CONSUMER'S PURCHASE DECISION PROCESS - AN OVERVIEW · current needs, attitudes, and motives; the desired state is the situation after the kinds of changes the consumer wishes. The

CHAPTER-II

CONSUMER'S PURCHASE DECISION PROCESS - AN OVERVIEW

Chapter II

CONSUMER'S PURCHASE DECISION PROCESS - AN OVERVIEW

The researcher has briefly explained the study concepts in this chapter. The

chapter is organized in the following manner:

i) A brief introduction about consumer behaviour which is the root for this study,

ii) A detailed discussion of consumer purchase decision process which is the core

concept of this study, and

iii) A detailed explanation about the demographic variables, which are important

for the study because of their role in consumer decision-making process.

2.1 CONSUMER BEHAVIOR

Schiffman and Kanuk (2004) define Consumer behaviour as the behavior that

consumers display in searching for, purchasing, using, evaluating and disposing of

products and services that they expect will satisfy their needs'. Consumer buying

behavior incorporates the acts of individuals directly involved in obtaining, using and

disposing of economic goods and services including the decision process that precede

and determine these acts (Huctings 1995)̂ . Lamb, Hair and McDaniel (1992) note that

consumer behaviour is a study of the processes the consumer uses to make purchase

decisions as well as the use and disposal of the purchased goods or services. It also

includes the analysis of factors that influence purchase decisions and good/service

24

usage. Further, it is important to note that consumer behavior is a process and purchase

is only one stage in that process^

Stanton, Etzel and Walker (1994) state that consumers are complex and

constantly changing'*. So, marketers must constantly improve their understanding of

consumers and must understand what influences the needs of the consumers and how

consumers go about satisfying them. In short, the understanding of the buying behavior

of existing and potential customers is imperative for marketers (Lancaster 1998)̂ . It is

also an absolute necessity for competitive survival. When the consumer is viewed in

the proper perspective, the outcomes could be quite positive for the manufacturer.

Lamb, Hair and McDaniel (1992) claim that the knowledge of consumer behavior

reduces uncertainty when creating the marketing mix .̂

2.2 CONSUMER DECISION MAKING

Mahatoo (1985) defines Consumer decision making as a process consisting of a

number of steps that begin before the purchase and reaches beyond the buying act. He

also suggests that marketers have to go beyond the various influences on buyers and

develop an understanding of how consumers actually make their buying decisions^.

The ability to create a good service and to persuade the market to buy this offering

instead of its competitors' offering depends upon the insight into the consumer

purchase decision process and on the understanding of how the target customers arrive

at their purchase decisions. Knowledge of this can be of greater use to the marketing

manager in several ways including the designing and launching of the product, the

promotional aspects etc.̂

25

Kotler (2003) distinguishes five roles people play in a buying situation . They

are,

i. Initiator: The person who first suggests the idea of buying the product or

service,

ii. Influencer: The person whose view or advice influences the decision

iii. Decider: The person who decides on any component of a buying decision:

whether to buy, what to buy, how to buy, or where to buy.

iv. Buyer: The person who makes the actual purchase

v. User: The person who consumes or uses the product or service

2.2.1 Types of Consumer Buying Decisions.

Consumer decision-making varies with the type of buying decision. Mahatoo

(1985) notes that the nature of the decision process varies depending upon the product

and the consumer. The marketers need to determine the kind of decision-making

behavior that is involved with the particular product in order to understand the behavior

of the consumer'". Howard (1989) classifies the consumer's buying decisions into

three broad categories''. They are:

i) Routine Response Behavior:

When buying the frequently purchased low-cost goods or services, a consumer

generally uses routine response behavior. These goods and services can also be called

low-involvement products since a consumer spends little search and decision time to

make the purchase ordinarily. The buyer is familiar with several different brands in the

product category but usually sticks with one brand. He depends primarily on his

26

memory for information and since he buys out of habit, he skips many steps in the

decision process.

ii) Limited Decision Making:

Acquiring information about an unfamiliar brand in a familiar product category

is called as limited decision making. This type of decision-making requires a moderate

amount of time for information i.e. more like "fine-tuning" and they do it for

discriminating among the various brands. Limited decision making is also used for

products bought only occasionally such as tyres, cosmetics and books

iii) Extensive / Complex Decision Making:

Consumers practice extensive decision-making when they purchase an

unfamiliar, expensive product or an infrequently bought item. This is the most

complex type of consumer decision-making. Because, the consumer needs a great deal

of information to establish a set of criteria for evaluating alternative brands and a

corresponding large amount of information concerning each of the brands to be

considered. The consumer spends much of the time for seeking information for this

purpose. Buying a home or a car requires extensive decision-making.

2.2.2 Stages in Consumer Decision Process

Engel, Kollet and Minard (1997) developed a model, which considers consumer

behavior as a decision process concerning five activities/stages, which occur over

time'^. They are

27

i) Need Recognition:

Everyone has unsatisfied needs and wants that create tension or discomfort.

Some needs can be satisfied by acquiring and consuming goods and services. Thus, the

process of deciding what to buy begins when a need, which can be satisfied through

consumption, becomes strong enough to motivate a person. Mahatoo (1985) states that

when the consumer becomes aware of a discrepancy between the existing state and a

desired state, need is aroused. The existing state is the total situation of a consumer: the

current needs, attitudes, and motives; the desired state is the situation after the kinds of

changes the consumer wishes. The existing state and the desired state are the functions

of the consumer's motivation, personality, and past experience of cultural and social

influences and of past marketing stimuli'^. Evans and Berman (1984) define a stimulus

as a cue intended to motivate a person to act. It may be social, commercial,

noncommercial or an inner drive. Need recognition signifies a person's readiness to

act'"*. Becoming aware of a need does not guarantee that the decision making process

will continue. Only if the problem is important to the consumer and he or she believes

that a solution is available will it continue (Baker 2000)'^ Kotler (2003) suggests that,

by gathering information from a number of consumers, marketers can identify the most

frequent stimuli that spark an interest in a product category. They can then develop

marketing strategies that trigger consumer interest'^.

ii) Information Search:

After recognizing a consumption related need, a consumer may or may not

search for additional information. That decision depends on the strength of the drive,

prior knowledge or experience with the product and the value of more information

28

relative to the cost of obtaining it. The consumer usually searches his or her memory

before seeking external sources of information regarding a given need. Past experience

is considered as an internal source of information. The greater the relevant past

experience, lesser the external information the consumer is likely to need to reach a

decision. Many consumer decisions are based on a combination of past experience

(internal sources) and marketing and non-commercial information (external sources)'^.

Baker (2000) states that, if there is a sufficiently high level of involvement or

engagement with the problem, the consumers are likely to engage in complex and

extensive information search and if the involvement level is low, they are likely to use

very simple or limited information search'^.

Kotler (2003) points out that through gathering information, the consumer

learns about competing brands and their features. There may be plenty of brands (total

set) available to the consumer in a product category. But, the consumer knows only

some of these brands (awareness set). Among these brands, some brands will meet the

consumer's initial buying criteria (consideration set). As the consumer gathers more

information, only a few will remain as strong contenders (choice set). All the brands in

the choice set might be acceptable. The consumer makes a final choice from this set.

The marketers must identify the consumer's information sources, evaluate their relative

importance and they have to evolve marketing strategies accordingly'^.

iii) Evaluation of Alternatives

Once a choice set (otherwise called as evoked set) has been identified, the

consumer evaluates them before making a decision. The evaluation involves

establishing some criteria against which each alternative is compared. The criteria that

29

consumers use in the evaluation result from their past experience and feelings toward

various brands as well as the opinions of family members, friends etc. (Stanton, Etzel

and Walker 1994)̂ ". The product related attributes such as the quality, durability,

price, design features etc., influence the buying decisions of a consumer. One way to

begin narrowing down the choices in the evoked set is to pick a product attribute and

then exclude all products in the set that don't posses that attribute (Lamb Hair and

McDaniel 1992) '̂. Finally, the choice which possesses all the required product related

attributes can be selected.

iv) Purchase Decision

After searching and evaluating, the first outcome will be the decision to

purchase or not to purchase the alternative evaluated as most desirable. If the decision

is to buy, a series of related decisions must be made regarding the features, where and

when to make the actual transaction, how to take delivery or possession, the mode of

payment and other issues. So, the decision to make a purchase is really the beginning

of an entirely new series of decisions that may be as time consuming and difficult as the

initial one. Selecting a source from which to make a purchase is one of the buying

decisions (Stanton, Etzel and Walker, 1994)̂ .̂ A consumer's decision to modify,

postpone or avoid a purchase decision is heavily influenced by perceived risk. The

amount of perceived risk varies with the extent of money at stake, the amount of

attribute uncertainty and the amount of consumer's self confidence. Marketers must

understand the factors that provoke a feeling of risk in the consumer and provide

information and support to reduce the perceived risk (Kotler, 2003)^ .̂

30

v) Post Purchase Behavior

A very important stage of the consumer decision process is the impact of

current decisions on future purchasing behavior. Actual use of a product will either

confirm or disconfirm prior expectations resulting from brand evaluation. Mahatoo

(1985) says that three general outcomes are possible'"*. They are,

a) Satisfaction

Satisfaction occurs when a product performs according to expectations. In other

words, the brand chosen has served to fulfill the consumer's need and thus, reinforces

the response of purchasing that brand. The reinforcement of such a response means

that beliefs and attitudes about the brand are positively influenced and the likelihood of

repurchase is increased.

b) Dissatisfaction

Dissatisfaction occurs in the reverse situation, when the product's performance

disconfirms prior expectations. It leads to negative beliefs and attitudes about the brand

and repurchase is not likely to occur. A disappointed consumer is not likely to

recommend the product to others. The results of satisfaction and dissatisfaction are

recorded in long-term memory and become inputs to the internal search stage in later

purchases. So, the marketers must be very careful in satisfying the needs and

expectations of consumers.

c) Cognitive Dissonance

Cognitive Dissonance occurs when the consumer experiences feelings of doubt

or psychological discomfort about the choice he/she made. Such a state of tension

occurs when two things that the consumer knows about a situation are inconsistent with

each other. It is often felt right after the purchase, when the consumer may begin to

have second thoughts about the product chosen. Dissonance is more likely to occur in

complex decision making; that is, with high involvement purchases. Dissonance-

causing information can come from a personal source, from advertising or from

experience with the product.

Post purchase evaluation is significant to marketers, because positive

evaluations increase the probability of repeat purchases and brand loyalty. Negative or

doubtful thoughts increase the probability that different alternatives will be considered

next time when the need arises (Husted, Varble and Lowry 1989)^^.

2.3 DEMOGRAPHIC VARIABLES

Like psychological and social variables, demographic variables are also

considered as the personal buying decision variables (Adcock, Bradfield, Halbord and

Ross 1998)^^. Barry (1986) defines demography as the study of population

characteristics. These characteristics describe people - who are there, where they live,

and where they are moving^^. Evans and Berman (1984) state that demographics are

easily identifiable and measurable statistics that are used to describe the population.

Trends in population size indicate future potential and thus, influence market plans.

The size of the population indicates the potential market demand for consumer products

and services^^. Oldroyd (1989) notes that demography is an important demand

32

29

condition, helping the marketer to predict both size and change in target markets .

Demographic factors have a bearing on the types of product which individuals want,

where they shop and how they evaluate possible purchases (Lancaster and Massingham

1998)-'°.

Marketers combine demographic, social and psychological data and study

consumer decision making in order to understand the consumers better. These

dimensions help to explain consumer life styles; the ways the people live. By

understanding consumers, a firm is able to determine the most appropriate audience to

appeal to and the combination of marketing factors that will satisfy this audience. So, it

is imperative for marketers to use demographic data in conjunction with and part of

social, psychological and consumer decision-making analyses. Evans and Berman

(1984) claim that a person's demographic background has a strong influence in the life

style, or in the way of living adopted^'. The demographic information helps to locate a

target market whose motives and behavior can then be explained and predicted using

psychological or socio-cultural investigation. Demographic information identifies

potential for sales and consumption of product although it does not identify why or by

whom a particular brand is used. It is also relatively accessible and cost-effective to

gather. Further, the demographic variables reveal trends relevant to marketers such as

shifts in age and income distributions, etc. They can establish consumer profiles that

may present attractive market opportunities. These are the causes why marketers, in

growing numbers, are using demographic statistics for developing marketing strategies

and programmes.

On the other side, demographic data do not consider the psychological or the

social factors influencing consumers. They do not explain the decision process, which

33

the consumers undergo when making purchases. Most importantly, demographics do

not delve into the reasons as to why consumers make particular decisions.

Demographics are descriptive in nature. Even so, the importance and implications of

demographic variables in marketing are obvious.

2.3.1 Important Demographic Variables and their Implications in Marketing Management.

The important demographic variables and their implications in marketing

management are explained below:

i)Age

Product needs and interests often vary with the consumer's age. (Schiffman &

Kanuk,2004)^ .̂ Age affects product consumption. The age distribution of the

consumer market is important in marketing of some products. Soft drink sales, for

instance, depend upon the youth market. An organisation that markets its product to a

specific age group must be alert to the changes in the group especially changes in size.

Shifts in the size of age groups provide varied marketing opportunities (Husted, Varble

and Lowry 1984)". Statt (1997) notes that age is the most frequently used

demographic variable in market segmentation. One reason for this is that the life cycle

has been divided by society into what seem to be easily recognizable groups that are

clearly differentiated from each other- infants, children, teenagers, young adults and so

on . So, marketers need to be aware of how the population is changing with respect to

age (Stanton, Etzel and Walker 1994)^1

34

ii) Gender

Product consumption can be related to a person's gender also. Men and women

buy different products and have different needs (Bradly, 1995)^^. They tend to have

different attitudinal and behavioral orientations based partly on genetic make up and

partly on socialization practices. Gender differentiation has long been applied in

clothing, hairstyling, cosmetics and magazines (Kotler 2003) .̂ Gender too has been a

long-established segmentation variable. In marketing, there is an increasing amount of

evidence to suggest that targeting needs to be either male or female in tone, style,

wording and design (Statt, 1995)'l

iii) Marital Status

Traditionally, the family has been the focus of most marketing efforts and for

many products and services. Because, the household continues to be the relevant

consuming unit. Marketers are interested in the number and kinds of households that

buy and/or own certain products. They are also interested in determining the

demographic and media profiles of household decision makers (the persons involved in

the actual selection of the product) to develop appropriate marketing strategies.

Marketers have discovered the benefits of targeting specific marital status groupings

such as singles, divorced individuals, single parents and dual-income married couples

etc. (Schiffman and Kanuk 2004)^^

iv) Education

Education is a powerful influence on consumer behavior; the level of literacy in

specific areas and regions may provide marketers with opportunities to sell

35

sophisticated products and services. Higher education gives entry to the professions;

social aspiration and consumption levels are raised (Chisnall, 1994)''°. As the

population of a society gets more educated it become more sophisticated in its buying

behavior. Marketers must adjust to that increasing level of consumer sophistication

(Barry 1986)"". With an increasing number of people attaining higher levels of

education, marketers can expect to see i) changes in product preferences and ii) buyers

with higher incomes and more discriminating tastes (Stanton, Etzel and Walker

1994)^1

v) Occupation

Occupation may be a more meaningful criterion than income in segmenting

some markets. Truck drivers and auto mechanics may earn as much as young retailing

executives or college professors. But, the buying patterns of the first two are likely to

be different from the second two because of attitudes and interests (Stanton, Etzel and

Walker 1994)''̂ . Education, occupation and income tend to be closely correlated in

almost a cause-effect relationship. High-level occupations that produce high incomes

usually require advanced educational training (Schiffman & Kanuk 2004/'*.

vi) Income

Income has long been an important variable for distinguishing between market

segments. Marketers commonly segment market on the basis of income because they

feel that it is a strong indicator of the ability (or inability) to pay for a product or a

specific model of the product (Schiffman and Kanuk 2004)''^. Measurements of ability

to buy include disposable or discretionary income. Disposable personal income is

36

income after taxes and discretionary income is disposable income minus expenditures

for necessities.

Marketers of luxury products and services such as high-priced cars and cruisers

frequently use discretionary income as a measure of the ability to spend. Whether

marketers are using disposable, discretionary or some other income to demonstrate

ability to buy, they must pay particular attention and analyse the spending patterns of

people in different income levels (Husted, Varble, howry 1984/^.

vii) Family Life Cycle

Evans and Berman (1984) define a family as a group of two or more persons

who are related by blood, marriage or adoption''^. Barry (1986) claims that the group

that has the most significant influence on all our behavior including purchase behavior

is our immediate family"* .̂ Smith and Taylor (2002) note that there are often several

individuals involved in any one person's decision to purchase goods and services'*'.

Bradly (1985) states that the husbands, wives and children all display varying degrees

of influences in household purchases^*'. The family size also can yield different

consumption patterns. Chisnall (1994) says that the children influence many buying

decisions in a family^'.

Husted, Varble and Lowry (1984) reveal that a family with young children buys

different products than a retired couple. The family life cycle traces the evolution of

families from formation to final stage*"̂ . The evaluation is divided into stages

according to age, family size, marital status and employment status. At each stage of

the cycle, needs, experience, income and family composition change as do its

consumption motives and purchasing patterns. The family life cycle is an excellent tool

37

for market segmentation and for developing marketing campaigns. The number of

people in different stages in the cycle can be obtained through a study of demographic

data. When initialising family life cycle analysis, marketers must take note of the

growing numbers of people who do not marry, do not have children or become

divorced.

Stages in family life cycle

The following are the stages in family life cycle (Derrick and Linfield, 1980)":

a) Bachelor Stage

The young and single (unmarried) persons under 35 years of age who are not

living at home belong to this stage. They are generally fashion opinion leaders and

recreation oriented. They buy basic home equipment, furniture, car and prefer going

vacations.

b) Newly Married Couples

They are young couples with no children. Their purchase rate is highest and

particularly they witness highest average purchase of durables like cars, appliances,

furniture, vacations etc.

c) Full Nest I

They are married and their youngest child is under six. Their home purchasing

is at peak but at the same time, their liquid assets would be low. They are generally

interested in buying new products and advertised products. They buy washers, dryers,

TV, baby foods, vitamins, dolls etc.

38

d) Full Nest II

They are married and their youngest child would be between 6 and 12 years.

Their financial position is better and advertising influences them less. They generally

buy larger-size packages and multiple unit deals. Their buying preference will be

foods, cleaning materials, bicycles, music lessons, pianos etc.

e) Full Nest III

They are old married couples with dependent children. Their financial position

is still better. Some of their children get jobs. It is very hard to influence them with

advertising. They have high average purchase of durables such as new, more tasteful

furniture, auto travel, unnecessary appliances, dental services, magazines, cars, etc.

f) Empty Nest I

They are older married couples and no children living with them. The head of

the household is still in labour force. They are most satisfied with financial position

and money saved. They are interested in travel, recreation, self-education etc. They

make gifts and contributions and are not interested in new products but prefer vacations

and buy luxuries, etc.

g) Empty Nest II

They are older married couple and no children are living at home. The head of

the household is retired. There is a drastic cut in income. They keep their home and

buy medical appliances and medical care products.

39

h) Solitary Survivor

The widow (er) is still working and no children are living with them.

i) Solitary Survivor (Retired)

The widow (er) is retired and no children are living with them.

viii) Social Class

Social class refers to the grouping together of individuals or families who have

certain common social or economic characteristics. The criterion used for this type of

grouping can be occupation, education, income and type of dwelling. Social class is a

composite demographic measure (Lancaster and Massingham 1998)̂ '*. Social class

systems separate society into divisions, grouping people with similar patterns of

behavior, similar values and life styles. Each social class may represent a distinct target

market for a company (Evans and Berman 1984)^^ Social class is important to

marketing managers, in that the behavior of people within such groups tends to be

similar. This similarity helps marketing managers identify market segments and

develop marketing mix programs to successfully market their products in those

segments (Barry 1986)^^

Social Class Classiflcation (Coleman, 1983)'''

The following are the classification of social class:

40

a) Upper Upper

The social elite who live on inherited wealth. They give large sums to charity,

maintain more than one home and send their children to the finest schools. They are a

market for jewelry, antiques, homes and vacations. They often buy and dress

conservatively. Although small as a group, they serve as a reference group to the

extent that the other social classes imitate their consumption decisions.

b) Lower Upper

These are the persons, usually from the middle class, who have earned high

income or wealth through exceptional ability in their professions or business. They

tend to be active in social and civic affairs and to buy the symbols of status for

themselves and their children. They include the noveau riche, whose pattern of

conspicuous consumption is designed to impress those below them.

c) Upper Middles

These persons possess neither family status nor unusual wealth and are

primarily concerned with 'career". They are professionals, independent business people

and corporate managers who believe in education and want their children to develop

professional or administrative skills. Members of this class are civic-minded and

home-oriented. They are the quality market for good homes, clothes, furniture and

appliances.

41

d) Middle Class

These are the average paid white and blue-collar workers who live on 'the right

side' of the town. Often, they buy popular products to keep up with trends and most of

them are concerned with fashion. The middle class believes in spending more money

on 'worthwhile experiences' for their children and steering them toward a college

education.

e) Working Class

These are the average paid blue-collar workers and those who lead a working-

class lifestyle, whatever be their income, school background or job. The working class

depends heavily on relatives for economic and emotional support, for tips on job

opportunities, for advice and for assistance. For a working-class, vacation means

staying in town and "going away" means to a lake or resort no more than two hours

away. The working class tends to maintain sharp sex-role divisions.

f) Upper Lowers

Upper lowers are working and their living standard is just above poverty. They

perform unskilled work and are very poorly paid. Often they are educationally

deficient.

g) Lower Lowers

They are on welfare, visibly poverty striken, and usually out of work. Some are

not interested in finding a permanent job and most are dependent on public aid or

charity for income.

42

2.4 CONCLUSION

Consumer behavior is not just making a purchase decision or the act of

purchasing; it includes the full range of experiences associated with using or consuming

products and services. It also includes a sense of pleasure and satisfaction derived from

possessing or collecting 'things". The outputs of consumption are changes in feelings,

moods, or attitudes; reinforcement in lifestyles; an enhanced sense of self; satisfaction

of a consumer-related need; belonging to groups; and expressing and entertaining

oneself

A consumer's decision to purchase or not to purchase a product or service is an

important moment for most marketers. It can signify whether a marketing strategy has

been wise, insightful, and effective, or whether it was poorly planned and missed the

mark. Thus, marketers are particularly interested in the consumer's decision-making

process. For a consumer to make a decision, more than one alternative must be

available.

Demographics are uncontrollable variables in the external environment. The

basis for any market is people. Hence, studying the population in terms of its

demographic structure is very significant for marketing managers.

Schiffman, Leon G. and Leslie Lazer Kanuk (2004), Consumebr Behaviour, 8"̂ ed., Prentice Hall of India Pvt. Ltd.: New Delhi, p 8.

^ Hutchings, Andy (1995), Marketing - A Resource Book, T' ed.. Pitman Publishing: UK., pp 67-75.

^ Lamb, Charles W. Jr., Joseph F Hair and Carl McDaniel (1992), Principles of Marketing, South - Western Publishing Co.: Ohio, pp 71-84.

'^ Stanton, William J., Micheal J. Etzel and Bruce J. Walker (1994), Fundamentals of Marketing, lO'̂ ed., McGraw Hill Inc.: Singapore, pp 152 - 179

43

^ Lancaster, Geff and Lester Massingham (1998), Essentials of Marketing, McGraw Hill Publishing Company: U.K., pp 51-66.

*' Lamb, Charles W. Jr., Joseph F Hair and Carl McDaniel (1992), Principles of Marketing, South - Western Publishing Co.: Ohio, pp 71-84

^ Mahatoo, Winston H (1985), The Dynamics of Consumer Behaviour, John Wiley & Sons Canada Ltd.: Toronto, Ontario, pp 5-8.

^ Lamb, Charles W. Jr., Joseph F Hair and Carl McDaniel (1992), Principles of Marketing, South - Western Publishing Co.: Ohio, pp 71-84

^ Kotler, Philip (2003), Marketing Management, 12* ed., Pearson Education Asia: Singapore, pp 183-203.

' Mahatoo, Winston H (1985), The Dynamics of Consumer Behaviour, John Wiley & Sons Canada Ltd.: Toronto, Ontario, pp 12-35.

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'̂ Engel, James F., Roger D. Blackwell, Paul W. Miniard (1995), Consumer Behaviour, The Dryden Press: London, pp 120-160.

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'"* Evans, Joel R. and Barry Berman (1984), Essentials of Marketing, Macmillan: USA, pp 78-104.

'̂ Baker, Michael J (2000), The Marketing Book, 4* ed., Butterworth - Heinemann: UK, p 112.

'̂ Kotler, Philip (2003), Marketing Management, 12'̂ ed., Pearson Education Asia: Singapore, pp 183-203.

'̂ Schiffman, Leon G. and Leslie Lazer Kanuk (2004), Consumer Behaviour, 8* ed., Prentice Hall of India Pvt. Ltd.: New Delhi, pp 547-581

'̂ Baker, Michael J (2000), The Marketing Book, 4"" ed., Butterworth - Heinemann: UK, p 112.

''' Kotler, Philip (2003), Marketing Management, 12* ed., Pearson Education Asia: Singapore, pp 183-203

20 Stanton, William J., Micheal J. Etzel and Bruce J. Walker (1994), Fundamentals of Marketing, 10* ed., McGraw Hill Inc.: Singapore, pp 152 - 179

44

'̂ Lamb, Charles W. Jr., Joseph F. Hair and Carl McDaniel (1992). Principles of Marketing, South - Western Publishing Co.: Ohio, pp.71-84

^̂ Stanton, William J., Michael J. Etzel and Bruce J. Walker (1994), Fundamentals of Marketing, lO"̂ ed., McGraw Hill Inc.: Singapore, pp 152 - 179

^̂ Kotler, Philip (2003), Marketing Management, 12"̂ ed., Pearson Education Asia: Singapore, pp 183-203

"̂̂ Mahatoo, Winston H. (1985), The Dynamics of Consumer Behaviour, John Wiley & Sons Canada Ltd.: Toronto, Ontario, pp 12-35.

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"̂̂ Oldroyd, Mike (1999), CIM Work Book - Marketing Environment, 4"" ed., Butterworth - Heinemann: UK, pp. 185-200.

°̂ Lancaster, Geff and Lester Massingham (1998), Essentials of Marketing, McGraw Hill Publishing Company, pp 51-66

•" Evans, Joel R. and Barry Berman (1984), Essentials of Marketing, Macmillan: USA, pp 78-104.

^̂ Schiffman, Leon G. and Leslie Lazer Kanuk (2004), Consumer Behaviour, 8* ed.. Prentice Hall of India Pvt. Ltd.: New Delhi, pp 55-63.

^̂ Husted, Stewart W, Dale Varble and James R. Lowry (1989), Principles of Modern Marketing, Allyn & Bacon: USA, pp 124-170

•''* Statt, David (1997), Understanding the Consumer - A Psychological Approach, Palgrave Macmillan: UK., pp 113-128.

^̂ Stanton, William J., Michael J. Etzel and Bruce J. Walker (1994), Fundamentals of Marketing, lO"' ed., McGraw Hill Inc.: Singapore, pp 129 - 136.

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45

^̂ Kotler, Philip (2003), Marketing Management, 12"̂ ed., Pearson Education Asia,: Singapore, pp 287 - 291.

Statt, David (1997), Understanding the Consumer - A Psychological Approach, Palgrave Macmillan: UK., pp 113-128.

^̂ Schiffman, Leon G. and Leslie Lazer Kanuk (2004), Consumer Behaviour, 8"̂ ed.. Prentice Hall of India Pvt. Ltd.: New Delhi, pp 55-63

""̂ Chisnall, Peter M. (1994), Consumer Behaviour, V^ ed., McGraw Hill Book Company: London, pp 168-170.

41 Bary, Thomas (1986), Marketing - An Integrated Approach, The Dryden Press: USA, pp 127-162.

"*' Stanton, William J., Michael J. Etzel and Bruce J. Walker (1994), Fundamentals of Marketing, lO"̂ ed., McGraw Hill Inc.: Singapore, pp 129 - 136.

'' Ibid.

'*'* Schiffman, Leon G. and Leslie Lazer Kanuk (2004), Consumer Behaviour, 8̂ ^ ed.. Prentice Hall of India Pvt. Ltd.: New Delhi, pp 55-63

'' Ibid.

''̂ Husted, Stewart W, Dale Varble and James R. Lowry (1989), Principles of Modern Marketing, Allyn & Bacon: USA, pp 124-170

47 Evans, Joel R. and Barry Berman (1984), Essentials of Marketing, Macmillan: USA, pp 78-104.

Bary, Thomas (1986), Marketing - An Integrated Approach, The Dryden Press: USA, pp 127-162.

''̂ Smith, P.R., and Jonathan Taylor (2002), Marketing Communications - An Integrated Approach, Kogan Page Ltd.: London, p 93.

50 Bradley, Frank (1995), Marketing Management - Providing, Communicating and Delivering Value, Prentice Hall: London, pp 132-133.

' ' Chisnall, Peter M., (1994) Company: London, pp 172-174

^̂ Husted, Stewart W, Dale Va Marketing, Allyn & Bacon: USA, pp 124-170

^̂ Derrick, Fredrick W, and Alane E. Linfie Alternative Approach", Journal of Consumer Research, September, pp 214-217

Chisnall, Peter M., (1994), Consumer Behaviour, y^ ed., McGraw Hill Book

^̂ Husted, Stewart W, Dale Varble and James R. Lowry (1989), Principles of Modern

'^ Derrick, Fredrick W, and Alane E. Linfield, (1980), "The Family Life Cycle: An

46

^^ Lancaster, Geff and Lester Massingham (1998), Essentials of Marketing, McGraw Hill Publishing Company, pp 51-66

^̂ Evans, Joel R. and Barry Berman (1984), Essentials of Marketing, Macmiiian, USA, pp 78-104.

^^ Bary, Thomas (1986), Marketing - An Integrated Approach, The Dryden Press: USA, pp 127- 162.

^̂ Coleman, Richard P. (1983), "The Continuing Significance of Social Class to Marketing", Journal of Consumer Research, December, pp 265-280.

47