spoilt?
Where did this happen?
What sort of wave is the story
talking about?
Why did Mum step on
the tower?
What ruinedBilly’s last
tower?
What ruined hisother towers?
Step 3 Ask a Question
8
Step 3Ask a Question
-
Pupils re-read the texts but an extra piece is now examined.
This contains part sentences (or a whole sentence), which is
obscured. Pupils make predictions about the sentence part that is
missing.
E.g. Billy was howling because his whole day was spoilt. All of
his work had been broken by the wave. His mum came over to help but
she accidentally stepped on the only tower that was left. “Never
mind,” she said, “let’s go back for tea. You can build some more
towers tomorrow”. Billy threw down his bucket and spade and
sulked.
“Don’t want tomorrow. Want to
do it today!!”
“I want to build more towers NOW”
shouted Billy
Step 4 Hidden Sentence
9
Step 4Hidden Sentence
-
The adult asks pupils to record the main aspects of the text
using a grid provided, with pictures/ keywords/ thought
bubbles/doodles etc. Pupils try to show “inferential” as well as
literal aspects of the text. To do this you may use a summary grid
(page **) which • shows main events • is a drawn dialogue which
emphasises what people say, do and think
(say) (think) • explains what is really happening … the
subtext
(explain) • uses different colours, symbols, key words and
doodles. (Pictures do not need
to look nice! They should contain hurriedly drawn stick people).
• uses “picto words” for key vocabulary (write the word so it looks
like what it
means).
During the pilot, some children found this difficult. Please see
tips on page ** for additional suggestions that were tried to
encourage children to develop these important skills.
Nevermind you can makesome more…
He’s very upset… I
hope I can distract him
Billy and mum at the seaside for the first time… Billy has been
running about on the beach all day and is now very tired. Can mum
save the day (having nearly ruined it)?
Step 5 Get Visual
10
Step 5Get Visual
-
Pupils take turns to use their grids to summarise the key parts
of the text. This can be done taking turns “in relay”. After this
the group share ideas to predict what might happen next.
Step 6 Summarise & Predict
For a blank grid see appendix 3
11
Step 6Summarise & Predict
-
12
-
Tips for Selecting Texts to use during Inference Training
• Use short pieces of text, preferably extracts from books that
children will have or be able
to have knowledge of later. • Avoid too much speech.
• Use texts sometimes that will be read in the classroom,
providing children with ‘expert
status’ for part of the text. • Ensure texts have references to
things that have already happened or will happen, even
if only inferred - veiled reference. • Ensure passage sometimes
contains words with more than one meaning, i.e. poorly.
• Choose text by chronological age, then by reading age
(ensuring reading age is not too
difficult).
Tips for Alternative Visualisation Strategies
Some children have found this aspect difficult or have enjoyed
some variation in this. The pilot demonstrated, however, that this
aspect is significant in ensuring that children make very good
progress in developing comprehension. Here are some additional
ideas to try as this aspect is critical to the success of the
intervention. § Encourage children to draw each part of the story
on
separate small squares of paper as this leads them to use as
many different pictures as they need.
§ Draw one picture, which contains all the detail,
especially
when the text is focused on a character. § Model how to use the
visualisation grid or similar
structure. § Provide whiteboards and pens for the most
reluctant
artists. § Try using visual mind maps instead of the grid
approach.
§ Give each child part of the story to draw, putting them
altogether to complete the story
at the end.
13
�
�
�
�
�
�
-
Assessment of Pupils
Teachers and TAs should consider:
• carrying out an initial and final age-related assessments of
children involved in the intervention in order to establish a
baseline and in order to evaluate the impact of the
intervention;
• using pupil self assessment to
encourage children to talk about their developing skills and
strategies (appendix 6);
• monitoring the progress each child makes during the sessions,
noting particular strengths or areas for concern to follow up in
subsequent sessions (appendix 5).
Tips for Developing Inference Training with EAL Pupils Inference
training is extremely useful in raising the attainment of EAL
children’s reading comprehension. The following are points to
consider and suggestions for activities to support EAL children
further. • Keep the cognitive challenge of the text high. • Use the
session to pre-teach children aspects of a text that will be used
at a later
time with larger groups. • Use key visuals in the prior
knowledge section, e.g. picture of setting or object
relevant to the text. • Pay attention to the word definition/
word elaboration section as this is particularly
important with EAL children. Idiomatic expressions should be
explained and discussed with children, i.e. raining cats and
dogs.
• Draw attention to the pronouns and the character to which they
refer (pronoun
referencing) e.g. highlight character and pronouns referring to
them in a specific colour or drawing lines between them.
• Take opportunities for rephrasing and rewording children’s
language, i.e.
modelling of correct language used in the summarising section. •
Use a range of texts, some culturally relevant but also texts that
are outside the
child’s direct experience.
14
-
Appendices
Appendix 1 Research report Appendix 2 Case studies from pilot
Appendix 3 Visualisation proforma Appendix 4 Text frame Appendix 5
Pupil self checking grid Appendix 6 Assessment proforma Appendix 7
Text examples for each session
15
-
Inference Training – The Research Outcomes in Leicester
Context Within Leicester City, the use of QCA optional tests and
end of key stage results have revealed that there is a comparative
weakness in children’s comprehension and specifically their skills
to make inferences and deduce information from text. Inference
Training The inference training pack was developed by members of
Leicester City Children and Young People’s Service based on
research by Nicola Yuill and Jane Oakhill (Applied Cognitive
Psychology, Vol.2, 33 – 45, 1998). It was developed as a Wave 2 / 3
intervention depending on the age and needs of the children. This
pack outlines the structure of Inference Training and contains
examples of texts to support teaching. Inference training is
structured into the following six steps:
1. Prior Knowledge 2. a. Word Definitions
b. Word Elaboration 3. Ask a Question 4. Hidden Sentence 5. Get
Visual 6. Let’s Summarise and Predict.
Schools in the Project Six schools participated in the pilot
during the spring term, 2006. The schools had all identified
inference and deduction as an area for targeted intervention in
year 5 and year 6. All schools undertook the intervention with Year
5, some chose, in addition to run a Year 6 group. These have been
included as an additional indication of impact. However, it is
worth noting that during this period many year 6 classes receive
other significant interventions (e.g. booster work) in preparation
for end of Key Stage 2 tests. Evidence for this can be found in the
comparison with the Year 6 control group who also made significant
progress. At the outset of the project teachers and teaching
assistants were invited to attend a full day’s training on the
Inference Training pack. Where the TA worked with children from a
class where the teacher had also attended training, there was a
more significant impact on children’s comprehension results,
sometimes substantially greater. Two schools were not able to send
both teacher and teaching assistant from the classes involved in
the pilot (schools S and P). In these instances the teaching
assistant attended alone or was accompanied by a different teacher
in the school. In school S, the TA found sessions were reduced in
time, as teachers did not feel the same high levels of involvement
or commitment as those who had been trained, rarely getting through
all aspects of the intervention session. The impact on improving
comprehension levels was not as noticeable as in the other
schools.
Appendix 1
16
-
Children involved were tested using the Neale Analysis prior to
beginning the intervention and again at the end. Both their reading
comprehension and accuracy levels were collected. The test was then
repeated at the end of the intervention. Each school was asked to
run the Neale Analysis with a control group of children at the same
time. Only three of the six schools recorded these results. Schools
were asked to run the intervention over a six-week period, running
2 – 3 sessions per week. Not all schools were able to run all of
these sessions (see individual school data for number of sessions).
The sessions were delivered either by teachers and TAs or by TAs.
Teachers were asked to identify EAL children. Most teachers
identified children who were in the earlier stages of learning
English. There may be a number of other children involved in the
pilot who could be classified as advanced bilingual learners.
17
-
Dat
a –
Ind
ivid
ual
Sch
oo
ls
School
Year group
Number of pupils
Number of boys
Number of girls
Number of EAL
Number of SEN
Number of weeks intervention ran
Number of sessions held
Average number of sessions attended
Average comp. difference
Range, comp
Average accuracy difference
Range, accuracy
Number making above expected progress (comp)
Number making 4+ months progress (comp)
Number making 8+ months progress (comp)
Number making 12+ months progress (comp)
Session run by
H
5 6
4 2
3 3
8 16
?
19.6 months
2 to 40 months
13.5 months
5 to 20 months
5 5
5 5
T
H
6 6
4 2
3 1
8 16
?
15.2 months
0 to 26 months
7.6 months
-3 to 16 months
5 5
5 4
T
P
5 5
4 1
0 3
6 18
10.4 months
0 – 30 months
7.8 months
2 – 17 months
4 4
2 1
TA
M
5 3
1 2
1 1
5 10
8.
6 10.6 months
+5 to 19
12 months
-2 to + 25
3 3
2 1
T
M
6 5
2 3
1
5 10
8.
8
8 months
-1 to +19
11.6 months
+6 to + 23
4 4
2 1
T
18
-
School
Year group
Number of pupils
Number of boys
Number of girls
Number of EAL
Number of SEN
Number of weeks intervention ran
Number of sessions held
Average number of sessions attended
Average comp. difference
Range, comp
Average accuracy difference
Range, accuracy
Number making above expected progress (comp)
Number making 4+ months progress
(comp)
Number making 8+ months progress
(comp)
Number making 12+ months progress
(comp)
Session run by
S
5 7
3 4
5 1
7 14
11
2.7 months
-1 to +9 months
6.9 months
-1 to +18 months
3 2
1 0
TA
T
5 8
3 5
0 3
6 6
5.6
14 months
3 to 22 months
8
6 6
5 T
A
W
5 7
4 3
3 1
6 12
11
.8
7.6 months
2 to 13 months
8.4
-1 to 33
7 6
3 1
T /
TA
W
6 5
2 3
2 1
Beh
6
12
11.6
33.2 months
6 to 60 months
9.8
-12 to 25 months
5 5
4 3
T /
TA
19
-
O
vera
ll sc
ho
ols
pilo
t g
rou
p
C
on
tro
l gro
up
Ave
rage
com
preh
ensi
on d
iffer
ence
for
all
grou
ps (
Y5
and
Y6)
13.5
mon
ths
5.6
Ave
rage
com
preh
ensi
on d
iffer
ence
for
Y5
grou
ps
10.8
mon
ths
4.1
Ave
rage
acc
urac
y di
ffer
ence
for
all
grou
ps
9.7
mon
ths
NA
Ave
rage
acc
urac
y di
ffer
ence
for
Y5
grou
ps
9.7
mon
ths
NA
Ran
ge a
t end
of
inte
rven
tion
– co
mpr
ehen
sion
(Y
5 an
d Y
6)
-1 to
+60
-1
0 to
+27
Ran
ge a
t end
of
inte
rven
tion
– co
mpr
ehen
sion
(Y
5)
-1 to
+40
-1
0 to
+27
Acc
urac
y (Y
5 an
d Y
6)
-12
to +
25
NA
Acc
urac
y (Y
5)
-2 to
+ 2
3 N
A
Num
ber
of p
upils
57 (
tota
l) 41
(Y
5)
18 (
tota
l) 13
(Y
5)
20
-
Evaluation of Data Data demonstrates that the average reading
comprehension age improvement for Y5 pupils undertaking the
inference training was 10.8 months over a period of 2 months. For
both Y5 and 6 pupils the average progress was 13.5 years. This
compares to the control group improvement of 4.1 months (5.6 months
for Y5 and 6). This difference more than doubles the expected rate
of progress, a marker used to identify successful Wave 2 and 3
interventions. The rate of progress varied within groups of pupils.
Whilst some pupils made negative progress most children made rapid
to very rapid progress. This can be seen in the table below. 4+
months progress 8+ months progress 12+ months progress Year 5 26/36
(72%) 19/36 (53%) 13/36 (36%) Years 5 and 6 40/52 (77%) 30/52 (58%)
21/52 (40%) Although the intervention is specifically aimed at
improving inference and deduction comprehension skills, the
increase in reading accuracy was also significant, an average
improvement of 9.7 months. Evidence from individual school data
demonstrates that this intervention was effective when used with
EAL children (H, S and W). One school, where increases were
significant, chose to run single sex groups (T). More research in
these areas would be useful. Qualitative Responses Teachers and
Teaching assistants were asked to complete a questionnaire about
how they round the intervention process. All found the intervention
easy to carry out, engaging to most children and the folder
accessible to use.
“ Very accessible and easy to follow.” “As the children got used
to the routine and felt more confident in carrying out tasks, the
more they became engaged.”
Many teachers thought the texts could be more engaging and
motivating for the children, some recognising the importance of
using texts that the children had the opportunity to read more of.
“We could use our own text that children are working on in the
literacy hour” The questionnaire asked about the effectiveness of
each section of the intervention. Participants felt that all areas
worked well but Ask a Question and Summarise were the most
effective and Missing Sentence the least. Teachers also reported
back on the impact the intervention had on individual children and
wrote a more detailed case study on one child. These revealed
differences in the skills children demonstrated and their changing
attitudes and confidence.
21
-
Teachers commented on the importance of the visualisation in
improving children’s understanding of the text:
“The detail and amount of thinking put into visualisations
improved markedly during the sessions” “He liked the visualisation
which helped him to think more about what was going on”
Many children showed increasing confidence during the
intervention period, some of this impacting in the classroom.
“Recently she has had the confidence to start work immediately
without looking round for teacher or peer reassurance”
“She now feels her opinions are valued and her confidence in her
own ability has grown”
The intervention has also had a significant impact on the
attitude towards reading of a number of children: “She has shown
signs of thinking before answering” “F gradually became more
confident and willing to give justified answers.
He was also more motivated and actually made specific trips to
the library to get the book the latest passage had been from and
would read the book”
“She said she was reading more books. Her parents were able to
support this statement”
Conclusion This Inference Training intervention appears to
provide a useful method to develop the inference and deduction
skills of a significant number of children. It supports children in
gaining confidence to deal with such concepts and provides them
with methods and strategies to improve the success of their
comprehension skills. It enables them to understand what it is that
is being asked of them. Early indications in some schools appear to
demonstrate that the improvement in comprehension skills is
maintained after the end of the intervention.
“Working as part of a small group has given E the chance to feel
valued at school. She was very cheerful and looked forward to the
sessions – even when they were last thing on a Friday afternoon!”
“Overall, the intervention seems to have made a significant
difference to F academically, socially and emotionally.”
22
-
Case Studies of Individual Children Involved in the Trial
Female Y5 pupil E lacks a good deal of confidence. Her friends
are all achieving much more academically. E is on School Action
level of the SEN register.
E was very uncertain at the start of the program. She hesitated
to join in at first and asked constantly – “is this right?” As the
program developed E realised that she could provide a valuable
contribution to discussion. Within the group she had the best
vocabulary and was often able to explain the meaning of words to
others. Her visualisations became increasingly more detailed and
she was able to explain her thoughts and actions with more
confidence. Recently she has had the confidence to start work
immediately without looking round for teacher or peer reassurance.
During the final reading test I was amazed at her determination to
succeed. She was able to make eye contact and answered questions
clearly and with very little hesitation. She said that she was
reading more books. Her parents were able to support this
statement. Working as part of a small group carrying out Inference
Training has given E the chance to feel valued at school. She was
very cheerful and even looked forward to the sessions – even when
they were last thing on Friday afternoon! Male, Y5 pupil J
demonstrates average ability generally but may have the ability to
achieve higher. He has a positive attitude to learning and is a
polite, well-mannered child. He will sometimes contribute to class
discussions and is always willing to try even if he doesn’t get
answers correct. His ability in maths is better than in English. He
speaks Gujarati at home and attends Gujarati lessons. He tends to
have one main friend rather than being part of a large group
although works effectively in pairs or groups with other children.
When working in a group he will contribute to discussion once
others have given their ideas and does not take a lead role. J was
chosen to be part of the study because it was felt that his
comprehension skills needed boosting. At initial testing his
reading age was 6 months below his chronological age for accuracy
and 16 months below for comprehension. Within the group J quickly
improved in self-confidence to become the main spokesperson. He
became more willing to speak first and to correct and support the
other children in the group. He showed that he was able to link
ideas and use inference skills to create hidden sentences and
questions about the text. His visualisations showed a clear
understanding of the texts as well as an ability to go beyond the
text. He has transferred some of these skills to the classroom.
After the intervention J’s reading age was 12 months above his
chronological age for accuracy and 12 months below for
comprehension. These are both significantly improved although he is
still below his chronological age for comprehension. We will
continue with the intervention for a limited period in order to
develop this further.
Appendix 2
23
-
Male / Year 6
F is a year 6 boy who joined the school half way through year 4.
He has a
good friendship group but is often influenced by other children
to act
inappropriately as he has little confidence in himself to ‘keep’
his friends
and worries about being alone.
F was identified as struggling towards the end of the Autumn
Term when it
was found he was making little progress in his literacy from
year 5
scores. It was also found that his general understanding of
topics in
class was poor and he was unable to give reasoned answers
when
questioned. It seemed as if he was unable to follow what had
been said and
had not been able to pull out the key points.
During the progress of the intervention it was found that F
gradually
became more confident and willing to give justified answers. He
was also
more motivated and actually made specific trips to the library
to get the
book the latest passage had been from and would read the book.
He was
also practising the intervention activities at home. He realised
that he
struggled with explaining the meaning of hidden sentence so was
making up
his own. He also became more confident and stood his ground with
other
children within the group.
Following the intervention, F’s accuracy and comprehension has
rapidly
improved. His accuracy score went up by 1 year 4 months and
his
comprehension score increased by 5 years!
Overall, the intervention seems to have made a significant
difference to F
academically, socially and emotionally.
24
-
VISUALISATION
thoughts and feelings
key
events speech
Appendix 3
25
-
Texts for Inference Training
Source: (your name / school)
From: (title / author)
Text extract:
Pupil reading age: Chronological age:
Teacher notes:
1. Prior knowledge
2. a. Word definition: Pupils circle words they don’t understand
and others try to explain
/ T. adds to explanation.
b. Word elaboration (give each pupil a card and take turns to
elaborate on the word).
3. Ask a question
Examples of questions pupils might ask
4. Hidden sentence
Possible pupil responses
5. Get visual
Ask pupils to record main aspects of the text using grid
provided with pictures, key
words, thought bubbles / doodles etc. Pupils try to show
“inferential” as well as literal
aspects of the text.
6. Let’s summarise
Pupils take turns to use their grids to summarise key parts of
the text.
Appendix 4
26
-
Ste
p 2
a C
an e
xpla
in
wha
t tric
ky
wor
ds m
ean
to
othe
rs in
the
grou
p
Ste
p 2
b
Can
ela
bora
teon
wor
ds, e
.g.
Tom
– a
boy
pr
obab
ly, i
f he
was
old
er it
w
ould
be
Mr
Tom
Ste
p 6
C
an
sum
mar
ise
the
text
or
ally
and
/ or
thro
ugh
dram
a
Ste
p 5
C
an v
isua
lly
repr
esen
t th
e te
xt
incl
udin
g in
fere
nces
E
.g. u
sing
a
grid
, spe
ech
bubb
les,
di
agra
ms
Ste
p 4
C
an p
redi
ct
the
hidd
en
sent
ence
an
d ju
stify
th
eir
idea
s
Ste
p 3
C
an a
sk
rele
vant
qu
estio
ns
abou
t the
te
xt
Ste
p 1
C
an ta
lk
abou
t prio
r kn
owle
dge
and
rela
te it
toth
e te
xt
Nam
e
Mea
suri
ng
Pro
gre
ss in
Infe
ren
ce T
rain
ing
App
endi
x 5
27
-
Pupil Self Checking Sheet When I read I.. YES ? NO • try to
think if something like this has happened to
me … or think what would this be like?
• try to spot key words (not all words are worth the
same)
• remember the sentences I’ve read before and link
them together so things makes sense
• know that I have to be a detective and look for
clues. It doesn’t always tell us everything
• read the words but also think about what’s
happening and why
• look out for things that don’t make sense … I
might need to read a sentence again to check
• know that words do not always mean what they
say e.g. it was raining cats and dogs
• watch out for little words like … she he they I him
her .. Little words can tell us a lot
• know I need to keep thinking about what might
happen next
Appendix 6
28
-
Infe
ren
ce T
rain
ing
Res
ou
rce
Ack
no
wle
dg
emen
ts
BO
OK
TIT
LE
AU
TH
OR
AC
KN
OW
LE
DG
EM
EN
TS
RE
AD
ING
A
GE
A
war
enes
s T
rain
ing
o
n P
oo
r C
om
pre
hen
sio
n,
Ap
plie
d C
og
nit
ive
Psy
cho
log
y V
ol 2
, 33
- 45
Yu
ill &
Oak
hill
Jo
hn W
iley
and
Son
s 19
88
An
En
emy
at G
reen
e K
no
we
© L
ucy
M. B
ost
on
F
aber
& F
aber
, 3 Q
ueen
s S
quar
e, L
ondo
n, W
C1N
3A
U, 2
002
9-10
Bill
y’s
To
wer
©
Pri
mar
y S
trat
egy
Tea
m
Leic
este
r LE
A, 2
005
7-
9
Co
min
g t
o E
ng
lan
d
© F
loel
la B
enja
min
C
hrys
alis
Boo
ks, T
he C
hrys
alis
Bui
ldin
g, B
ram
ley
Roa
d, L
ondo
n,
W1O
6S
P, 1
995
9-10
Dan
ny,
Ch
amp
ion
of
the
Wo
rld
©
Ro
ald
Dah
l D
avid
Hig
ham
Ass
ocia
tes,
5-8
Low
er J
ohn
Str
eet,
Gol
den
Squ
are,
Lo
ndon
, W1F
9H
A, 2
001
9 ye
ars
plu
s
Dan
ny’
s se
cret
fo
x ©
Su
san
Gat
es
Oxf
ord
Uni
vers
ity P
ress
, 199
7
8-10
Dea
r G
reen
pea
ce
© S
imo
n J
ames
R
epro
duce
d by
per
mis
sion
of W
alke
r B
ooks
Ltd
, Lon
don
SE
11
5HJ,
199
1 7-
8
Geo
rge
Sp
eaks
©
Dic
k K
ing
-Sm
ith
P
engu
in G
roup
, 80
Str
and,
Lon
don,
WC
2R 0
RL,
198
9
7-8
Hen
ry &
Mu
dg
e ©
Cyn
thia
Ryl
ant
Sim
on S
chus
ter,
123
0 A
venu
e of
the
Am
eric
a’s,
New
Yor
k, B
Y
1002
0, U
SA
, 199
4 7-
8
I lo
ve y
ou
, Blu
e K
ang
aro
o
© E
mm
a C
hic
hes
ter-
Cla
rk
And
erse
n P
ress
Lim
ited,
199
8 E
xtra
ct 1
, 7
Ext
ract
2, 6
½-7
Ja
mes
& t
he
Gia
nt
Pea
ch
© R
oal
d D
ahl
Dav
id H
igha
m A
ssoc
iate
s, 5
-8 L
ower
Joh
n S
tree
t, G
olde
n S
quar
e,
Lond
on, W
1F 9
HA
, 199
7 9-
10
123
-
Jo a
nd
th
e P
acka
ge
© P
rim
ary
Str
ateg
y T
eam
Le
ices
ter
LEA
, 200
5
7-8
Kn
ow
yo
ur
plo
ts,
Do
ber
man
©
Ro
nal
d B
. To
bia
s W
alki
ng S
tick
Pre
ss, 2
003
9-10
Lit
tle
Red
Rid
ing
Ho
od
©
Pri
mar
y S
trat
egy
Tea
m
Leic
este
r LE
A, 2
005
7
Mrs
Sin
gh
©
Pri
mar
y S
trat
egy
Tea
m
Leic
este
r LE
A, 2
005
9-
10
No
thin
g
© M
ick
Inkp
en
Rep
rodu
ced
by p
erm
issi
on o
f Hod
der
Chi
ldre
n’s
Boo
ks, 1
998
Ext
ract
1, 6
-8
Ext
ract
2, 6
-8
Pig
gyb
oo
k ©
An
tho
ny
Bro
wn
e A
.E.T
. Bro
wne
& P
artn
ers
Rep
rodu
ced
by p
erm
issi
on o
f Wal
ker
Boo
ks L
td, L
ondo
n S
E11
5H
J, 1
986
Ext
ract
1, 7
-8
Ext
ract
2, 7
-8
Po
orl
y T
om
©
Pri
mar
y S
trat
egy
Tea
m
Leic
este
r LE
A, 2
005
7-
8
Res
cued
by
a D
og
ca
lled
Flo
w
© P
ipp
a G
oo
dh
art
copy
right
© P
ippa
Goo
dhar
t, pu
blis
hed
by A
nn J
ungm
an o
f Bar
n O
wl B
ooks
. w
ww
.pip
pago
odha
rt.c
o.uk
7-
8
Ro
om
13
© R
ob
ert
Sw
ind
ells
C
orgi
Chi
ldre
n’s,
200
0
7-9
Sh
ort
, Bo
o!
© K
evin
Cro
ssle
y-H
olla
nd
co
pyrig
ht ©
Kev
in C
ross
ley-
Hol
land
198
7 fr
om S
hort
! by
Kev
in
Cro
ssle
y-H
olla
nd (
OU
P, 1
998)
, use
d by
per
mis
sion
of O
xfor
d U
nive
rsity
Pre
ss
8-9
Sh
ort
, In
th
e B
ack
Sea
t ©
Kev
in C
ross
ley-
Ho
llan
d
copy
right
© K
evin
Cro
ssle
y-H
olla
nd 1
998
from
Sho
rt! b
y K
evin
C
ross
ley-
Hol
land
(O
UP
, 199
8), u
sed
by p
erm
issi
on o
f Oxf
ord
Uni
vers
ity P
ress
Ext
ract
1, 7
-8
Ext
ract
2, 7
-8
Tal
l In
sid
e ©
Jea
n R
ich
ard
son
P
engu
in G
roup
, 80
Str
and,
Lon
don,
WC
2R 0
RL,
198
9
6-8
Th
e B
FG
©
Ro
ald
Dah
l D
avid
Hig
ham
Ass
ocia
tes,
5-8
Low
er J
ohn
Str
eet,
Gol
den
Squ
are,
Lo
ndon
, W1F
9H
A, 1
996
7-8
Th
e H
od
geh
eg
© D
ick
Kin
g-S
mit
h
Pen
guin
Gro
up, 8
0 S
tran
d, L
ondo
n, W
C2R
0R
L, 1
987
7-
8
Th
e H
un
dre
d-M
ile-a
n-
Ho
ur
Do
g
© J
erem
y S
tro
ng
P
engu
in G
roup
, 80
Str
and,
Lon
don,
WC
2R 0
RL,
199
8 8-
9
124
-
Th
e Ir
on
Man
©
Ted
Hu
gh
es
Fab
er &
Fab
er, 3
Que
ens
Squ
are,
Lon
don,
WC
1N 3
AU
, 200
1
7-9
Th
e K
elp
ie’s
Pea
rls
© M
olly
Hu
nte
r T
he C
hild
ren’
s B
ook
of B
ooks
, Pen
guin
Gro
up, 8
0 S
tran
d, L
ondo
n,
WC
2R 0
RL,
199
8 9-
10
Th
e L
ast
Qu
arry
man
©
Eri
c Jo
hn
s R
eprin
ted
by k
ind
of p
erm
issi
on o
f Har
per
Col
lins
Pub
lishe
rs L
td,
1997
E
xtra
ct 1
, 8-9
E
xtra
ct 2
, 8-9
T
he
Leg
end
of
Sp
ud
M
urp
hy
© E
oin
Co
lfer
P
engu
in G
roup
, 80
Str
and,
Lon
don,
WC
2R 0
RL,
200
4
7-8
Th
e L
ittl
e B
oat
©
Kat
hy
Hen
der
son
Ill
ustr
ated
by
Pat
rick
Ben
son.
R
epro
duce
d by
per
mis
sion
of W
alke
r B
ooks
Ltd
, Lon
don
SE
11
5HJ,
199
5
6-8
Th
e O
akh
ollo
w
Mys
tery
©
Tes
sa K
raili
ng
O
xfor
d Li
tera
cy W
eb, y
ear
3 F
ictio
n, O
UP
, 200
1), u
sed
by
perm
issi
on o
f Oxf
ord
Uni
vers
ity P
ress
. E
xtra
ct 1
, 7-8
E
xtra
ct 2
, 7-8
T
he
Sp
ace
Sto
waw
ay
© M
alo
rie
Bla
ckm
an
Unk
now
n pu
blis
her
8-
9
Th
e T
ow
er t
o t
he
Su
n
© C
olin
Th
om
pso
n
Ran
dom
Hou
se, 2
0 V
auxh
aull
Brid
ge R
oad,
Lon
don,
SW
1Y 2
SA
, 19
96
7-8
Th
e T
un
nel
©
Pri
mar
y S
trat
egy
Tea
m
Leic
este
r LE
A, 2
005
7-
8
Th
e T
wel
fth
Flo
or
Kid
s ©
Ru
th S
ymes
U
nkno
wn
publ
ishe
r
7-8
Th
e W
itch
es
© R
oal
d D
ahl
Dav
id H
igha
m A
ssoc
iate
s, 5
-8 L
ower
Joh
n S
tree
t, G
olde
n S
quar
e,
Lond
on, W
1F 9
HA
, 199
6 E
xtra
ct 1
, 8-9
E
xtra
ct 2
, 9-1
1 E
xtra
ct 3
, 8-9
W
alk
Tw
o M
oo
ns
© S
har
on
Cre
ech
D
avid
Hig
ham
Ass
ocia
tes,
5-8
Low
er J
ohn
Str
eet,
Gol
den
Squ
are,
Lo
ndon
, W1F
9H
A, 1
997
8-9
Wh
at m
ade
Tid
dal
ik
Lau
gh
©
Jo
ann
a T
rou
gh
ton
P
engu
in G
roup
, 80
Str
and,
Lon
don,
WC
2R 0
RL,
200
4 7-
8
Zia
th
e O
rch
estr
a ©
Jan
et B
urc
het
t &
S
ara
Vo
gle
r ©
Tam
arin
d B
ooks
, PO
Box
52,
Nor
thw
ood,
Mid
dles
ex, H
A6
1UN
, 02
0 88
66 8
808,
ww
w.ta
mar
indb
ooks
.co.
uk
6-7
125
-
Supplements
126