Content Analysis of Spiritual Life in Contemporary USA, India ...

Content Analysis of Spiritual Life in Contemporary USA, India, and China

Elsa Lau

Submitted in partial fulfillment of the

requirements for the degree of

Doctor of Philosophy

under the Executive Committee

of the Graduate School of Arts and Sciences

COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY

2019

© 2019

Elsa Lau

All rights reserved

ABSTRACT

Content Analysis of Spiritual Life in Contemporary USA, India, and China

Elsa Lau

Considering the unique cultural and political contexts through which spirituality emerges, this

study investigates the lived-experience of spiritual life in USA, India, and China. In this study,

culture was defined as geographic (primarily) and ethnically clustered groups of individuals with

broad relative commonality in socio-cultural histories. Religion was considered an aspect of

spirituality and spiritual life. A qualitative coding frame was formulated based on participants’

responses to open-ended questions regarding spirituality. The aim of this study was to clarify the

qualitative content of spiritual life with the help of Dedoose, a mixed methods qualitative

software. The exploratory approach of this study takes on a cross-culturally comparative lens,

and has two primary questions: (1) What are the universal aspects of lived spirituality across

cultures, and (2) How does culture shape spiritual experience (e.g., typology, and prevalence). A

total of 6112 participants (41% women, mean age of 29 years, range 18–75 years) were recruited

from crowdsourcing platforms. The primary thematic categories were religion (religious

traditions, religious conversion, religious professionals, religious figures “theophany,” and

religious forces “heirophany”), contemplative practice (meditation, mindful movement, prayer,

and rituals), ancestors (ancestral worship, dreams about ancestors, and ancestors discussed),

natural world (animals, and nature), and metaphysical phenomenon. Metaphysical categories

were further parsed apart to include extrasensory perception (telepathy, clairvoyance,

precognition, realistic dreams, and intuitive impressions), psychokinesis, survival hypothesis

(near death experiences, out of body experiences, and apparitional experiences), and faith and

energy healing (recovery/remission of illness, and spiritual practitioners).

i

Table of Contents

List of Tables..................................................................................................................................ii

List of Figures.................................................................................................................................iii

Acknowledgements.........................................................................................................................iv

Introduction ....................................................................................................................................1

Method...........................................................................................................................................11

Results............................................................................................................................................14

Discussion......................................................................................................................................15

References......................................................................................................................................35

Appendix A: Exemplar Excerpts of the Coding Frame.................................................................42

Appendix B: Informed Consent.....................................................................................................66

ii

List of Tables

Table 1. Demographics……...…………………………...............................................................28

Table 2. List of Open-ended Questions.........................................................................................29

Table 3. Rates of Codes Occurrence by Country (Percent)...........................................................30

iii

List of Figures

Figure 1. Bilingual committee technique used to translate qualitative items and data……….....31

Figure 2. Religious affiliation………………………………………………………...................32

Figure 3. Perceived importance of spirituality..............................................................................33

Figure 4. Code co-occurrence and common profiles of spiritual experience................................34

iv

Acknowledgements

I would like to thank all of the wonderful individuals who contributed their unique

expertise to my dissertation. I offer a special thanks to my mentor, Dr. Lisa Miller, who has

inspired me with her innovative work and supported me across the entire journey of this

immense project. I would also like to thank my committee chair, Dr. Brandon Velez, and outside

reader, Dr. Nicholas Bartlett, whom so generously offered their expertise on methods and cross-

cultural comparative perspectives to further enhance this study. I would like to thank the

dedicated RAs whom contributed so much to this project, including Mariana Graziosi, Ashritha

Nakkana, and Albert Garcia, and the many anonymous participants who courageously shared

their moving encounters of spirit. I would also like to express gratitude to my mother, who

lovingly supported me and is always my number one fan. Last but not least, I would like to thank

my partner, for her immeasurable love and unrelenting faith in me, and my two cats, Lena and

Gus, for their calm presence and spunkiness which brought so much laughter into our lives

through it all. Thank you, thank you, thank you, from the bottom of my heart for your presence

along this journey.

1

INTRODUCTION

A Universal Spirituality

Research indicates that spirituality and religion are two different constructs. Spirituality is

an innate part of all individuals, according to twin studies which show 30% of the human

capacity for spirituality to be due to broad heritability (Kendler, Gardner, & Prescott 1997).

Spirituality is a way of perception and connection with the life force, the greater Universe, and

the transcendent in daily life. Religion is taught, and is over 90% socialized (Kendler, Gardner,

& Prescott 1999). Religion is a form of expression, a system of ritual, teachings and meaning

that embraces our natural spirituality. Spirituality is innate, and religion is socialized. Religion

can foster a natural spirituality; however, spirituality can be fostered other ways.

Studies on questionnaire development provide minimal assessment for the construct of

spirituality, and focus primarily on reliability and validity (Dy-Liacco, Piedmont, Murray-

Swank, Rodgerson, & Sherman, 2009; Meezenbroek et al. 2010; Moberg, 2002; Piedmont, 2007;

Piedmont & Leach, 2002; Rican & Janosova, 2010; Traphagan, 2005). Despite diverse

definitions, there are findings supporting the importance of spirituality in health disciplines, with

evidence emphasizing spiritual practices and beliefs to be related to health and well-being (Jiao,

2013; Lucchetti et al. 2016). Meta-analyses have identified the positive relationship between

spirituality and quality of life (Sawatzky, Ratner & Chiu, 2005), well-being in the context of

palliative care and hospice (Edwards, Pang, Shiu, & Chan, 2010), and adjustment in cancer

patients (Jim, et. al, 2015). Additionally, there exists a commonly used quality of life of life scale

that highlights the necessity of existential well-being (Cohen, Mount, Tomas & Mount, 1996).

The current body of literature on universal aspects of spirituality examines definitions,

theories, and applications (Meezenbroek et. al, 2012). The research on spirituality in religion,

health care, personal growth, questionnaire formation, and cross-cultural studies utilizes a wide

range of terminology, which may imply a diversity of non-standardized definitions within the

2

field (Moberg, 2002). One review of 73 studies offered potential definitions for spirituality

(Chiu, Emblen, Van Hofwegen, Sawatzky, & Meyerhoff, 2004). Common terms included

connectedness, transcendence, existential reality, meaning, purpose, sacredness, yoga,

meditation, self-awareness, and religious practice (Chiu, et al. 2004; Elkin, Hedstrom, Hughes,

Leaf, & Saunders, 1998; Mooney & Timmins, 2007). Overall, the literature seems to coalesce on

the idea that universal spirituality includes but may not be limited to transcendence, life purpose,

personal awareness/relation to self, and connectedness, both cross-culturally and regardless of

religion. Spirituality is commonly distinguished as a separate construct from religion, while

religion often includes spiritual belief (Pargament 1999).

Meditation has been proposed to be a cross-culturally salient pathway to spiritual

development (Kristeller & Jordan, 2017), as well as art (Mooney & Timmins, 2007). There is

evidence that spirituality may be a fundamental component of personality across cultural groups

(Rican & Jasanova, 2010), or a cultural adaptation of the personality traits of agreeableness and

conscientiousness (Saroglou, 2010). Lastly, non-traditional manifestations of spirituality add to

the construct of spirituality. Meditation, healing groups and twelve-step programs are pathways

to the sacred which can deeply transform and enhance the human experience (Zinnbauer et al.

1999). A deepened, more personalized, sense of spirituality may have the potential to bring

greater well-being to diverse communities.

Spiritual Life Across Three Unique Countries

India: Brahman, Kin, Dharma, and Materialism

The literature on psychology and Hinduism describes spirituality in India as adhering to

four unique principles, including universality, collectivism, social discipline, and realism. Firstly,

religions in India place emphasis upon “a highest consciousness or state of existence universal

and transcendent of the universe, from which all comes, in which all lives and moves without

knowing it, and of which all must one day grow aware, returning towards that which is perfect,

3

eternal and infinite” (Aurobindo, 1919, p. 2). In Hinduism, Brahman is the ultimate reality

underlying all existence, and the core underpinning of this religion lies in the union of one’s

individual identity with Brahman (Hanna & Green, 2004). This belief in the unitive nature of life

is called universality (Piedmont & Leach, 2002). Secondly, in Hindu society an individual is

often seen as an inherent extension of the family, which comprises a larger kin network, as well

as a social community. In collectivistic cultures, individuals are interdependent and personal

identity is informed by collective beliefs (Hodge, 2004). As an individual in traditional Indian

society pursues spiritual growth, it is common to seek a spiritual mentor (e.g., guru) and spiritual

social support (Bhawuk, 2003). Thirdly, to help individuals achieve ultimate existence (i.e.,

Brahman), Hinduism provides a framework (i.e., dharma) that guides personal and collective

conduct, and advocates for certain behaviors and virtues (e.g., hospitality, self-control,

compassion, charity, etc.) that are consistent with the moral standards which are favorable to a

harmonious society. The caste system of India demonstrates the salient role of social order and

discipline playing out in broader society. The caste system delineates classes of individuals with

particular duties. The original purpose of this system was to create a social structure that

benefitted all parties (Nikhilananda, 1959; Hodge, 2004). Lastly, unlike many other religions

which denigrate sensual pleasures, Hinduism considers human activities as part of spiritual

practice. Hinduism legitimates the acquisition of wealth, power and success (i.e., artha) as well

as physical pleasures (i.e., kama; Dalal & Misra, 2010; Sharma, 2003; Nikhilananda, 1959).

Relatedly, some schools of Indian religion consider sexuality as an important part of spirituality

and a bridge to super-consciousness (Bhawuk, 2003).

In contrast with the Western materialist worldview, Indian psychology recognizes

paranormal aspects of human experience and provides plausible explanations to address these

phenomenon (Dalal & Misra, 2010). Spiritual ecstasies are not considered abnormal in Indian

society, and traditionally, individuals who displayed defiant mental states were not treated for

4

mental disorders (Bhawuk, 2003). Hinduism considers suffering as a consequence of bad

conduct in past lives and also as a transitory experience that does not malign one’s true Self;

suffering comes from one’s attachment to this world, by wanting things in a specific manner, and

not neutrally accepting things as they really are (Whitman, 2007). The idea of karma and rebirth

also engenders hope for a better future life, allowing people to tolerate present suffering more

readily (Hodge, 2004).

Indian spirituality prioritizes action over cognitive or value doctrines (Bhawuk, 2003). In

the Hindu religion, the following three action-oriented paths lead to divine existence and

liberation from the rebirth cycle: (1) jnana yoga, a practice based on meditation that leads one to

spiritual enlightenment; (2) bhakti yoga, devotion to deities, including worship, prayer or ritual

offerings performed throughout the year at private or public settings, and (3) karma yoga,

selfless service as a way of meditation which brings one closer to God (Bhawuk, 2011; Hodge,

2004; McCormick, 1994). Hindus often believe that these actions generate positive karma, a

peaceful mind, and spiritual fulfillment (Hanna & Green, 2004).

In addition to karma yoga, Indian spiritual traditions advocate other forms of workplace

spirituality, including: (1) Loksangrah which indicates that individuals should work for the good

of the whole; (2) Guna which teaches people to perceive their work as being greater than the self,

and in turn leads to the experience of self-transcendence; (3) Daivi Sampat which encourages

employers and employees to assimilate the virtues of the gods (e.g., fearlessness, purity, self-

control, calmness, etc.) as their own, and (4) Pancha Kosha which recognizes the potential of

human beings to achieve multi-layered existences and advocates for continued personal growth

in the workplace (Pardasani, R. Sharma, & Bindlish, 2014).

Very few studies have developed scales to measure the constructs of Indian spirituality.

Piedmont and Leach (2002) administered the Spiritual Transcendence Scale (developed by

Piedmont (1999) with participants from an Introductory Psychology course at a U.S. Midwestern

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state university) to a sample of 369 undergraduate Indian students. Two subscales, Prayer

Fulfillment (positive feelings resulting from personal encounters with a transcendent being) and

Universality (unitive nature of life), showed moderate levels of reliability in the Indian

population, while the subscale Connectedness (connection with other individuals across

generations and across groups) showed a low level of reliability. Gaur and Sharma (2014)

developed a novel Spiritual Health Assessment Scale to measure spiritual health in Indian

samples. The study surveyed 1050 participants from Dausa, city of Rajasthan, and found three

domains relevant to Indian spiritual health defined as self-development, self-actualization and

self-realization. As the domains were constructed from the authors’ own experience and

interpretations of spirituality, with a lack of rigorous psychometric testing, the validity of the

scale is unclear. Additionally, further research is needed to clarify the phenomenological

categories of spiritual and religious experience in present day India.

USA: Religious Communities, Diversity, and the Subjective Transpersonal

The spiritual experiences of Americans may vary greatly depending on geographic

location and related participation in religious communities. Increasing interest in the topic of

religion and spirituality in psychology has fueled research efforts to capture the experience and

characterization of spiritual life in America. Though the racially and religiously heterogeneous

makeup of the American population complicates the search for definitive types of spiritual

experience, a close examination of relevant literature provides emerging thematic trends.

One of such trends is the growing polarization between the concept of religion and

spirituality, such that the term religion is increasingly becoming associated with “institutional,

formal, outward, doctrinal, authoritarian, inhibiting individual expression,” while spirituality has

become associated with a more personal side of religion, involving “individual, subjective,

emotional, inward, unsystematic, and self-expression” (Hill & Pargament, 2008). This parallels

the trend towards secularization in the U.S., where a growing number of individuals profess no

6

religious affiliation but still consider themselves spiritual or religious (Bengtson, Silverstein,

Putney, & Harris, 2015). This phenomenon called “new age spirituality” has been described as

encompassing three main facets: (1) a mystical idea of one’s inner self and divine nature, (2) an

emphasis on harmony throughout the world rather than conflict, and (3) an approach to truth that

requires subjective experience rather than objective and analytical method of modern science

(Houtman, Aupers, & Heelas, 2009). This movement away from institutional religion towards a

more personal spirituality may partially be explained by the political upheaval in the U.S. during

the 1960s and 1970s (Bengtson et al., 2015). A study on the baby boomer generation found that

those who participated in the protest movements of the 1960s and 1970s, such as anti-war, civil-

rights, and women’s rights movements, showed significant declines in religious participation

between high school years to 1973, compared to those who did not participate (Sherkat, 1998).

Spiritual experiences in America can be understood through instrument-formation studies

which aimed to generate valid and reliable spirituality assessment tools for U.S. samples. For

example, The Daily Spiritual Experience Scale assesses the extent to which an individual

addresses their ultimate questions about life-meaning, perceives the transcendent in daily life,

and uses spiritual beliefs to overcome physical or emotional difficulties (Underwood & Teresi,

2002). Another scale, The Spiritual Assessment Scale, conceptualizes spirituality as a

phenomenon with four critical attributes, including purpose and meaning in life, inner resources,

unifying interconnectedness, and transcendence (Delaney, 2005). Based on the

conceptualizations of spirituality evident in these scales developed by and tested on U.S.

samples, it can be surmised that U.S. spirituality generally focuses on personal interaction with

the transcendent and deriving a sense of purpose and meaning from spiritual interactions, and

this manifests most robustly in contexts which involve coping with hardship (Skaggs & Barron,

2006).

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The association between spirituality and hardship in the U.S. is particularly evident in the

field of medicine and palliative care. For example, one study which explored spiritual issues of

patients with advanced disease found that spirituality played an important role in coping by

fostering a sense of meaning, creating identity within illness, and fostering peace of mind for

patients as they grappled with mortality (Grant, Murray, Kendall, Boyd, Tilley, & Ryan, 2004).

A similar study examined spiritual concerns of ethnic minority patients and found five themes

from the interviews, including religious/spiritual coping, beliefs, and community, practices, and

transformation (Alcorn et al., 2010). These studies along with other similar studies from the

field of medicine and palliative care, suggest that spiritual engagement facilitates coping by

activating purpose and meaning-making processes, highlighting emotional support from a divine

force, and emphasizing community engagement.

Many individual and societal factors also influence how spirituality is experienced (e.g.,

gender, marital status, and life-time events). Uecker and colleagues (2007) explored the

maintenance of religiosity/spirituality, and found that individuals with ethnic ties to their

religion, such as Jews, Catholics, and Black Protestants, have lower rates of disaffiliation from

religion compared to evangelical Protestants or adherents of other religions. A study by Argue,

Johnson, and White (1999) also noted differences in religious and spiritual experience between

denominations. They found that, with increasing age, religiosity increased significantly more for

Catholics compared to Protestants. One explanation for the differences in religious/spiritual

experience between denominations may be that different denominations encourage different

gender norms within sermons, rituals, and informal discussion. Maselko and Kuzansky (2009)

found that among Catholics, men’s level of psychological distress decreased with increases in

frequency of religious activity, while women’s levels of distress actually increased, and these

differences were not observed among Protestants.

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Several life course events play a role in religiosity and spirituality in U.S. samples.

Pursuing higher education, has a positive association with maintaining religious service

attendance and religious importance, while not attending college predicts a decrease in religious

participation in young adults (Uecker, Regnerus, & Vaaler, 2007) and baby boomers (Sherkat,

1998). Marriage and childbearing also appear to be robust predictors of continuing or increasing

religious attendance, religious importance, and religious affiliation, whereas staying unmarried,

going through divorce, or cohabitation predict decreasing religious participation from

adolescence to adulthood (Uecker et al., 2007; Sherkat, 1998). Marriage and parenthood are also

associated with decreased likelihood of disaffiliation from religion and greater perception that

religion is a source of life satisfaction (Sandomirsky & Wilson 1990). In addition, participating

in religiously unacceptable behaviors, such as drug use and frequent premarital sex, is a predictor

of decreasing religious participation overtime (Uecker et al., 2007). In summary, a substantial

body of literature exists on spiritual and religious life diversity in America, with some general

trends in religious participation and spiritual life processes.

China: Daily Life, Familial Connections, and the Metaphysical

The Cultural Revolution was a relatively recent critical historical period of China which

laid the foundations for a unique present day spiritual and religious landscape (Du, 2010;

Goldman, 1986). From 1966 to 1976, under the leadership of communist party chairman Mao

Zedong emerged a persuasive and violent ideology which was Western in its Marxist-Leninist

message and also anti-western imperialism (Foster, 2000). The primary goal of these ideologies

was to bring China on the path to modernity (Wei-Ming, 1996). Religion was shunned, books

and temples were burned as Mao crusaded for a China that was more resilient against outside

influence. For the purpose of political monopoly, during this period of time the Chinese

government punished religious involvement and denounced the rituals and beliefs associated

with traditional Chinese folk religions (Potter, 2003). Slogans like “Only Mr. Sai (Science) and

9

Mr. De (Democracy) could save China” fostered a sense that a dissolution of the old

superstitious ways of thinking, partnered with greater immersion in the material world, would

pave the way for a new and more prosperous modern China (Wei-Ming, 1996). In the aftermath

of the cultural revolution, the Chinese government has attempted to organize and regulate

religious practice; however, the deeply rooted traditions of Chinese philosophy and belief have

continued to reemerge in a country that has become less inhospitable to faith, with ever greater

political loopholes allowing spirituality to take deeper root in public and private sectors (Chan,

2005; Overmeyer, 2003; Yao & Badham, 2007; Yang, 1961; Zhang, Liu, & Cheng, 2009).

China has witnessed a rapid revival of religious faith since 1979 (Liang, 2012; Lizhu,

2003; Madsen, 2011). Present day diverse practices and beliefs come from both official and

unofficial religions (as designated by the government), as well as folk religion (Harrell, 1977;

Harrell, 1979). Religious revival for ethnic minorities like Uighurs and Tibetans has been

paralleled by a broad cultural renaissance (Madsen, 2011). Official statistics in 2003 have

indicated that upwards of 200 million believers reside in China, and this large group has grown

in response to several factors. This includes the end of the ban on freedom of worship, and the

rapid political and economic reforms which have resulted in social uncertainties (Lai, 2005). In

the 21st century, China’s Buddhist diplomacy has emerged as a buffer and moral foundation

against the rapidly changing economy and Christian movement. Buddhism in this modern

context may offer a new possibility of social harmony amidst globalization, by increasing

diversity of thought in China (Angelskår, 2013).

Modernization has also contributed to religious re-composition in contemporary China.

As a result, spiritual independence has gradually increased, paralleling the emergence of

autonomous individualism (Ji, 2006). Chinese spiritual beliefs have somewhat liberalized and

diversified over the last 30 years (Yang, 2012; Zhang, Du, & Zhen, 2011). Traditional and

authorized religions have similar but also divergent ideologies, which creates contrast between

10

religious groups (Du & Du, 2011). The emerging presence of spiritual and religious syncretism

in China may facilitate more harmonious coexistence of traditional and nontraditional beliefs

(Wu, 2008). This re-emergence and reformation of old tradition and ideologies of a new

typology may be linked to an underlying thirst for knowledge of the spirit (Goossaert & Palmer,

2011).

Atheism is the established official belief system which shapes Chinese youth’s

perspectives on faith. Nearly 40% of university students from Beijing, China’s largest city, report

feeling strongly uncertain about religious beliefs and place little importance on them. This

atheistic belief system may result from limited religious exposure and development for Chinese

emerging adults. Zhang, Du and Zhen (2011) revealed that the content of contemporary Chinese

youth’s spiritual beliefs included six types, including religious beliefs, soul beliefs, spiritual

transcendence beliefs, inner power beliefs, social beliefs, and practical beliefs. 31% of the

adolescents emphasized spiritual transcendence, believing that there is a spiritual world beyond

religion. This finding indicates that, similar to American adolescents, spiritual transcendence

beliefs are an important component of the belief systems of contemporary Chinese youth. From

the late twentieth century to the present, the economic and social environment has evolved and

catalyzed the emergence of a unique cultural atmosphere. This phenomena has paralleled a

yearning for spirit in the young adults of contemporary China. This is evidenced by country

statistics reporting that 9% of the Chinese population publicly identify with a religious group,

while 80% of the population are open to supernatural beliefs (the latter being similar for

Americans). In contrast however, recent Pew Forum findings indicate that over 76% of

Americans identify with a religion. This difference hints at a potential universal proclivity for

spiritual processes and experience, irrespective of religious identification and participation.

Aims of Study

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Considering the unique cultural and political contexts through which spirituality emerges,

this study investigates the lived-experience of spiritual life in contemporary USA, India, and

China. In this study, culture was defined as geographic (primarily) and ethnically clustered

groups of individuals with broad relative commonality in socio-cultural histories. Religion was

considered an aspect of spirituality and spiritual life. A qualitative coding frame was formulated

based on participants’ responses to open-ended questions regarding spirituality. The aim of this

study is to clarify the qualitative content of spiritual life with the help of Dedoose, a mixed

methods qualitative software. The exploratory approach of this study takes on a cross-culturally

comparative lens, and has two primary questions: (1) What are the universal aspects of lived

spirituality across cultures, and (2) How does culture shape spiritual experience (e.g., typology,

and prevalence).

METHOD

Participants

From June of 2014 to February of 2015, 6112 participants (41% women, mean age=29

years, range 18–75 years) were recruited from equivalent crowdsourcing websites including

Mturk.com for residents in USA (N=1633) and India (N=1141), and Zhubajie.com for residents

of China (N=3338) (see Table 1). Participants were reimbursed $6 or its equivalent after full

completion of the questionnaire. The online questionnaire consisted of a number of widely used

spiritual, clinical, and psychological instruments, as well as socio-demographic and open-ended

qualitative questions. This study was approved by the Institutional Review Board of Teachers

College, Columbia University, and informed consent was obtained from all participants before

inclusion in the study (see Appendix B for consent forms).

Measures

Nine qualitative multi-part questions were included as two separate blocks in the

beginning and middle of the questionnaire. These questions included: (1) How do you define

12

religion? (2) How do you define spirituality? (3) Please tell us the story of your most significant

spiritual or religious experience. What led up to it? How did it affect the way you live? How did

it change your view of reality or sense of purpose? (4) If you have ever had an experience of any

of the following, would you please tell us your story? (A healing through prayer. A prophetic

dream. A visitation by an ancestor, angel, or other sacred being. A strongly felt sense of oneness

and connection. An important synchronicity. Any other surprising or meaningful spiritual

experience that you have not yet shared.) (5) Who have been the most significant figures in your

own spiritual or religious growth? Please tell us about the development of one of these

relationships. (6) Please use this space to elaborate in your own words on your spiritual life story.

(7) How is spirituality or religion a positive presence in your everyday life? How has that

changed over time? Have there been times where spirituality or religion has influenced you in a

negative way? (8) Has spirituality or religion ever helped you through times of suffering? If so,

please tell us the story. (9) Do you believe that there is something essentially "you" that will live

on after you die? If so, was this essence of “you” something that was present before you were

born? (see Table 2 for all questions and Chinese translations).

Procedure

The survey was provided in English for the USA and India sample, and the China survey

was translated into Chinese. The Chinese translation process of the open-ended questions

followed common and recommended procedures of instrument adaptation based on previous

international studies (Squires, et al., 2013; WHO, 2015). The questions and instructions were

translated into Chinese by a committee of five bilingual translators. To establish conceptual

equivalence of the original instruments, the Chinese version was back-translated into English by

unique translators, and was compared to the original English survey by the entire translation

committee. A few terms that required clarification were discussed, and minor modifications were

13

applied to adjust for conceptual discrepancies encountered during the translation and back-

translation process (see Figure 1).

Data Analysis

Across the spectrum of qualitative analysis described by Vaismoradi and colleagues

(2013), ranging from thematic analysis to content analysis, the approach used in this study

primarily focuses on a content analysis approach. The rationale being that content analyses

would help identify emergent categories of spiritual life and experience using minimal

interpretation of content. Due to the limited research in cross-cultural spirituality in larger

populations, the intention was to begin identifying how the phenomenon of spirituality manifests

for adults across USA, India, and China. The qualitative analyses were also partially informed by

the inductive process of grounded theory, which utilizes a bottom-up data-driven approach

(Braun & Clarke, 2006; Charmaz, 2011), and considered all responses to questions on spirituality

to be spiritual experiences as defined by the participant. Stages of analysis included coding

participants from each country to reach theme saturation across coders, exploring coding for

interpretative bias and reliability, ensuring parsimony in content categories, and establishing

hierarchical categories to organize codes into a final code frame.

Specifically, to develop a code frame, 100 participants were randomly selected from each

country and coded with the assistance of Dedoose, a mixed-methods qualitative software. All

potential themes were parsed out for each open-ended question by committee members until

theme saturation was reached across raters during this open coding phase. To ensure inter-rater

reliability during the first stage of qualitative analysis, committee members reviewed data

independently. Themes were subsequently compared and consolidated, and a hierarchical

coding-frame was developed. During the selective coding phase, the coding-frame was applied to

600 participants. Lastly, representative narratives which best illustrate each theme was

determined through independent and subsequent committee review.

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RESULTS

In the USA sample, 61% endorsed a religious denomination, and 48% identified as

Christian. In the India sample, 96% endorsed a religious denomination, with a majority,

identifying as Hindu (63%). In the China sample, 57% endorsed a religious denomination, with a

majority identifying as Buddhist (36%) (see figure 2). Overall, religion was associated with both

positive and negative attributes. Across all three countries, participants often described religion

as a formal set of rules, oftentimes dualistic and dogmatic, a system of faith and worship, a frame

work of life/the world/the universe, an organized cultural system of world views, teachings based

on religious texts, ideologies on how people should behave to create a harmonious society, a

guidance system, morality, hierarchical groups, powerful institutions that can exploit the

innocent, a belief in divine beings, altruism and good actions, objectification, superstition, faith,

and commonly a path to spirituality or something that strengthens spirituality

Perceived importance of spiritual life varied by country, with over 20% in USA, 50% in

India, and 5% in China reporting spirituality as highly important (see figure 3). Spirituality was

often described as a positive and personalized process. Across all three countries, participants

frequently described spirituality as meaning-making, reflection on life and death, intuition, a

personal experience of God, an innate process, a human capacity, individual purpose, devotion,

integration of religious ideals, focus on non-material world, personal relationship with god, faith

in God or a higher power that results in transformation, a search for transformation, something

immeasurable by modern science, enlightenment, intelligence, religious practices, something that

is both innate and cultivated through reflection and application of moral/ethical virtues, and is

associated with non-material and metaphysical experiences.

Contents of Spiritual Life

The primary thematic categories included religion (religious traditions, religious

conversion, religious professionals, religious figures “theophany,” and religious forces

15

“heirophany,”) contemplative practice (meditation, mindful movement, prayer, and rituals),

ancestors (ancestral worship, dreams about ancestors, and ancestors discussed), natural world

(animals, and nature), and metaphysical phenomenon. Metaphysical categories were further

parsed apart with reference to nomenclature established in the field of paranormal psychology

(Irwin & Watt, 2007), which facilitated parsimonious terminology and higher order classification

of data-driven categories. These include extrasensory perception (telepathy, clairvoyance,

precognition, realistic dreams, and intuitive impressions), psychokinesis, survival hypothesis

(near death experiences, out of body experiences, and apparitional experiences), and faith and

energy healing (recovery/remission of illness, and spiritual practitioners). The faith and energy

healing category combines “psychic healing” described by Irwin and Watt (2007), and Levin’s

(2011) typologies of culturally and historically distinct groups of energy healers with unique

cultural lineages. Chi-square analyses of the qualitative frequencies revealed all broad categories

(contemplative practice, ancestors, and natural world) to be significantly different between

countries (p=.001), with the metaphysical category being significantly different but to a

relatively lesser degree (p=.005) (see table 3 for rates, figure 4 for visual illustration of code co-

occurrence, and Appendix A for code-related excerpts).

DISCUSSION

The aim of this study was to identify categories of lived spirituality within present day

US, India, and China using qualitative analysis over free-response narratives. Each of these three

countries carry distinct cultural and historical lineages which likely inform contemporary

religious practices, spiritual experiences, and the spiritual language used. Despite contextual

differences, similarities readily emerged through the data-driven inductive analyses, and is

strikingly seen in the concomitant categories. Metaphysical phenomenon is actively reported

across participants, despite varying rates of religious, non-religious, and atheistic identification

across countries. The absence of the parameters of quantitative scales, which sometimes

16

implicitly carry cultural specificity, may have played a role in highlighting more ubiquitous

facets of lived-spirituality. As such, this extensive qualitative study served to generate conceptual

insight into the possibility of shared and specific spiritual experience across three diverse cultural

groups.

Religion was commonly mentioned in China (58%), India (86%) and USA (83%), with

emphasis on religious figures or “theophany” (such as Jesus or the Buddha), although a

substantial subset described religious forces or “heirophany” (e.g., the Holy Spirit or the Tao).

Religious professionals were more frequently mentioned in India and the US relative to China,

indicating that perhaps religious authorities had a lesser degree of influence on spiritual life in

China. Contemplative practice was also common in all three countries (51-72%), and was most

likely to occur in the form of prayer. Participants from India and the US were equally likely to

report having a meditation practice, though mind-body practices such as yoga were more

prominent in India, where the original practice of yoga was developed (Newcombe, 2009). The

natural world was reported in both China (19%) and the US (29%), while seldomly mentioned

in India (5%). A surprising commonality among US and China participants was the role of

ancestors in spiritual life. In both countries, around 32 percent of participants described

ancestors as important mentors on one’s spiritual path, and as lively (albeit disembodied) spirits

or forces after death. Additionally, in both countries, ancestors often appeared in dreams as

omens portending death. Lastly, 64 to 75 percent of participants in each country described

experiences of metaphysical phenomena. While the prevalence of subtypes varied by country

(discussed below), the transcendent non-material dimension to spiritual life was clearly active

and readily reported across participants.

The broad convergence and pattern of response in these descriptions of spiritual life and

lived experience suggests that, while spiritual expression is culturally molded, it is not culturally

constrained. A study involving the quantitative data from this sample (McClintock, Lau & Miller

17

(2016) used factor analysis and confirmatory ESEM to identify five dimensions of spiritual

experience which included (1) love, in relationships and as a sacred reality (2)

interconnectedness with other beings, (3) altruism, (4) contemplative practice, and (5) religious

and spiritual reflection. In our current study, the prevalent theme of ancestors and metaphysical

phenomena provides qualitative support for the dimensions of love and interconnectedness. The

literature on spirituality also supports the notion that spirituality is an innate feature of the human

experience (Kendler, Gardner, & Prescott, 1997; Muller, 2008; Newberg & Newberg, 2008).

Neuroscience offers evidence of biological correlates of spiritual experience (Newberg,

Pourdehnad, Alavi, & d’Aquili, 2003; Miller, Bansal, Wickramaratne, Hao, Tenke, Weissman, &

Peterson, 2014; Miller et. al, 2018), which strengthens the case for an innate spirituality, with

expression that is simply shaped by culture.

The western emphasis on secular-materialism seems to have found its way into Eastern

cultures (Ager & Ager, 2011; Ger & Belk, 1995; Podoshen, Li, & Zhang, 2011), and this is

potentially an artifact of globalization. Religious faith traditions and non-secularism are

increasingly seen as less “real” or valuable relative to a secular worldview, which emphasizes the

supremacy of science and the material. As such, the transcendent relationship with the world of

spirit, adherence to a faith tradition, and experiences of metaphysical phenomenon may be seen

as less socially desirable than the secular materialist view for some of our participants. For

example, a few participants were apologetic for sounding “too religious.” Overall, the relative

similarities in code frequency and categories may give emerging support for underlying core

features of spiritual life; however, nuanced differences were identified and may shed light on the

cultural forces shaping lived spiritual experience

Unique Manifestations Across Countries

Differences in the expression of code categories offers insight into how spirituality is

culturally molded. For instance, while religion appeared in the narratives from all three

18

countries, religious conversion was much more common in the US (23%), relative to China (2%)

and India (7%). Although there were relatively high reports of religion across countries,

participants in India made more references to religious figures (70%) compared to US (48%) and

China (30%). Contemplative practice was reported by participants in all three countries (51-

72%), but references to the experience of prayer occurred more often in India. While the natural

world, which includes being in nature and with animals, was discussed by participants from both

China (19%) and the US (29%), natural environments were much more readily described as

settings for spiritual transformation rather than animals in the US. Mention of ancestors was

prominent in both China and the US; however, there were some key differences in context. For

example, in China ancestors were commonly associated with ancestral worship, which was not a

common practice in the US. These rituals involved activities like grave sweeping, burning

incense and paper money over an ancestor’s grave, and making food offerings to ancestors.

Historically, ritual has been crucial to the fabric of Chinese society (Aijmer, 1968; Kern, 2007;

Ward, 1979; Sutton, 2007; Teiser, 1986), with particular emphasis on the rites of death (Baker,

1965; Brook, 1989; Sutton, 2007; Teiser, 1986). That Chinese culture has been steeped in ritual

practices illustrates how culture might mold the expression of spirituality.

The expression of metaphysical phenomena also varied with culturally specific symbols

and contexts. Research demonstrates that culture affects perception (Segall, Campbell, &

Herskovit, 1968; Ji, Peng, & Nisbett, 2000; Nisbett & Miyamoto, 2005). In our study,

experiences which are captured by the extrasensory perception category of metaphysical

phenomenon were more common in the US (51%) and China (56%). The extrasensory

experiences that were most often reported in the US and China were those of realistic dreams

(25% and 34%, respectively) and intuitive impressions (27% and 32%). Telepathy, clairvoyance,

and precognition were reported with relatively moderate frequency across countries.

Clairvoyance was more highly reported in the US compared to eastern counterparts. China had

19

the most reports of realistic dreams (34%) (e.g. dreaming of an unexpected event, and

subsequently experiencing the same event in waking life) and intuitive impressions (32%) (e.g.,

synchronicity where two or more meaningful events happen consecutively which the participant

perceives as related and meaningful, and de ja vu, feeling as if a novel person, place, or event has

been experienced previously). US had the most mentions of extrasensory experiences involving

survival hypothesis (30%) (i.e., the notion that life continues after death). Specifically, this took

the form of apparitional experiences (as opposed to near death or out of body experiences).

Finally, faith or energy healing was more commonly reported in India (29%), with stories

commonly involving miracles and recovery or remission from illness.

Socio-cultural and Historical Factors

Taking a further look into contextual and historical factors may shed further light on

these findings. In the US sample, descriptions of spiritual experience were often rooted in

religious beliefs, specifically within Christian faith. Concurrently, participants often reported

belief in religion and spirituality as two separate phenomena. Other responses included

agnosticism and belief in spirituality but not religion. There were also reports of religious beliefs

outside of Christian faith (e.g. Buddhism, Judaism, Islam). Additionally, participants frequently

reported feeling a sense of spiritual “oneness” through nature, prayer, and mind-body practice.

Experiences with animals, both in the context of nature and domestic settings, were often

accompanied by loss, increased empathy, and anthropomorphism. The findings suggest that

spiritual attribution is widespread in the US. In a national survey of the United States, 76 percent

agreed with the statement “I experience something more sacred in life than simply material

existence” (Doehring, Clarke, Pargament, Hyes, Hammer, Nickolas, & Hughes, 2009).

Additionally, in the US sample there was a relatively higher degree of spiritual

exploration, as evidenced by greater reports of religious conversion. There were many reports of

conversion out of a religion (primarily Christianity) and some reports of converting to a new

20

religion (e.g. Buddhism). The literature attributes the tendency for religious conversion in the

United States as a consequence of its materialist and individualistic society (Rambo, 1999;

Sherkat & Wilson, 1995; Smith & Sikkink, 2003). Sherkat and Wilson’s (1995) paradigm of

religious mobility describes religion in the US as a “marketplace of freely choosing individuals”

(p. 993). The findings of our study support this idea, with US participants frequently describing

conversion or changes in religious preference, which often resulted in a departure from faith

traditions endorsed by family of origin. At times, participants go as far as to report

disillusionment and disdain towards religious institutions all together. This was in contrast to the

China and India participants, where religious life and spiritual practices tended to be more

collectivistic and family centered.

The India sample was eclectic in terms of faith, spiritual tradition, and lived experience

of spirituality. Responses from these participants seemed to suggest that the transcendent world

of spirituality is very much “real” to these participants, and many were leaning on faith and

spirituality in meaningful ways throughout various aspects of their lives. Additionally, there were

frequent reports of mental illness and conditions of adversity in this sample, which subsequently

became a doorway to spiritual experience. In fact, this sample reported a great deal of faith

healing or energy healing. The common pathways to spirituality included typical avenues such as

prayer, visiting temples or churches, and consulting with spiritual and religious professionals;

however, the widespread use of fasting as a religious practice was unique to this sample.

Furthermore, it seemed that these participants relied heavily on prayer, not only in religious

traditions or places of worship, but also throughout daily life, and both when things are going

well and when faced with adversity.

Participants from India provided much lengthier and richer responses compared to

participants from the United States and China. This may be an artifact of the moderately higher

level of education in the India sample. Research has shown education level to predict survey

21

participation (Sax, Gilmartin, & Bryant, 2003; Malhotra, 2008). More participants in the India

(40%) sample reported obtaining a graduate degree compared to US (13%) and China (6%). The

pattern of response from participants in the India sample may also reflect the legacy of

colonialism. During British rule, religious practices and traditions were publicly discouraged and

subject to criticism (Bellenoit, 2007; Dirks, 1997; Roy, 2006; Thapar, 1989). Those who engaged

in extreme religious practices were cast by the British Media as victims, and the practices

themselves were described as “revolting” (Dirks, 1997, p. 219). Perhaps this may explain why

participants from India tended to apologetically couch their narratives with statements such as

“this may be too religious” (Participant 4493, India). Lastly, colonialism led to the proliferation

of Christian missionary expeditions to India (Bellenoit, 2007; Miller & Stanczak, 2009; Roy,

2006), which brought the language and symbolism of Christian faith into civil discourse. The

high prevalence of Christian-based prayer may be rooted in this legacy.

In the China sample, there were frequent reports of stress related to university entrance

exams. This important milestone task (Davey, Lian, & Higgins, 2007; Ross & Wang, 2010; Yu

& Suen, 2005) was mentioned in many of the participants accounts of realistic dreams and

intuitive impressions (e.g., an inkling, without rational logical thought processes, often

accompanied with imagery, that was subsequently borne out). Other realistic dreams involved

ancestors. Ancestor visitation was related to the phenomenon of “spirit possession,” and a great

deal of the faith/energy healing stories were associated with prayer or ritual. The most common

profile of this phenomenon includes “possession” by an ancestor, where someone would then

become physically ill. Subsequent ritual with spiritual or religious practitioners (e.g. monks,

fortune tellers, and psychics), prayer directed towards traditional religious figures (e.g. Kwan

Yin), and burning of symbolic items such as paper money over the ancestor’s grave, were

attributed to curing the participant or a family member of the persistent physical ailment.

22

Oftentimes, the spiritual practitioners were relatives. Lastly, when animals were mentioned, they

were perceived to be omens or harbingers of death.

These findings, particularly those related to ancestor dreams and intuitive impressions

suggest that, in China, access to the transcendent realm often begins with a journey inward. In

fact, China can be said to have a “dream culture,” and there exists an extensive literature on

dream interpretation dating far back into China’s ancient past (Li, 1999; Ong, 1985; Raphals,

2014; Thompson, 1988). This legacy suggests that the content of dreams has become a culturally

accepted and relied upon source of information. Chinese participants were more attuned to the

content of their dreams, often recalling dreams in vivid detail, processing their dreams with

important others in order to connect with and honor ancestors, or attributing dream experiences

to waking-life concerns, fortune, and future events. Perhaps placing awareness on this state of

consciousness, between dreaming and waking, may explain how these dream-based seemingly

supernatural experiences sustain themselves (Luhrmann, 2014; Davidson, 1976; Thaibourne &

Delin, 1999; Walsh, 1989).

Despite describing many avenues to spirituality in personal and home life, a majority of

the Chinese sample rated spirituality as not important at all or moderately important in their lives

(see Figure 3). Political forces in China may influence religious affiliation and attendance. In

recent history, China has witnessed periods where religious freedoms were curtailed and

religious practices were discouraged (Grim & Finke, 2007; Potter, 2003; Reinsten, 2004). This

history may have shaped the contemporary fabric of China’s spiritual world and language.

Despite having culturally-based ancestral practices and emphasis on the reality of dreams and

intuition, very few participants in this sample commented on experiences with religious

professionals (7%), and nearly half of the sample described themselves as Atheist. The latter was

surprising given that “non-religious” and “other” were also available answer choices in the

demographics portion of the questionnaire (see Table 1). These findings corroborate past

23

research that has found a majority of the Chinese population to be non-religious (Cao, 2012;

Grim & Finke, 2007; Hsieh, 1986; Liqi, Wang, Schillaci, Clark & Kelemen, 2016).

Theory of Religion and Culture

A prominent thought in traditional theory is that religion and spirituality are

fundamentally experiential. Theologian Friedrich Schleiermacher describes the true heart of

religion as experience and feeling (Gerrish, 2001; Niebuhr, 1964). Rudolph Otto also writes of

numinous encounters (i.e., involving the presence of something sacred or divine) as being central

to religion (1917|1958). William James, a Harvard University psychologist and philosopher,

states in his book The Varieties of Religious Experience “if religion be a function by which either

God’s cause or man’s cause is to be really advanced, then he who lives the life of it, however

narrowly, is a better servant than he who merely knows about it, however much” (1902|1977, p.

761). James suggests that mystical experiences drive all other outward vestiges of religion

(Bixler, 1926). The findings from our study support this idea, given that the experience of

metaphysical phenomena was the greatest commonality among participants across countries.

Although participants from China reported low importance of religion and spirituality, frequency

of metaphysical phenomena was comparable to that reported in India and the United States.

Sociological interpretations of religion have suggested that religion and spirituality are

fundamentally social phenomena. Prominent among these interpretations is that of French

sociologist, Emile Durkheim, who believed that the underpinnings of both religious and spiritual

life was the distinction made between the sacred and the profane (Alexander, 1990; Paden, 1991;

Worsley, 1956). He describes this distinction as a pathway to the adoption of symbols called

totems (such as animals or forces of nature), which communities would subsequently worship

and regard as sacred (McKinnon, 2014; Rol, 2012; Worsley, 1956). In all three countries,

mentions of animals and nature occurred, with particularly frequent reports from participants in

China and the United States. India’s prevalent reports of heirophany (religious figures), suggests

24

that the totems in these communities are linked to mythology from sacred texts (Kandari, Bisht,

Bhardwaj, & Thakur, 2014; Loh, 2014; Prabhavananda, 2019). In India, there exists a long

history of worship towards regionally-specific deities (Hornell, 1944; Kent, 2013; Preston,

2002). Essentially, Durkheim’s sacred-profane dichotomy, through social designation of certain

things as sacred, ordinary, or profane, allows collective symbols and totems of a society to give

rise to religion. Rituals and other religious practices are a means through which to overcome this

dichotomy, which transforms spiritual life into a process or activity. In China, spirituality takes

on this quality, with rituals elevating ordinary experiences, dreams taking on a sacred character,

and the experiences of ancestors’ afterlives being of utmost importance. Durkheim argued that,

the shared worship of totems was a social force that fostered community (McKinnon, 2014; Rol,

2012; Worsley, 1956). Interestingly, in China, political and social forces have cast criticism on

religion and religious practices, which to a degree has transformed it’s sacred power into a more

profane nature (Cao, 2012; Grim & Finke, 2007; Hsieh, 1986; Liqi, Wang, Schillaci, Clark &

Kelemen, 2016; Reinsten, 2004). In the China sample, the most commonly reported sacred

reality was one where ancestors were alive, and intuitions carry power. While the social

constructs of what is considered sacred and profane have changed over the course of history, the

social bonding that occurs through ritual persists, albeit in different forms.

Durkheim believed that social forces were tremendously influential in determining the

collective beliefs, values and norms of a society (Rol, 2012; Shilling & Mellor, 1998). These

shared views, in turn, create social integration, an indicator of a society’s health, which when

low was often related to increased rates of suicide (Abrutyn & Mueller, 2014; Berkman, Glass,

Brissette, & Seeman, 2000; Bussu, Detotto, & Sterzi, 2013; Tsai, Lucas, & Kawachi, 2015).

Perhaps an indicator of a lack of social integration was found in this study within the US sample.

Nearly half of the sample rated spirituality as not important at all, while the remainder of the

sample rated it as only slightly or moderately important (see Figure 3). The US participants also

25

more highly endorsed religious conversion relative to China and India, while close to 80% of the

China sample reports spirituality as being not important at all or moderately important, which

together may indicate less variability in the Chinese sample on this metric. In China, spiritual

narratives were most represented by mention of ancestors, realistic dreams, and intuitive

impressions, all of which are pathways to spirituality that are accessible in everyday life, routine,

and close community.

Finally, anthropological theories have suggested that the driving force behind religion

and spirituality is culture. Anthropologist Clifford Geertz (1993) offers a theory of religion

which describes religion as a language or map providing guidance on both what is (reality) and

how to act (morality). Geertz believed that members come to adopt religion as true through five

pathways: 1) tradition, 2) personal experience, 3) charismatic leaders, 4) readings of holy text,

and 5) ritual (Geertz, 1993; Segal, 2012). Overall, in this sample, personal experience seemed to

the primary pathway used by participants to encounter religion and spirituality. In the United

States and India, religious traditions were also viable pathways. The prevalence of religious

figures reported in India suggests that charismatic leaders may be a more common route to

religious and spiritual life in this country. Readings of holy texts was most likely to occur in the

United States and China, suggesting that reading is another pathway. One participant stated

“Once when I read Buddhist Classics, I almost burst into tears” (Participant 1065, China). Lastly,

mentions of ritual were moderately reported in all three countries, most often taking the form of

making offerings or burning incense. The exception being China, where rituals specifically

around ancestral worship were relatively more frequently reported. For the Chinese sample,

ancestrally-based ritual may be the primary pathway through which religious and spiritual life is

accessed.

26

Limitations

Several limitations of the current study are largely related to the online method of data

collection, which is susceptible to having participants rush through tasks, fail to pay attention, or

take the survey multiple times with different user names (Johnson & Borden, 2012). In this

study, the online method of data collection gave rise to various demographic differences. The

India sample was of relative higher socio-economic status than China and the United States. The

China sample was slightly younger in age than the India and United States sample. Another

limitation in the methodology was the indication in the survey itself that the researchers were

from a Western institution, which may have shaped participants’ responses. The fourth

qualitative question prompted for specific events, which risked over-representation of these

themes in the data. Additionally, the self-report questionnaire may have influenced the sort of

information that was captured and crucial information may have been lost or re-shaped to fit the

nature of the prompts. The India survey was delivered in English rather than Hindi, and it is

unclear whether pattern of response may have been impacted by this choice. Lastly, the online

nature of this study could not capture the spiritual life of indigenous groups which populate all

three countries.

Another consideration of this study centers around participants’ access and awareness of

religious and spiritual traditions. As mentioned above, religious and spiritual engagement and

discussion may become increasingly marginalized as the secular-materialist perspectives

becomes more prominent with globalization (Ager & Ager, 2011). Given that this study was

delivered online, the anonymity of this process may well have encouraged participants to be

open about their beliefs and experiences. Nevertheless, the impact of the secular-materialist

worldview may also have discouraged participants from being completely forthcoming. This is

supported by the fact that participants in the United States wrote relatively shorter responses to

27

the qualitative questions, while participants in India, where culture and spirituality are relatively

more readily intertwined, provided responses which were relatively more comprehensive.

Future Directions

The findings of the current study provide a nuanced conceptual phenomenological

underpinning for a body of emerging research around universal spirituality. These results

concurrently provide rich examples of the ways in which culture can shape the expression of

spiritual themes. These are initial steps which hopefully encourage further research into thematic

and meaning-based categories and phenomenological nature of spiritual life in diverse cultural

settings. In particular, this work supports the need for quantitative and qualitative approaches,

which capture both broad dimensions of spiritual life through quantitative big data lens and

generalization to larger populations, and also through qualitative and mixed-methods approaches

which may help to bypass scale-based biases and limitations (e.g., using predominantly western

tools in non-western cultural contexts). These findings provide a rationale for exploring and

developing new measures which better assess the underpinnings of spiritual life, a phenomenon

which may have cross-culturally innate components and processes. Additionally, future research

might employ thematic analysis to deepen interpretations of the transformative aspects of

spiritual and peak experiences. Finally, additional exploration into spirituality and its cultural

expressions must begin to account for the spiritual lives and narratives of less industrialized and

rural communities, which likely hold unique traditions, voices, and legacies.

28

Table 1

Demographics .

Characteristic China India USA

Age M = 29 years, range 18–75 year

Gender % % %

Female 40.5 62.3 45.6

Male 59.3 37.7 54.4

Marital Status

Married 25.2 51.3 38.6

Widowed/divorced 1.3 2 11.1

Single never married 73.3 46.1 50.2

Children

Yes 17 41.9 42.3

No 82.7 57.6 57.7

Sexual Orientation

   Straight 94.4 80.6 89.4

   Gay/Lesbian 1.5 0 3.3

   Bisexual 1.8 11.5 5.5

Education Level

 Some high school/High school degree 6.6 2.6 14

   Some college/Associate’s degree 44.8 9.4 39.3

Undergraduate degree 42 46.6 33.8

   Graduate degree 6.4 40.3 12.8

Estimated Personal Income

   Above 75th percentile 6.9 24.6 6

   Between 50-75th percentile 14.2 24.1 15.3

   Between 25-50th percentile 40.2 22.5 26.0

   Below 25th percentile 38.4 27.7 52.1

Environment prior to age 18

Urban 20.6 44.5 24.1

Suburban 13 22.5 50.1

Rural 41 23.0 21.3

Mixed 25.4 9.4 4.5

.

Note. Demographics of 6112 participants recruited on crowdsourcing platforms

29

Table 2

List of Open-ended Questions .

下面是一些开放性问题，我们衷心感谢您同我们分享您的宝贵经历。(Below are a few

open-ended questions. We truly appreciate your sharing with us your valuable lived experience.)

1. 您如何定义宗教？(How do you define religion?)

2. 您如何定义灵性？(How do you define spirituality?)

3. 请告诉我们您心灵上的或宗教方面最重大的的经历。是什么引发了它？它怎样影响

了您生活的方式？它怎样改变了您对现实的看法，或生活的目的？(Please tell us

the story of your most significant spiritual or religious experience. What led up to it?

How did it affect the way you live? How did it change your view of reality or sense of

purpose?)

4. 您是否有过以下超出平时的现实的经历？请与我们分享您的故事。(If you have ever

had an experience of any of the following, would you please tell us your story?)

通过祈祷得到治愈 (A healing through prayer.)

一次预言性的梦 (A prophetic dream.)

一次见到祖先、天使或其他神圣事物的幻象 (A visitation by an ancestor, angel, or

other sacred being.)

强烈的同一感和联系感 （与宇宙万物、全人类同在的感觉）(A strongly felt sense of

oneness and connection.)

重要的同步事件（两件无关的事同时发生而产生了有意义的联系） (An important

synchronicity.)

其他您还没有分享的惊人的或有意义的灵性方面的经历 (Any other surprising or

meaningful spiritual experience that you have not yet shared.)

5. 您自己灵性或宗教成长中，哪个（些）人是最重要的人物？您能告诉我您和这些人

物之一的关系是如何发展起来的吗？(Who have been the most significant figures in

your own spiritual or religious growth? Can you tell us about the development of one of

these relationships?)

6. 请在下面的空白处用自己的话阐述关于您在灵性成长方面的转折点 (Please use this

space to elaborate in your own words on your spiritual life story.)

7. 灵性或宗教在您生活中是如何积极地存在着的？随着时间是如何改变的？灵性或宗

教是否曾经负面地影响了您？(How is spirituality or religion a positive presence in

your everyday life? How has that changed over time? Have there been times where

spirituality or religion has influenced you in a negative way?)

8. 灵性或宗教是否帮助您度过了艰苦的时期？是如何帮助您的？(Has spirituality or

religion ever helped you through times of suffering? If so, please tell us the story.)

9. 您相信有某样本质是“您”的事物在您死后继续存在？这样的“您”的本质在您出生前

也存在吗？(Do you believe that there is something essentially "you" that will live on

after you die? If so, was this essence of “you” something that was present before you

were born?)

.

Note. Questions translated using the bilingual committee technique described in figure 1

30

Table 3

Rates of Codes Occurrence by Country (Percent) .

Theme Subthemes China India USA

Religion

Traditional Religious Practices

Religious Conversion

Religious Professionals

Theophany (religious figure such as Jesus)

Hierophany (religious force such as holy spirit)

58

38

2

7

36

5

86

61

7

20

70

9

83

77

23

16

48

6

Contemplative

Practice

Meditation

Mind-body Practices

Prayer

Rituals/Ceremonies

51

4

2

48

10

72

15

9

66

8

60

11

4

52

6

Natural World

Nature

Animals

19

12

10

5

3

3

29

25

8

Ancestors

Ancestor Mentioned

Ancestral Worship

Ancestor Dream

33

19

3

17

18

12

1

8

32

22

0

15

Metaphysical

Phenomenon

Extrasensory Perception

Telepathy

Clairvoyance

Precognition

Realistic Dreams

Intuitive Impressions

Psychokinesis

Survival Hypothesis

Near Death Experience

Out of Body Experience

Apparitional Experience

Faith/Energy Healing

Recovery/Remission of Illness

Spiritual Practitioners

69

56

6

6

2

34

32

4

22

0

2

20

21

18

6

64

39

2

5

1

18

21

7

21

1

4

16

29

23

7

75

51

5

13

2

25

27

7

30

1

2

27

18

17

1

.

Note. Co-occurrence of themes organized by broad themes and subthemes

31

Questionnaire Conversion Data Analysis

Forward Translation Back Translation Forward Translation

Phase 1 Phase 3 Phase 5

Questions translated

into Chinese by five

bilingual translators

(individually)

Confirm conceptual

equivalence through

back-translation into

English by naive

translators

( individually)

Inter-rater Reliability:

Translate 1000 randomly selected

responses independently. Then cross-

compare in committee

Theme Saturation:

Confirm representative coding

Theme Consolidation:

Construct broad thematic categories

(individual + group)

Narrative Selection:

Select representative excerpts

(individual + group)

Phase 2 Phase 4

Clarify specific

terms/phrases from

Phrase 1

(in committee)

Address minor

discrepancies

encountered at Phase 3

(in committee)

Figure 1. Bilingual committee technique used to translate qualitative items and data into

Chinese.

32

Figure 2. Religious affiliation.

33

Figure 3. Perceived importance of spirituality.

34

Figure 4. Code co-occurrence and common profiles of spiritual experience.

35

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42

Appendix A

Exemplar Excerpts of the Coding Frame .

Religion

Religious

Tradition

“I went to church to study when I was 18 years old. It was my first time to give a

lecture on the lectern this November. Especially these years after I started to

work, I have deeper understandings about the Bible. Extracting from the fortunes

and sufferings in life, my state of mind becomes better and my mind becomes

wide opened.” (Participant 1331, China)

“I believe in god and ghost. Since elementary school, I have gone to temple to

pray with my grandmother in every Spring Festival. I pray to the god for health

whenever my family face difficulties or I get sick. In interpersonal relationships,

I prefer to be kind and tolerant and do good things.” (Participant 1417, China)

“My parents are Christians. When I was little, they told me stories in the Bible in

hopes of making me a kind-hearted person, who gains spiritual salvation through

hard work. What my parents do in every day influences me: I become a

righteous, kind-hearted, and gentle person. In my daily life, I pay close attention

to my authenticity, kindness, virtue, and tolerance.” (Participant 1275, China)

“Once when I read Buddhist Classics, I almost burst into tears. Another time I

joined the three-day Buddhist ceremony (walking around the Buddha's statue day

and night) by Master Jing Kong, I felt relaxed, my body and soul relieved as if I

put down some heavy burden. I could also sense my kindness which was

completely different from the bad tempered person that I used to be.” (Participant

1065, China)

I was travelling on State Road Transport bus from one place to other place to

Uttar Pradesh State. It was of my view that I will reach to destination in the early

morning after travelling whole night. But I reached the destination at about 2.

a.m. very awkward time for me as I was visiting the place for the first time in my

life. When I got down from bus there were two other passengers got down from

the same bus. As they were familiar with the place. There were only two man

handled rickshaw which were hired by both. Now there was no one to ask.

Fortunately, one passenger asked to me about my place of visit and intention of

visit. I told him that I am on religious pilgrimage and first time visitor and want

to check in to some guest house or hotel or other sheltering place. He told me

that it is unlikely that someone will open door for me to such late night. The

passenger was very much kind to me and told me that please come to his

rickshaw, he will arrange something for me. I accompanied him as there was no

other alternative for me. The kind person first located some guest house for me

and told persons to get me in as he was knowing that local population. I very

much thanked him.” (Participant 3800, India)

43

Religious Conversion

Convert

Back into

a religion

“I was raised within the Roman Catholic faith by parents who were not strict in

their beliefs. I accepted that the church was a positive force in the world but

doubted the existence of God and disagreed with the teachings of the church

about some matters. The experience of living in a different culture in Asia for a

year when I was in college broadened my horizons about spiritual matters. As I

previously wrote, I had an enlightening experience at a religious festival that

convinced me of God's existence. This occurred in tandem with a growing sense

of spiritual identification with nature that I felt when I was pursuing activities

like backpacking and mountaineering, a feeling of oneness and belonging and

purpose in life. Over time I have reflected on these experiences and discoveries

and integrated them into my sense of self and sense of spiritual identity, while

gradually coming closer to integrating them within the religious tradition in

which I was raised.” (Participant 5241, USA)

“I was raised by a devout Christian mother who educated me in the basics of

Christianity. Because of my father's antagonism, we did not practice religion in

our household. When I left home to attend college, I began associating with a

Christian student group. It was because of their influence that I made the

conscious decision to begin practicing Christianity.” (Participant 5470, USA)

“My spiritual life story is long and varied. Being a child of a part-time preacher, I

learned a lot about religious rituals and beliefs from an early age. But by high

school, I began to feel that religion was routine and distant. In college, I was

briefly an atheist. Thinking that God may or may not be real, I then became

agnostic, not really sure of who or what God was supposed to be. A couple of

years later, I met a co-worker who answered my questions about God,

Christianity, and the Bible. I admired this person because he was so confident

and genuine about his faith. I wanted that too, so one night after work, I prayed

with him and a friend, and became a born-again Christian.” (Participant 4922,

USA)

Convert Into

a Religion

“Being born as a Hindu, I got my life changed into the TRUE LIVING GOD

JESUS, through my tenant, an old grandma, when I was 3 year old. In spite of

several sufferings even at my own home, due to color discrimination from my

mom, since she is very fair, the old granny used to preach me about God's

abundant love and eyes on me, and I saw affection and peace within him, which

gave me this life, I live now.” (Participant 4262, India)

“My most significant spiritual experience was deciding to trust in Jesus as the

Christ. Sorry if that comes across as "too church" or "too religion" or too

(anything else). But it was significant in that it was the starting point of too many

other significant spiritual experiences/encounters to count. It was the "getting

first things first" -- the foundation upon which all other experiences and

adventures built. Before that it was as if "life was living me". Now I'm the one

living life.” (Participant 4493, India)

44

Convert Out

of a Religion

“My friend Rani story: as she was making morning rounds, the palliative care

nurse noticed that Mrs. Rani held something shiny in her left hand. The nurse

easily identified the object as a rosary but was confused because Mrs. Rani had

clearly stated on her admission form that she had “no religious affiliation.” Later

that day when Mrs. Rani’s niece was visiting, the nurse asked if the rosary held

special meaning for the patient. The niece burst into tears, confessing that the

patient had left the Catholic Church many years ago and had never wanted to

rejoin, even as she was dying. Upon further exploration, the niece confessed she

was worried that if her aunt died outside of the church, they would never meet

again in heaven. After expressing sympathy or her concern, the nurse asked the

niece if it would be helpful for her to speak with the hospital’s Cathedral

chaplain.” (Participant 4421, India)

“I had been raised as a Protestant Christian, but my family was never very

serious about it. I did go to Vacation Bible School some summers as a kid and

went to church on occasion. I had always had some skepticism about whether

God existed and whether the teachings of the Christian church were correct. I

considered myself an atheist for all of my teen years, but wavered back and forth

after that in my early 20s with whether or not I considered myself a Christian

again. I finally came to the realization n my late 20s that the concept of hell was

100% wrong and that it was made up to scare people into behaving a certain

way. This was a turning point for me.” (Participant 4889, USA)

“I was raised in a church that was very overbearing and had many rules. When I

got older, I grew to disagree with many of these rules, but I still believed in God.

I stopped going to that church when I had the chance, and have gone to many

other churches. None of them really spoke to me and made me feel included. It

was always "Don't do this" which I can't agree with. I don't attend church

anymore, except on holidays and family weddings or funerals. I still am spiritual,

and still believe in God, but organized religion has turned me into somewhat of a

cynic.” (Participant 5512, USA)

45

Religious

Professionals

“My mother is very religious and has made me do religious rituals right from my

childhood. Later as I grew up I started thinking on my own and disbelieved these

religious stories. When I got married my wife also was very religious and she too

would make me go religious rituals. Then one day I met a sadhu in a temple who

told my wife to pray a certain goddess and gave few mantras. Sometimes I would

pray when my wife was not well. Gradually I started getting a different feeling

after I finished praying. As time progressed I could feel the power of the supreme

being and my closeness to him.” (Participant 3782, India)

“Guru (Master) is the most significant figure. Guru(Master) guides me to

spiritual path, solves problems during meditation, shows ways to overcome

shortcomings. He is the leading Light on the path of spiritual and religious

growth. It said that The God and he Guru(Master) both are in front of me that to

whom I will pray first God or Guru. He is Guru who has shown me the path

towards God. Due to his guidance I have reached to this height. So first I will

pray to my Guru and thereafter the God.” (Participant 3800, India)

“I have become close to my spouse's mother, who is a minister aligned with

fundamentalist Christianity. For a long time I viewed this particular belief system

to be deeply flawed in terms of both its tenets and their application to people in

their everyday lives, and I still harbor many reservations about it as often

practiced in the US. However, as I have gotten to know my mother-in-law and

have had conversations with her about her beliefs and spiritual journey within

that framework I have found myself reflecting on her experiences as a mirror at

times of my own questioning of my own progress in striving to be closer to God.

She has helped focus my attention in new ways on matters of a spiritual nature

and helped me progress on my own path, even though it is very different in

nature from hers.” (Participant 5241, USA)

46

Religious

Figure

(Theophany)

“During mom's cancer therapy, I met an angel with wings in my dream who

comforted me and said that everything will be ok.” (Participant 983, China)

“The Goddess of Mercy. When I was little and saw the Goddess of Mercy in

Journey to the West [movie], I felt her divinity. I didn't understand the world at

that time. Whenever I encountered difficulties, I prayed to the Goddess of Mercy,

and then things developed to the direction of what I prayed for. Eventually, the

Goddess of Mercy becomes one of the most important figures for my spiritual

growth.” (Participant 1346, China)

“Trusting in God. People say they trust in God. When you ask them they respond

very quickly and say oh yes I trust God for everything. I believe that people trust

God for certain things sometimes small things and sometimes big things. I also

believe that some things or situations have been present in a person’s life for so

long that people give up on trusting God in that situation.” (Participant 3657,

India)

“The place which I was is very famous for Lord Krishna and situated in Uttar

Pradesh. I even today understand that Lord Krishna has helped me via some

unknown person.” (Participant 3800, India)

“Once when I was holidaying in the Himalayas, I entered a temple only to find a

strange looking saint in one corner. I approached him and asked him to enlighten

me. He asked me to close my eyes and said then he would be showing me

something special. I closed my eyes and after a while I felt that I could see red

light and in the center there was yellow light in which I could see glimpses of

Lord Shiva. It was truly a fantastic spiritual experience.” (Participant 4258,

India)

When I was 27 I was awaken one night by something that was so overwhelming

I will never forget it. I woke up in the middle of the night and seen what I

thought was Mother Mary "Almost Ghost like" hovering over the foot of my bed.

I was so shocked I didn't know what to do. I closed my eyes and said the Lord's

prayer and just as I did that she was gone. I was so amazed and somewhat scared

I had to call my parents' house and let them know what had just happened. (3691

India)

47

Religious

Force

(Hierophany)

“When I encounter difficulties, I would pray to the God of Nature (上天) for

power and encouragement. There was one final when I almost gave up in the

middle of the exam. However, my brain (理智) told me that I have to keep going.

Therefore I prayed to the God of Nature (上天 to grant me power. I completed

the exam smoothly at the end. I also successfully got the scholarship at the

beginning of the next semester.” (Participant 638, China)

“From that time onward, I had a feeling that whatever happens is rather

controlled by some other unknown factors than my ability. Then I started to look

at every happening in my life from that angle and I was astonished to find that if

it is intended by that superior force, it will be granted or in other words, has to

happen by all means.” (Participant 4364, India)

Feel the Holy Spirit So intense and strong it is absolutely, positively, like no

other feeling, it is pure Love from Father God and there is no doubt about it! I

was raised Catholic and I have to say that I felt the presence of the Holy spirit in

the Catholic Church especially when I was young boy however usually only

when I prayed in Church and tears would come from my eyes, not of sorrow and

not of my control, but tears of joy from being in the presence of the lord and

feeling his Love. The Nuns at the Catholic school I went to would scold me and

slap me on the wrists with their rulers. They thought I was crying and I tried

explaining to them that I was not crying, I thought they were so cruel for doing

this to me. I began to resent them and questioned whether they felt the love of

God and if they did, What would cause them to treat me like that? I had a

difficult time trying to understand why the Nuns "Godly Woman" would even

think of doing that. (3691 India)

Tao consists of Yin and Yang. Yin is 0 while Yang is 1. The former is still and

latter is to move. The two form our swinging world. The more I go deeper in the

software area, the more I feel in this way. It's fair to say that the software field

guided me to know Tao, to study Tao, and to understand Tao. (1377 China)

48

Contemplative Practice

Ritual “I used Tarot to predict my relationship. All I can say is that what the Tarot said

was very accurate. I did the divination with an expectation that it could give me

some guidance. People and objects in this world are communicating with each

other in a way that is beyond language.” (Participant 1386, China)

“When I was little, I saw my departed grandfather opening the door in the yard,

and I told this to other family members. They asked me to burn paper money and

kotow in front of my grandfather's grave. Then I've never seen him again.”

(Participant 1282, China)

“The elders of my family believe in Buddhism. When visiting graves, they

perform some solemn conventions, such as 给土地爷烧香，烧钱 (burning

incense and money for local gods).” (Participant 1263, China)

“The neighbor grandpa always go to burn the first incense (烧头香) every year.

People really believe it. Grandpa often told me some spiritual stories that he had

experienced during childhood. Whether it was true or not, I felt it was wonderful

because it increased my sense of spirituality. The grandpa also gave me prayer

beads. I felt such cross-generation friendship is marvelous.” (Participant 862,

China)

Meditation “When things are out of my control, I will pray or meditate to change my bad

moods. If I don't practice regularly, the benefits of meditation will decrease.”

(Participant 1257, China)

“Through reading Taoist, Buddhist and philosophy books, I knew something

about our inner being. The turning point was after I read a Taoist book, I started

to meditate and contemplate about spirituality.” (Participant 1306, China)

“Yes. During the prayer and meditation as I try to concentrate I feel oneself with

God. It is not that just you started meditation and you will experience the

connection. It is constant process and I have to follow the same without

expecting anything in return. My duty is to work, to pray, to appeal to God. It is

not my right to ask for anything. The God will showers with everything.”

(Participant 3800, India)

“About five years back, my aunt was diagnosed with breast cancer. Doctors had

lost hope for her treatment. I was very stressed out during that period. I used to

get irritated on the smallest of issues. During this time, a friend of mine

suggested meditation. I started meditating for long hours daily on a regular basis.

Meditation helped me calm my nerves. I started facing adversity in the eye with a

smile on my face. My aunt passed away after one year; however, I had made

myself mentally strong enough to cope through the loss.” (Participant 4258,

India)

49

Mind-body

Practices

“I had done the Art of living course conducted by Sri Ravishankar. This involved

certain breathing techniques combined with meditation. I was at that time so

much desperate in life that this course was a rejuvenating experience to me.

While doing the Sudarshan Kriya one of the techniques in this course, I felt that

my entire body had become numb and that I am just a floating energy. At that

time I felt the divine presence of God too. I was so much deeply immersed in the

feeling that tears broke out from my eyes.” (Participant 3776, India)

“As you walk in the Spirit by faith, practicing Spiritual Breathing, you need

never again live in spiritual defeat. Spiritual Breathing, like physical breathing, is

a process of exhaling the impure and inhaling the pure, an exercise in faith that

enables you to experience God’s love and forgiveness and walk in the Spirit as a

way of life.” (Participant 3698, India)

“practicing reiki and the feeling the universal power flowing through your palm

chakra. while doing chakra meditation we can feel the rotation of chakra

according to our breathing pattern is also a surprising experience.” (Participant

4436, India)

Prayer

“Last year when my grandmother passed away, I prayed for her. This deeply

relieved my sorrow.” (Participant 536, China)

“Recitation of Vedic mantras during meditation has always helped me get in

touch with the supreme being. Mantras have always helped resolve impossible

tasks which were not under my control.” (Participant 3782, India)

“I had always been religious, like believing there was a God and things like that.

But I'd never had one of those "defining moments" until I was working at a retail

store and it started to get too much for me. I prayed and never got any answers

about it so I sucked it up and kept working there. The manager had tricked me

into working as an assistant manager while training another employee. It was

supposed to last 2 weeks AT MOST and ended up lasting 3 months despite me

telling them I can't do it anymore. I felt like I was being used. Anyway, I ended

up getting too much and quitting. I struggled with if I did the right thing or not so

I prayed about that and opened my Bible and the first thing I read was Matthew

6:34 "Therefore do not worry about tomorrow, for tomorrow will worry about

itself. Each day has enough trouble of its own." I thought that it was really telling

that that was the thing I read. I took that as God telling me it was ok, and after

that I got depressed and that verse kept popping up in places and everything. It's

the most profound experience I have ever had.” (Participant 4557, USA)

Maybe my lasting health is due to my mother praying to and worshipping the

gods. (1377 China)

When praying in temple, I felt there's something dirty beside me. After I prayed,

there appeared a beam of light from the chest of the buddha's statue, which

covered all of us and the dirty thing disappeared. (59 China)

50

Ancestors

Ancestor

Mentioned “My great grandpa passed away “仙逝”. That night he said he was thirsty and

wanted to eat some litchi and dad went out to buy litchi. When he came back,

great grandpa had passed away. According to doctor, he passed away without

any illness. He was considered as done many good deeds in his life so that he

could have such perfect (圆满) ending.” (Participant 983, China)

“After my grandmother left, I can always see her and communicate with her. I

also often can see the ancient people and the people’s living environment in other

spaces.” (Participant 59, China)

Ancestral

Worship

“I never personally experience, but my grandma or mother has. Sometimes they

would dream of deceased family members. 俗称 托梦 and they dreamt about the

deceased family members told them that they don't have enough money or their

home is broken. Therefore, the second day, my family would visit the ancestor's

grave and burn some incense and paper money for them.” (Participant 506,

China)

“After grandma passed away, food was placed on altar to give sacrifice to her.

that night, I dreamt of grandma enjoying the food. Before she passed away, she

was hungry because she could not eat much.” (Participant 915, China)

Dreams

About

Ancestors

“A few years ago, my grandfather got seriously sick and was bedridden. I was

afraid and thinking that he couldn't pass away until I went back. One night I

dreamed of my grandfather waiting for me in front of the house. When I went

back, my grandfather was dying. When he saw me back, he tried his best to call

me. I knew that he was waiting for me and wanted to see me once again.”

(Participant 1346, China)

“My mom had such a dream. She dreamed of an ancestor telling her that her

house was broken by a falling tree. Then we went to the grave of ancestors, there

was really a tree on it. We moved the tree away afterwards.” (Participant 1263,

China)

“Early in the morning when grandpa passed away, I dreamt of his wheeze, the

sound which as the result of his bronchitis and he had to pause for breath almost

every two steps. I did not know he passed away until next day. I felt that he

wanted to say goodbye to me.” (Participant 862, China)

“A few nights ago I had a dream and in my dream my Nana Heath was in it, she

passed 12 years ago. All I remember from the dream was that we were at my

house at some kind of family gathering (probably a birthday party) and I

remember looking over and she was there. We didn't talk or anything she was

just kind of there and it felt so real and it’s like in my dream she was still alive

cause it didn't cross my mind that she had passed it’s as if in my dream she never

did, that’s how real it seemed. But, we didn't talk or anything she just sat there I

looked at her and she looked at me. (Participant 3693, India)

51

Natural World

Animals

“We have this hearsay in our rural country. If a crow is crowing toward the

direction of someone's house and if that family has an old person or sick person,

then he will pass away soon. In our village an old man got very sick, was dying.

A few days before he died, a crow could not stop crowing in the tree in front of

his door.” (Participant 33, China)

“I was a graduate student doing my thesis research on the effects of disturbance

on raptors (birds of prey) and spent each day alone in a beautiful natural area

watching and interacting with wildlife. During a meeting with my major

professor, he mentioned that his previous graduate student was a "flake" and she

had all sorts of mystical, spiritual beliefs about the hawks she was supposed to be

studying. At that time, I agreed that anthropomorphism had no place in

ecological research and didn't give much thought to his comments. During the

next summer, however, I began to recognize individual raptors from the previous

year, as well as their progeny. I began to feel invested in their success. One day I

was hiking along a creek bed looking for nests and saw a huge stick nest that

could have only been made by one large bird: golden eagle! As I crept near the

base of the nest tree I found a blood pool and then saw the carnage. One large

adult golden eagle was dead on the ground and her feet had been removed, most

of her tail feathers pulled out, and she had bullet holes in her breast. Clearly, she

had been killed for the illegal trade in "parts". It made me extremely sad and

angry that such a beautiful creature had been slaughtered. I climbed into the nest

and found two dead chicks, presumably they starved to death after their mother

was shot (this disturbance likely led to the father abandoning the nest -- in any

case, it wouldn't matter since it takes two eagles to raise a brood). As I left the

nest tree and began walking back the way I came, I found the male. He was

under some brush, barely alive, and on the edge of starvation. All I could think

about was saving him. I took off my shirt, balled it up, and let him grab it with

his feet so that I could safely grab around his legs and around his wings. I hiked

four miles back to my truck cradling him like a baby. I drove to the college of

veterinary medicine and staff immediately took him into x-ray.” (Participant

6000, USA)

“Soon after the small service, while walking with my recently widowed mother,

through the entire walk back to the car from the grave site, a beautiful butterfly

darted back and forth, leading us for nearly a hundred yards, as we walked alone

in grief together. We spoke later about it, "Did you see that?", yes, we both did,

and we both felt a presence along with it, and a sense that everything would be

OK.” (Participant 5438, USA)

“I suffered greatly when the two dogs who had shared more than ten years of my

life with me both died within the space of a little more than a year. During our

lives together we spent many days on wilderness trips experiencing the joy and

fulfillment of oneness with nature. Recalling these feelings and experiences

through the lens of their larger spiritual dimension helped me deal with the loss

of my dogs and the void they left in my everyday existence. It underscored that

they were still a part of me and alive within me even though their corporal

52

Nature

existence had ended. There was comfort in that in a very dark time for me.”

(Participant 5241, USA)

I had several such dreams such as 鬼压身 and fragments of the death scene of

my past life. These dreams were very strange, but I felt they were spiritual

resonance whenever big things happening in my life. For example, when I was 5,

I dreamed of a giant golden dragon flying in the sky. This made me scared, but

we stared at each other. After that, my parents had had a successful business and

earned a lot of many and we had become one of the rich families in the local

area. But when I turned to 18, I dreamed of a turtle and a snake fighting against

each other in a sewer. Since then, my parents' business failed and the financial

condition of my family has plummeted. In fact, dreams could be prophetic.

People whose spirituality is not enough cannot understand this. (1377 China)

“Once went out to travel, went deep into the mountains and felt I am in one with

the nature around me. My body is not only controlled by myself, but it acts with

wind, with bird singing, with the sound of water.” (Participant 162, China)

“It made me feel connected to nature on an entirely personal, not professional

level. I felt a more profound respect and awe than I ever had as a scientist. I

began to see the lives of other living creatures as being just as important and as

rich as my own. I began to see just how selfish, arrogant, and entitled most

humans from industrialized nations were and how this loss of respect and awe for

nature has been ruining this planet. Trying to live lightly -- being vegan, growing

my own food, being as self-sufficient as possible, not being a mindless consumer

-- is my daily reality and gives my life a deep sense of purpose. I chose to live on

a remote acreage in an otherwise row-cropped area. I have allowed natural

succession to occur on my 5 acres and the diversity of life here is amazing.

Despite being surrounded by GMO corn and soybeans, my land is a refuge for

many threatened species found nowhere else in the state. I feel I am the keeper of

this little sanctuary.” (Participant 6000, USA)

53

Metaphysical Phenomenon

Extrasensory Experience (ESP)

Telepathy “When my grandmother died in a car accident, I strongly felt some sadness at the

time. Although I was in a different city and knew nothing about her accident. But

this connection makes me feel that my grandmother loved me deeply.”

(Participant 116, China)

“The thoughts of powers superior to humans did not happen to me from books. It

all started when I started with computers. I was into software development and

everything was new to me. After I completed a course in computer application

development, I joined a firm mainly into software development. As it was a

small firm, I got very good exposure in the entire software development life

cycle. I used to analyze and develop systems in programming languages

prominent those days. While programming, I had a peculiar feeling that I was

getting ideas and problem solving skill which was not mine. While trying to

design comparatively sophisticated areas of some systems, many options to carry

out them were really popping in my mind when I think about a way for it. These

were very unique and I never had any exposure or knowledge in those areas. It

really was astonishing to me that these are not already coded in my brain and are

popping out when I was trying to fetch them. Then this happens only if I am

getting connected with an external force. So I started thinking that way. What if

my thoughts are coming from outside. At times I sat without deliberately

thinking about anything in particular. Then from nowhere thoughts were coming

in and when concentrating on them, I found that most of them are not having any

connection with what I know or what I am directly involved with. It's like a seed

and it starts germinating and grow with what we have already coded or make us

start working to develop them. The whole thought process seems to be a

discussion between oneself and the external force.” (Participant 4364, India)

When I was a child, I accidentally injured my knee once. My mom felt intense

pain in the same place in her knee at the same time. Soon she got the phone call

from school to ask her go to the hospital ASAP. (183J china)

In high school, my uncle who really loved me suddenly passed away. That night,

I was in class. Suddenly, for no reason, my heart was pounding and hands

shaking. I couldn’t even speak. My desk mate held me in the arms for more than

ten minutes before I could calm down. The next moment, my mother told me

about my uncle’s death. My uncle especially loved me dearly since I was young.

The night he passed away gave me the greatest shock. I think it's because he

cared about me the most, so we had such a strong telepathy when he passed

away. (184J,K china)

54

Clairvoyance “I remember once when I was in school, I fell down without any clue in a P.E.

lesson, and 眼睛跳个不停 (my eyes couldn't stop jumping). Back home I was

informed that a family member got injured almost at the same time as I fell

down. Everything seems to have 预见性 (foreshadow).” (Participant 1261,

China)

“It happened when I was in high school. There was one morning after I woke up,

I walked out from the dorm entrance and saw a bright red light before dawn. My

heart pounded fiercely. This has never happened before. 9 o'clock that morning,

my father came to school and told me that my grandfather passed away that

morning. I think this was a sign from my religion. It informed me about my

family member's decease. I thought of it at that moment. It connected my

grandfather and I.” (Participant 470, China)

“In high school, my uncle who really loved me suddenly passed away. That night

I was in class. Suddenly, for no reason, my heart was pounding and hand

shaking. I couldn’t even speak. My desk mate held me in the arms for more than

ten minutes before I could calm down. The next moment, my mother told me

about my uncle’s death.” (Participant 182, China)

Precognition “Sometimes I kept feeling something bad would happen and it did. Once I had a

car accident but not serious. The night before the accident I felt I saw a lot of

information about car crash.” (Participant 132, China)

“Oh also when I was 16 in the very early morning hours of 9/11/01, I couldn't

sleep and I wrote my mom this note saying that I loved her, which wasn't

characteristic of me. I probably wouldn't remember this today if we hadn't had a

terrorist attack a few hours later. Silly to think that I sensed something

energetically, I mean it's not like my mom was even near the twin towers, we

were in Brooklyn, but still. I can't help but think that I am eerily intuitive

sometimes. But I'm sure it was a coincidence.” (Participant 4884, USA)

55

Realistic

Dreams

“I was staying in a rented house while being posted in another state during my

job. One day my landlord came to me and told me that he has to get his daughter

married so I will have to vacate his house till the marriage. That night I was

thinking of how early would I get a new house and weird thoughts went through

my mind. Then in my dream I saw my grandmother come to me and tell me I

will not be able to change my house. I was arguing with her that my landlord has

already given me the ultimatum to move out My grandmother still insisted I will

not be able to change my house. Thinking of this weird dream I started my daily

chore and went to office. Later that evening my landlord came to me and told me

he has made alternate arrangements for his guests and that I need not move out of

his house during the marriage. I could not believe my ears nor could I believe

that I was told about it by my grandmother in the night.” (Participant 3782,

India)

“The night my grandmother died I dreamed of her. She was surrounded by land

and trees and birds and squirrels and cats. She loved her small furry creatures.

And she was happy and singing. The next day my mother told me that she

received a call from Joran and that tayta was gone.” (Participant 5450, USA)

Question: Prophetic dream; Answer: In my life has many prophetic dream. In

few years ago I got the dream . In this dream I fall in Bike. and I have small

injury . I pray to God. The dream didn't affect my life. Some weeks later one day

I go to Church service for late in the morning . In this week Wednesday I go to

Nagercoil in Bike. One man cross the road suddenly in bike. I try to control my

bike. But the bike accident with another person bike. I have a small scratching

injury only. Then I believe the prophetic dream. (4314 India)

I dreamed of seeing a Buddhist Pabbajita. Then he actually showed up on the

next day for no reason. And he took in a disciple in our company. Now still have

a good relationship. (59 China)

Shortly after my husband and I were first married, we spent an evening doing the

baby names thing. We got it down to two boys and two girls that we both liked

before going to bed. That night, we both had the same dream, seeing all four

children, in extensive detail. The next morning we were both acting a bit strange.

Someone (I don't recall which of us) asked if the other had a weird dream, and

the other started to describe. I said "Stop. Go write it down." or words to that

effect. When we compared notes, t quickly became clear that we had seen the

same four children. I have known since 2006 that I have four children, their

names, their birth order, their looks, the sound of their laughter, who is quiet and

thoughtful and who is impulsive and passionate. The first two of those children

are here, in order, looking exactly the way our written accounts described (we

kept them, you see). Our first son is three years old, and our first daughter is four

months, and has the birthmark we saw. (5918 USA)

This is my own experience. Around age 10, I often dreamt about a scene that I

tripped over on a very high bridge and fell in a river directly. There was a period

of time when this dream happened frequently. Sometimes, this scene popped up

when I was falling asleep. It turned out that one day, my bicycle wheel got stuck

56

in the crevasse on the bridge. Then my bike and I fell into the river, just as it was

in the dream. Fortunately, the water brought me back to the land. I was not hurt.

After this incident, I have never dreamt about that scene again. (770 China)

57

Intuitive

Impressions

“I went to Namucuo with a man from Guangdong by bus. I brought steamed

bread and butter tea while he had nothing. He was starving that night because he

was not used to the local food in Namucuo. I tried to give him some of my food

and he accepted. I did not have his contact information when he left. Five days

ago, we met again 1000 miles away from Namucuo. He recognized me and invite

me to dinner while I was starving at that time. I haven’t had his contact

information up till now.” (Participant 1203, China)

“My car had broken down, overheated. For some unknown reason, I had a jug of

water in the back, which I never normally kept. I poured the water into the

radiator, and it got me just far enough as it began to overheat again, to coast with

the engine off into a parking lot. That lot happened to be an auto parts store. In

addition, by the door of the store stood a man with a tool bag on the ground by

his side. As it turned out, he was a mechanic, who had just gotten off duty. Also,

as it turned out, he specialized in my make of car. Also, as it turned out, he

troubleshot the problem and the store happened to have the hose he needed to

repair my car. Also, as it turned out, the kind parts store owner did not charge

me for the part. Also, as it turned out, I had 40 dollars cash on me, which I rarely

carry, but was more than happy to pay that off-duty mechanic after he repaired

my car and I was on my way.” (Participant 5335, USA)

“A few times, strangely have very clear feeling of familiarity and having been to

some place before even I went there for the first time.” (Participant 174, China)

“I felt that this moment had absolutely happened before. I always had such kind

of feeling.” (Participant 862, China)

Psychokinesis

“I used to dream about my grandmother who has passed away for many years.

The interesting things is she does not know how to ride a bike, but in the dream

she was chasing me while riding a bike. The whole time she was trying to give

me a blanket and said "this blanket is new. Take it and use it!" When I woke up

the next morning, I found myself covered with a blanket which was previously

stored in the corner of my room. The weather that night became freezingly cold

all of a sudden. I was very touched at that time.” (Participant 486, China)

“I felt that I could control the wind, when I opened my hands, it became bigger;

when I closed my hands, it became smaller.” (Participant 863, China)

“Once I reached my hand to a vase. I don’t know why the vase moved a little. I

was scared.” (Participant 39, China)

“I have felt that sense many times in prayer especially healing masses when the

priest places his hands on you and you can feel the holy Spirit so strongly that it

knocks you right off your feet. You can't stop yourself from falling not matter

how hard you try and I have tried. I did not want to be one of those people that

fell backward and had to be caught. I also experienced a sense of connection

when caring for my dying parents and my father-in-law, especially at the time of

death. You can still feel the presence of the spirit in the room for a short time

after they die, it’s very strange.” (Participant 5790, USA)

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59

Survival

Hypothesis

Near Death

Experience

“Once I went travelling, I fainted during the trip. Unconsciously, I seemed to

arrive at the gate of an unfamiliar building. The surrounding was hard to see

because of the fog. Later I though it may be what soul sees in near-death stage.”

(Participant 182, China)

“It was an morning in the month of Sept, 1996. The place was Peermade of

Kerala state in India. I was at that time a 10 years cousin boy studying in class-x.

I was on the portico of our Quarter. Suddenly my eyes became closed, I fell into

a trance and gradually lost my body sense. It seemed to me that my soul coming

out my body was approaching towards infinite galaxy. Everything including

earth, stars etc. were out of my mind and reached a void zone. All on a sudden I

got back my sense but could not fathom what it was. After long 10 years passing

through innumerable realizations, I realized that I had a mariamman [goddess] at

that time. In such a state the seer stands at the junction of death and life.

Anybody at this state generally crosses the door of life and enters death world.

But if he has the blessings of God he returns which happens in my case. Later on

I came to know that this was the initiation of my divine life which flourished by

the achievement of God-the-Preceptor who always guided and taught me

throughout my life in the spiritual world. After coming in contact with diamond

my divine dreams started.” (Participant 4421, India)

I have had many significant spiritual experiences, it's impossible to say which is

the most so, but the earliest one I can recall plainly happened when I was 12, that

summer. My parents were fighting constantly (father was an abusive cheat, Mom

grew a spy that year), I felt alone, frightened, unwanted, and homesick as hell.

Years earlier, I'd heard someone give a sermon on the concept of God as "Abba",

the Hebrew for "da-da", and the idea of God as the Daddy I ached for was hugely

compelling. I prayed to “Abba" or "Daddy" ever after. On this particular day, I

was hiding in the woods to get out of the house, they were fighting again and I

didn't want to listen. I was sitting on the swing behind our house, just swinging

as hard as I could, crying, and sayin "Daddy I want to come home, I don't like it

here" over and over. I do not to this day remember making a conscious decision

to jump. What I remember is passing the point of no return, the last moment

when I could have grabbed the rope and stopped myself from falling, and

choosing not to grab hold. This swing went out over a very sharp drop-off, high

enough to call a cliff, really. At the apex of the swing's motion, a rider is a good

forty feet in the air. I just pitched forward off the swing, and the way I fell, I

SHOULD have landed head-first and died right there. The instant I passed that

point of no return and began to fall in earnest, I felt extremely large hands on me,

on my back and on my right shoulder. These hands pushed me, turned me in the

air, ad when I hit the ground, it was on my right shoulder, and with enough spin

that I rolled rather than impacting with any damaging force. The lower part of

that drop-off is covered with rocks and briars, but I didn't get a single scratch,

despite being dressed in shorts and a tank top. When I stopped tumbling, I just

sat at the bottom of the ravine for a while, processing. Looking around, realizing

how tall someone would have to have been to touch me up there.

60

Well, I never tried to kill myself again. I've wanted to, often. Suicide is kind of

like addiction that way. Once you try, it's in your head forever. But I never tried

again.

Ever since that day, I've known without question that there is a reason for me

being here, and I'll get home when it's time to go, not before. It doesn't make life

any better or worse really, it's just a reality, but... it is oddly comforting and

obnoxious by turns to know that there's a reason, even if I can't get my head

around what that reason could be.

I believe that my aborted suicide attempt was stopped by an angel, though I

didn't see it there. The hands I felt were inhumanly large, even against the

measure of a 12 year old's body, and no human has the reach to turn me midair as

was done. There have been many times i have sensed the presence of divine

beings, heard voices, felt hands that weren't there, far too many to describe here

or choose between. Being open to these experiences gives me hope, conviction

that there is more beyond this life.

5918 USA

61

Out of Body

Experience

“Once, I dreamt about I was dreaming, as if I was looking at myself from the

God's perspective. Looking down from the upper level and seeing me sleeping. I

was aware that I was dreaming in the dream. Then my consciousness left the me

who is in the dream and floated to outside. It passed by the stove. The moment I

saw my mother, I woke up. The next day at noon, I got a sense of de ja vu. All of

a sudden, I thought of the dream yesterday. My consciousness in the dream saw

the "me" who was dreaming in the dream. That dream was about catching a

dragonfly. The spot that the dragonfly was sitting on was exactly the same. The

dragonfly stopped and sat on my mother's shoulder when she was talking. It was

caught by my mother and gave the dragonfly to me.” (Participant 505, China)

It all started about 6 months ago, I began feeling different. I began thinking

different. I will try to explain it the best I can though my most recent experience.

One day I woke up, and I realized everything has changed. As I looked around, I

felt like I was looking through someone else's eyes. Everything looked as if I've

never seen it before. Later that day, I began walking. As I passed people, I

suddenly felt an emotional and spiritual connection, unlike anything I've ever felt

before. I felt as if I wasn't controlling my body. As if I was just simply a

spectator to my own life, or watching my life through another person’s eyes. It

was like a natural high or a euphoria. As I passed people, I could feel their

emotions, and understand them as a person. I have become more aware of my

feelings, thoughts, actions, speech, and impact. I don't know how else to explain

it. It's almost frightening to an extent. I feel more connected to myself and to

others. My thinking has also changed dramatically. I realized how clustered my

mind is, and I can now break down my thoughts into a single thought. I don't

know what it means. It feels like a superpower at times. I now feel like I have a

better connection to this world, as if everything has beauty. (3691 India)

62

Apparitional

Experience

“I grew up with my maternal grandmother. The house of my paternal

grandmother is far away from ours. It takes two days to get there, so I visit my

paternal grandmother every few years. It was once I visited my paternal

grandmother. She believes in Jesus so she pray before having meal and going to

bed. Although I can't remember it clearly, whenever they pray, I closed my eyes

and did what they told me to do. One time when we prayed before having meal

in the kitchen, there were two other followers prayed with us. We sat in a circle,

with our eyes closed. After we said something, a light appeared in front of me. It

was the light with circles. I was scared and opened my eyes. I shouldn't have my

eyes opened before the end of the ritual, but nobody knew it. Afterwards I told

my grandmother what I had experienced. She said it was Jesus' epiphany who

wanted to guide me. She asked me to apologize for our crimes to Jesus and ask

for his forgiveness for her.” (Participant 1384, China)

“I once met ghost. When I was young, I got up in the night to the restroom.

When I came back, I glanced my bedroom only to find that there are eyes staring

at me outside the window. I was so scared that I dared not to fall asleep.”

(Participant 975, China)

“Saw a black shadow with blue light floating. Maybe it's 鬼火 (ghost fire)”

(Participant 60, China)

“This was my first job as a marketing professional. I was posted out of my home

state and therefore was staying in a lodge. Travel and eating outside was a

regular feature while on duty. I contracted hepatitis B during this period. But

without bothering I continued in my work because this was my first job and I

didn't want to go on sick leave so early in my career. Gradually the infection

worsened and it reached the third stage where I was quite serious. Finally when

my boss looked at me and guessed I am not well he took me to a doctor. The

doctor gave me medications and put me on steroid treatment. I was adequately

warned by the doctor of the side effects and not to abruptly stop the steroids. But

after a couple of days I started feeling better and one day stopped the steroids.

That night I could feel my eyes open and brain working, but my body was not

reacting to the brain commands. I tried to move and get up but the body did not

react. I started getting worried in bed and could not even scream since the

muscles were not reacting. I lay still with my eyes closed. Then out of nowhere I

saw my mother standing in front of me and shouting at me to get up. I could hear

her shout and something gave me the energy to push myself up to get up and

move. This one experience made me believe there is a supernatural being who is

omnipresent and is there to help you in any form.” (Participant 3782, India)

“When I was 27 I was awaken one night by something that was so overwhelming

I will never forget it. I woke up in the middle of the night and seen what I

thought was Mother Mary "Almost Ghost like" hovering over the foot of my bed.

I was so shocked I didn't know what to do. I closed my eyes and said the Lord’s

prayer and just as I did that she was gone. I was so amazed and somewhat scared

I had to call my parents' house and let them know what had just happened.”

(Participant 3691, India)

63

“I'm not sure if this counts, but after I came home from my grandmother's

funeral, I sat on my bed. I don't recall ever falling asleep because I don't

remember ever waking up. But I was sitting in my room and had a conversation

with my grandmother. When it was over I guess I woke up, but I wasn't really

asleep. It's hard to describe. It was as if she took a moment to say bye.”

(Participant 5076, USA)

I was only 5 years old at that time. I woke up at midnight and found that the

window was gone. Instead, there was Buddha, with a metallic copper texture,

sitting cross-legged, filling the whole window area. The image is not that

different than the ones in temples. I am very certain that I was not dreaming at

that time. It was real. I was not scared at all, at that time. This might be because I

did not have any impression of Buddha when I was young. I looked at it for a

while, and went back to sleep. I told my mom the next day about what I saw. My

mom was very angry at that time, and said I learnt to lie at such a young age. No

matter what I said, she wouldn't believe it! (842G china)

Kailee was a friend when I was little, like age 3-7. My mother knows the name

as my "imaginary friend". My mother thinks "Kailee" and "tree-friend" were

different imaginary friends, but they were the same person, I just couldn't wrap

my mouth around her name at first. You see, I remember Kailee as clearly as I

remember my parents, my brother, my favorite babysitter, more clearly than

teachers, playmates, etc. There is no question in my mind that she was real, but

no one else ever saw her. She lived in the woods behind my house, in a little

clearing with a beautiful tree in the middle with small yellow flowers. (A linden

tree, I drew the flowers and looked it up a few years ago.) Thus, "tree friend"

before I could get my mouth to do "Kailee". Nothing about her seemed strange at

the time, she was just my tall, happy friend who played with me and danced with

me and sang me beautiful songs and taught me how to make flower crowns. But

looking back with an adult's frame of reference, many things were out of the

ordinary. She was ... stunningly beautiful. Black hair, emerald green eyes, Irish-

redhead skin, tall and slim but curved and full-figured. I've drawn her and shown

her to people who knew me then, and she doesn't look like anyone they've ever

seen. "That's a face I'd remember" is the usual reaction. The clearing where she

lived was always early summer, when it's gotten warm at night but the days

aren't hot yet, and the tree was always in bloom, even if I found the glade in the

middle of the winter. I know because a few times I got lost back there in the

snow, and stopped in Kailee's clearing to get warm, and after that she would

always walk me home, even carried me if the snow was too deep. She would

never sit on the ends of the railroad ties my father had lining the driveway, only

in the very middles (there were rebar spikes through the ends securing them to

the ground). She didn't really care for my metal swing set, but she would watch

me play on it and help me i

5918 USA

64

Faith/Energy Healing

Recovery/

of Illness

“One of my family members was sick and we went to temple to burn incense and

worship Buddha. From belief in Buddhism, he/she finally recovered and returned

to the temple to show gratitude. Such kinds of tradition has been passed down in

our region.” (Participant 974, China)

“When I was very little, I was sick once, had fever for a few days which doesn't

go away. In the end my mom brought them to the place they attend Christian

services. Then a lot of people stood in a circle with me in the middle. They sing

and pray and end in "amen". Afterwards, I wasn't sure why my mind was clear,

soon I recovered. Since then I have some feeling toward Jesus which led to my

faith today.” (Participant 84, China)

“Our sister religions, Christianity and Islam, also teach about the significance of

angels as agents of God. M. Ibrahim Bahauddin Farajaje, a professor, Sheikh and

spiritual director in the Sufi tradition, shared with me his life-changing encounter

with an angel. A couple of years ago he was in the hospital, at death’s door due

to a serious lung infection, feeling as if he were drowning. Finally he dozed, and

saw an enormous Archangel place his hands on the left side of his chest and pull

out “something.” The Archangel communicated without words that all would be

well, and that this was his initiation so that he could help others through the

passageway to the Divine Light.” (Participant 4493, India)

“My relative (cousin) just nearly 28 years of old, unfortunately he suffered with

Cancer, by God grace, he recovered and got cure after a healing through prayer

of all our family members and friends, and after one year treatment and also with

lot of Yagam, hmam and religious prayer, he got well. Now he is celebrated his

43rd birthday and also travel through the world for his business.” (Participant

4326, India)

“Decades ago I broke my tailbone in the birth of our second child, our son. It

took so long to heal and I was in considerable pain any time I had to sit. One

Sunday in church, after 15 months of pain, I prayed and shared that I didn't think

I could come to the service anymore due to the pain. I then returned to worship.

At the end of the service I recognized that my tailbone didn't ache. And it never

has again since then. That was 30 years ago.” (Participant 5429, USA)

65

Spiritual

Practitioners

“When I was a child, I was sick and couldn't be cured in the hospital. Found the

wizard in the village to use spell to exort sickness (sickness demon) and soon I

was cured. Since then I start to believe this sacred spiritual power.” (Participant

107, China)

“My wife was suffering from a chronic stomach ache from years before marriage

and was not able to be successful in her life because of that. She consulted many

doctors and none was helpful. Everybody stated that it was all her feeling. But

due to sudden vomiting temptations, frequent urination urges, intermittent, but

severe stomach aches, she was very depressed of her situation at the time of her

marriage with me. I consoled her and after marriage, we again visited many

doctors, and once, she was directed to a psychologist. He told me to start some

sedative treatments, but I was not willing to. At that time, from one of our

acquaintances, we came to know about a saint living in a district called Alleppey

in Kerala and we met him. He was a big devotee and through his guidance, we

practiced more religious activities and engaged ourselves in spiritual way of life.

This gradually brought happiness to our life and in the due course, the saint

helped us by removing all our evils and negative energies from our bodies, and

our life began to be meaningful. All this happened by the proper guidance by the

saint, who didn't collect a single penny from us for his guidance. This led to me

and my wife's spiritual believes to become stronger and started living a life in

tune with God's principles of a healthy good lifestyle.” (Participant 3947, India)

“I am a reiki practitioner myself. We do healing by using universal power to flow

through the chakras. People do healing in different ways.” (Participant 4436,

India)

66

Appendix B

Informed Consent and Participant Rights (English)

Teachers College, Columbia University

525 West 120th Street

New York NY 10027

212 678 3000

www.tc.edu

INFORMED CONSENT

DESCRIPTION OF THE RESEARCH: The Department of Counseling and Clinical Psychology

at Teachers College, Columbia University supports the practice of protection of human

participants in research. In this study, titled Questions on Life (Primary Investigator: Dr. Lisa

Miller), you will be asked to fill out various online questionnaires. Questionnaires will be

administered via a secure and confidential website. You are free to choose which components of

this study you participate in. After agreeing to participate in the study, your participation is and

remains completely voluntary, and you can end your participation at any time.

RISKS AND BENEFITS: The risks of the study are assumed to be minimal. Self-report survey

measures can be helpful as a tool in building self-awareness around progress and change in one’s

own life, though there are no direct benefits associated with participation in the study. There is a

small risk that you will experience discomfort while reflecting upon survey questions. Please

note that you are free to skip any survey question presented in the study. If you have specific

concerns related to the material contained in the study, you may end your participation at any

time. The researcher will be happy to speak with you about these concerns and/or answer any

questions that you may have.

PAYMENTS: Participants completing this survey via the Mechanical Turk platform will receive

the agreed upon monetary payment for their participation.

DATA STORAGE TO PROTECT CONFIDENTIALITY: In order to ensure confidentiality, first

of all, no personal identifiable information is collected through the Mechanical Turk platform or

the survey itself. Moreover, all the data collected will be stored on secure servers that meet all

requirements for psychological research. Your participation is entirely confidential.

TIME INVOLVEMENT: Your participation will take approximately two and a half hours.

HOW WILL RESULTS BE USED: The results of the study will be anonymous and based only

on the results of all participants as a whole. They will be used for scholarly and educational

purposes, including the preparation of academic and professional reports, articles, and/or

presentations.

67

Teachers College, Columbia University

525 West 120th Street

New York NY 10027

212 678 3000

www.tc.edu

PARTICIPANT'S RIGHTS

Principal Investigator: Lisa Miller, Ph.D.

Research Title: Questions on Life

My participation in research is voluntary. I may refuse to participate or withdraw from

participation at any time without jeopardy to future medical care, employment, student status or

other entitlements.

The researcher may withdraw me from the research at his/her professional discretion.

If, during the course of the study, significant new information that has been developed becomes

available which may relate to my willingness to continue to participate, the investigator will

provide this information to me.

If at any time I have any questions regarding the research or my participation, I can contact the

investigator, who will answer my questions. The investigator's phone number is (212) 678-3852.

If at any time I have comments, or concerns regarding the conduct of the research or questions

about my rights as a research subject, I should contact the Teachers College, Columbia

University Institutional Review Board /IRB. The phone number for the IRB is (212) 678-4105.

Or, I can write to the IRB at Teachers College, Columbia University, 525 W. 120th Street, New

York, NY, 10027, Box 151.

I can receive a copy of the Research Description and this Participant's Rights document via email

by contacting [email protected].

My indication of acceptance below means that I accept the above Informed Consent and

Participant rights and agree to participate in this study.

Participant's signature: ________________________________ Date:____/____/____

Name: ________________________________

If necessary:

Guardian's Signature/consent: ____________________________________

Date:____/____/____

Name: ____________________________________

68

Informed Consent and Participant Rights (Chinese)

被试者须知

研究概述：哥伦比亚大学教育学院，咨询与临床心理系支持保护本调查被试者权利。本调

查题目为关于人生的问题（主要调查者：丽萨•米勒博士）。在本次调查中，您将会被要

求填写一系列网上问卷。问卷将由安全的保密网站进行回收处理，您可以自由选择参加本

调查的任何部分。同意参与调查后，您的参与将完全出于自愿原则，并且可以在任意时间

终止参与。

风险性和收益： 本调查几乎没有任何风险性。虽然参与本调查并没有直接的利益所得，

但自我汇报型调查测试可以帮助您意识到您生活的改变和进步。一些调查问题存在很小的

可能性会引起您的不适。请记住您可以选择跳过任何调查问题。如果您对问题材料有任何

的疑虑，可以随时退出。调查人员愿意随时帮助您解除任何疑虑，以及回答您的任何问题

。

酬谢：作为酬谢您将获得六美元（或其他国家地区等值货币）

保密数据储存：为了确保调查的保密性，所有的被试者都将会被分配一个数字。此数字关

联着您的调查结果数据，它们将被存放在安全的，符合全部心理学实验要求的网络服务器

上。数字分配记录，以及所有书面调查结果将被储存在安全的档案柜，不会被存放在网络

。您的参与是完全保密的。

参与时间：您的参与时间预计为2.5小时

调查结果用途：调查的结果将被匿名进行整体分析。分析结果将被用于学术及教育目的，

包括准备学术专业报告，论文，以及展示。

被试者权利

主要调查者：丽萨•米勒博士

调查题目：关于人生的问题

我对此调查的参与完全出于自愿，我可以拒绝参与，或在任意时间退出调查，且此举不会

影响我未来的医疗，雇佣，求学或其他任何方面的权益。

调查者可能基于他的专业性判断将我排除出此调查。在调查进行中，如有任何可能动摇我

参与意愿的新信息出现，调查者会向我提供这些信息。

任何与调查项目无关的，涉及我个人身份的信息都不会在我不知情的情况下，或违背我意

愿的情况下被透露。法律特别要求的信息除外。

如果我有任何关于实验，或参与实验的问题，我可以随时联系调查者，调查者会给予解答

69

。调查者的电话号码为（212）678-3852

如果我有对此调查方式或调查问题的评论，疑虑，或关于作为被试者的权利的问题。可以

随时联系哥伦比亚大学教育学院机构审查委员会。机构审查委员会的电话号码为（212）

678-4105. 或者致信联系机构审查委员会，地址为525 W.120th Street, New York, NY, 10027,

Box 151.

通过联系[email protected]我可以收到调查概述和被试者权利文件的备份。

签署本文件代表我已接受上述被试者须知以及被试者权利，并同意参与此调查研究。

被试者签名: ________________________________ 日期:____/____/____

姓名: ________________________________

如有必要:

监护人签名: ____________________________________ 日期:____/____/____

姓名: ____________________________________