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Consumerism in educationA comparison between Canada and the
United KingdomIna FreemanDepartment of Management and Marketing,
Kazakhstan Institute for Management, Economics and Research,
Almaty, Kazakhstan, and
Consumerism in education
153
Michael ThomasUniversity of Strathclyde, Glasgow,
UKAbstractPurpose With the emergence of the knowledge economy
different countries are responding with changes within their
tertiary education systems. Education is increasingly recognized as
a cornerstone to the continued growth of a country but with the
globalization of business is education becoming a commodity?
Design/methodology/approach This paper examines educational
policies and their implementation within the UK and Canada.
Findings This paper nds that education in the UK has become a
commercial product within the international arena, unlike Canada
where tertiary education has remained a domestic pursuit.
Originality/value This paper engages in a controversy that
questions whether the economic value to a nation of education is
found only in the numbers of students or can be enlarged to include
the results of the education for the students. Keywords Tertiary
education, Comparative tests, Educational policy Paper type
Viewpoint
Introduction With the increasing globalization of commerce and
the international movement of people, students who are looking for
post-secondary education are no longer restricted by national
boundaries. Many international organizations are organized around a
specic concept and work around the globe to achieve these goals. In
so doing, the educational status of those who are involved as well
as the worlds population in general is improved. This globalization
is evidenced by the increasing number of organizations that work
internationally on humanitarian causes, such as Amnesty
International, International Humana People to People Movement,
Greenpeace International, International Red Cross and Red Crescent
Movement, Peoples Global Action, among others. International
organizations perspectives frequently differ from those of the
institutions that administer the elected ofcials agenda as well as
the elected ofcials. Often the ofcials agenda is short-term due to
the established timeframes of power. When this is translated into
the perspective of consumers of education, it results in greedy
consumerism and emphasis on short-term gain over longer term
success (Tickell, 2002). This is evidenced by the United States
student populations high levels of detachment from the world of
academia and accompanying low trust in academic institutions, as
well as a focus on the career positions and pay levels that will
result from the education instead of the focus being on the
education itself (Spiegler, 1998).
International Journal of Educational Management Vol. 19 No. 2,
2005 pp. 153-177 q Emerald Group Publishing Limited 0951-354X DOI
10.1108/09513540510582444
IJEM 19,2
154
The developed world recognizes the importance of post-secondary
education. For example, in England the Prime Minister has expressed
a desire for 50 percent of the population to have a university
degree. A White Paper, published in January 2003, indicates that 43
percent of the British population between the ages of 18 and 30 is
currently enrolled an institution of higher education (Department
for Education and Skills, 2003). Universities in Canada recognize
that growing student populations are creating a crisis in the
post-secondary education system (Borel et al., 2003). The result of
this crisis is increasingly larger numbers of potential students
who are being turned away and increasing pressure and competition
between universities to attract the best candidates because of the
perception that the more high-prole the alumni, the greater the
likelihood of increased private funding. Universities in England
are approaching their funding needs by both increasing the number
of international students studying in England as well as exporting
university programs to developing countries where satellite
campuses are established (Malaysian Business, 2003). Education is
the foundation of the success of todays increasingly global
marketplace. Complicating this is the increasing globalization felt
in communication, commerce, technology, and politics, among others.
To educate those who will both participate in and be affected by
this globalization is an increasingly onerous task that must
respond to and incorporate economic restructuring, demographic
shifts, and increasing reliance on information technology as a
signpost for the knowledge economy. Post-secondary institutions in
the UK and Canada are addressing both the change and the incumbent
needs differently, partially due to differences in the historical
focus on education, partially due to the different political
structures under which post-secondary institutions operate,
partially due to the demand for university education by the
populations, and partially due to the rising consumerism among
students. This paper will address the differences in responses
among these countries post-secondary education structures with a
view to clarifying issues that may be important to students when
contemplating where to pursue their advanced education. Background
The importance of the education marketplace is recognized by the
World Trade Organization (WTO), which administers the General
Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), originating in 1947. In 1995
the WTO expanded GATT to include services including education under
the Central Product Classication system that categorizes education
as primary, secondary, higher education, adult, and other
(Association of Universities and Colleges of Canada, 2003c). Higher
education in this system includes university, college, vocational,
and technical education. However these agreements remain incomplete
today due to the current 144 participatory members desire to retain
control over these services. To September 2003, Canada has made no
commitment and is seeking no commitment under these provisions
concerning education, health, culture, or social services
(Department of Foreign Affairs and International Trade, 2002). The
UK, under the banner of the European Union (EU), has stated that it
will not make any further commitment concerning education under the
WTO agreements (European Union, 2003), a policy that is endorsed by
national associations for higher education academics in both
countries (Association of Universities and Colleges of Canada,
2003c). These associations in both the UK and Canada look to
agreements outside the GATT trade agreements but are under the
auspices of the WTO, which
would allow for the recognition of different countries
educational standards. This reluctance may be due in part to the
potential income generated by higher education as a marketplace. In
1999, education was estimated as a marketplace that generated $30
billion (12.3448 billion)[1] (Association of Universities and
Colleges of Canada, 2003c). Education today is recognized by the
WTO as a global commodity. This is based on the attributed
importance given to globalization, technology, and communication;
increased competition in the global marketplace (Association of
Universities and Colleges of Canada, 2003c); and the need to
prepare tomorrows workers for a life that demands global literacy.
In todays global economy, education is seen as the foundation upon
which individual countries economies are based. In Canada, these
benets are noted as extending beyond the economic realm by
enhancing standards of living in a population resulting in
increasing longevity as well as greater willingness to engage in
critical thought and debates that contribute toward a more
democratic society (Association of Universities and Colleges of
Canada, 2003c). Universities are looked to as a means of mobilizing
even more effectively the imagination, creativity, skills, and
talents [. . .] to build economic strength and social harmony
(Department for Education and Skills, 2003). Post-secondary
education is seen as an indicator of peoples ability to compete in
the job market, thereby increasing their economic prosperity and
the opportunities encountered in the burgeoning knowledge-based
economy now emerging in the developed world. This has resulted in a
proliferation of universities in both the United Kingdom and
Canada. In 2003, Canada had 195 community colleges and 75
recognized universities with an enrolment of 580,400 full time and
246,000 part-time university students (representing a total of 2.4
percent of the Canadian population) taught by 33,700 instructors
(StatsCan, 2003). It is estimated that 70 percent of those enrolled
in undergraduate programs are in the 18-24 age group (Canadian
Education Statistics Council, 2003). Canadian universities vary in
size, the smallest having a student population of less than 300 and
25 having a student population of over 10,000 (Canadian Education
Statistics Council, 2003). Full time enrolment at Canadian
universities increased by 16 percent between 1988-1989 and
1998-1999 but has decreased from the 1998-1999 high of 885,600
students (Canadian Education Statistics Council, 2003). This
ten-year increase belies the trend of decreasing funding from
1993-1994 to 1997-1998 with the academic year 1998-1999 seeing the
rst increase in that ve-year period (Canadian Education Statistics
Council, 2003). During the same time period in Canada, college
education has increased for both full time enrolment (28 percent)
and part time enrolment (12 percent) with approximately one quarter
of these students registered in university transfer programs
(Canadian Education Statistics Council, 2003). These gures are not
indicative of the number of applications that, depending on the
university and the individual faculty, are nearly double to ten
times the number of students accepted. In Canada this translates to
increasing admission standards driven up to a minimum average
across all faculties of 85 percent (Canadian Broadcasting
Corporation, 1999). The 1999-2000 academic year gures included
59,845 international post-secondary students, representing
approximately 10 percent of the student population, who contribute
an estimated $3.5 billion (1.44 billion) to $4.3 billion (1.77
billion) to the Canadian economy (Association of Universities and
Colleges of Canada, 2003c). This
Consumerism in education
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IJEM 19,2
156
gure is small because Canada has not concentrated on the
international marketplace in the past. Until very recently, the
demand for placement has more than been met and exceeded by
Canadian students and the governmental funding structures for
universities has not encouraged international students. This is
further complicated by the allocation of governmental
responsibilities, with the provinces being responsible for
education and the federal government being responsible for
immigration. The governments contribution for higher education is
approximately $14,182 per student per year in the 1998-1999
academic year (Canadian Education Statistics Council, 2003). The
student also contributes by way of tuition. The Canada Student
Loans assisted 48 percent of post-secondary students in 1990 and 44
percent in 1995 (Canadian Education Statistics Council, 2003, p.
303). The students contribution depends on the tuition rate set by
individual institutions, but the increases are reected in the
average debt of these students upon graduation increasing from
$7,953 (3,273) in 1990 to $10,601 (4,362) in 1995, representing a
33 percent increase (Canadian Education Statistics Council, 2003,
p. 301). Overall, tuition in Canada rose between 1990 and 2001 (in
constant 2001 Canadian dollars) 98 percent for undergraduate
students and 138 percent for graduate students, with dentistry
increasing 310 percent, medicine increasing 252 percent, law
increasing 144 percent, and commerce increasing 115 percent
(Canadian Education Statistics Council, 2003). According to a 1999
survey, there are 172 universities in the United Kingdom (Canadian
Education Statistics Council, 2003) with 134 in England, 13 in
Wales, four in Northern Ireland, and 21 in Scotland. In the UK,
there were 2,086,075 students, including 1,255,555 full time and
830,520 part time students for the 2001-2002 year, up from
1,918,970 for the 1998-1999 year (Higher Education Statistics
Agency, n.d.), representing an 8.7 percent increase. On average,
the student enrolment increases in the UK have been 6 percent from
1996-1997 to 2000-2001 compared with a 54 percent growth in the
number of higher education institutions from 1988-1989 to 1993-1994
(Higher Education Funding Council for England, 2002). The majority
of students in the UK are undergraduates, who are noted as being
primarily between the ages of 18 and 21 years (Higher Education
Funding Council for England, 2002), similar to Canada. In a study
of domicile and gender in 2002, of 2,086,075 students there were
1,843,320 (88.4 percent) from the United Kingdom (representing 3.1
percent of the UK population), 90,135 (4.3 percent) from other EU
countries, and 152,625 (7.3 percent) international not including
the EU. Of these, students from each of China and Africa
represented 14 percent, 11 percent were from North America, and 10
percent were from other Asian countries (not including Japan,
Singapore, Malaysia, Hong Kong, Taiwan, and India) (Universities
UK, n.d.). The UK government has identied the international student
population as worth pursuing. The increase in the number of
students is not restricted to home students, with universities in
England looking to increase the number of international students to
improve the nancial situation (Green, 2003). In a 1999 speech, Mr
Tony Blair, the British Prime Minister, announced that one of his
governments goals was to be a leader in the provision of education
for international students by admitting more international students
into the UK higher education system, attaining 25 percent of the
global market share of higher education students by 2005, with the
longer-term goal of 50 percent (Blair, 1999). This action would
perhaps allow the tuition rates for these students to offset the
governmental funding shortfalls.
In the 2000-2001 academic year, there were a total of 119,900
academic staff in UK Higher Education Institutions, being 96,850 in
England, 5,770 in Wales, 14,330 in Scotland, and 2,955 in Northern
Ireland (Higher Education Statistics Agency, n.d.). The UK has a
student to academic ratio of 6.2:1 whereas Canadas is 4.1:1. From a
survey of 30 OECD countries, Canada has the highest percentage of
university and college education for the 25 to 64 year old
population (41 percent) (Canadian Education Statistics Council,
2003, p. 385). Within this study, the United Kingdom is seen to
have 26 percent for the same population (Canadian Education
Statistics Council, 2003, p. 385). In England, universities are
funded by the Higher Education Funding Council for England, the
government department responsible for funding of universities. In
the 2003-2004 academic year, the granting of funding from the HEFCE
board will increase from 6,406 million ($15,579 million),
representing 3,071 ($7,468) per student to 7,599 million ($18,480
million) in 2005-06 (Higher Education Funding Council for England,
2003a). According to the Department for Education and Skills
(2003), the cost to the UK taxpayer will be offset by the programs
for international students that result in an infusion of 8 billion
($19.4 billion) per year, or 32,954 ($80,141) per student into the
UK economy. This infusion comes from the costs of living as well as
tuition fees. Student loans are not structured in England as they
are in Canada, with much of the undergraduate tuition being
government-sponsored for United Kingdom resident citizens until
2004 when top up fees of 1,100 ($2,673) increase tuition to 3,000
($7,291). However, as of 2006, 30 percent of the poorest students
will be guaranteed a 3,000 ($7,291) bursary to pay tuition, minimum
income levels structured prior to payment, and loans forgiven after
25 years, leaving the funding of undergraduate education still
largely state-sponsored. The median fees across all UK higher
education institutions for international students is 7,475
($18,074.62) for undergraduate courses, 7,650 ($18,497.77) for
taught postgraduate courses, and 7,632 ($18,454.25) for
postgraduate research courses (Universities UK, n.d.). Canada, on
the other hand, is looking to increased government funding
(Association of Universities and Colleges of Canada, 2002) that now
supports approximately 60 percent of the cost of universities
(Association of Universities and Colleges of Canada, 2003a, b),
with 20 percent coming from students (CBC News Online, 2004), and
the balance coming from other sources, including research
contracts. The Canadian governments spending on university
education has increased approximately 60 percent from 1991-1992 to
2001-2002 (StatsCan, 2003). In the decade 1989-1997, government
funding of the education system in England as portrayed by funding
per student has decreased by 36 percent (Clarke, 2004). This
difference in funding is also reected in the degree to which each
country looks to international students to bridge the gap and is
reected in the resources expended on recruiting international
students. The value of international students and the global
marketplace for education is well recognized with politicians and
universities in England admitting their need to focus on funding
forcing them to search overseas for paying students. This resulted
in the best of the British students to go abroad for their
education (Wolf, 2004). The repercussions of this are broadly
discussed and include a lack of innovation and skilled labour, both
of which impact negatively upon the progress of the country
(Caldwell, 2004), ultimately impoverishing the UK and further
decreasing its status as a global supplier of quality
education.
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158
In England, universities are experiencing pressure to increase
tuition rates as well as enrolment rates, a dichotomy that is
obvious when the expected salary gains that come from university
education are examined. Graduate earnings in England are no longer
increasing, and in some instances, are starting to fall. In a
recent study, graduates in law, math, and economics could expect an
increase in earnings of 25 percent when compared to not obtaining
the degree, social studies increased earnings by 10 percent,
education and languages had no effect on earnings, and arts showed
a decrease in earnings (The Economist, 2003). This decrease is
blamed on English university degrees becoming costlier, worse and
commonplace (The Economist, 2003, p. 46). Earnings in Canada are
associated with educational levels, with 61 percent of those
earning over $100,000 (41,149) (in 2000) having a university
education and 62 percent of those earning less than $20,000 (8,230)
(in 2000) having high school education or less (Canadian Education
Statistics Council, 2003). In a recent study, the rising
consumerism among students that has resulted in complex rating
systems including the estimated value for the dollar spent on
education was cited as prevalent in the choice of higher education
institution in America (Spiegler, 1998). There has been one study
that forms the latest Canadian research into those factors that are
ranked as important to students in Canadian universities. This
study, by Pierce (1995), reports that students and their parents
look for slightly different aspects. Students look for: . career
opportunities; . availability of a specic academic program; .
academic facilities; . academic cut-off (lowest acceptable marks);
. availability of housing; . campus setting; . reputation of
university; . student morale; . visit to the university; . variety
of courses; and . university social life. Parents look for: .
availability of specic academic program; . career opportunities; .
academic facilities; . reputation of university; . variety of
courses; . reputation of faculty; . student morale; .
student/faculty ratio; . availability of housing; and
.
academic cut-off (lowest acceptable marks), student support
services and availability of career counselling as equal.
Consumerism in education
These needs are somewhat negated in Canada with limited
admissions to universities, making the availability of
opportunities the most signicant factor. A study done in the UK in
1998 by Universities UK (Universities UK, 1998) examined the
elements that students considered when choosing their institution.
It was found that it varied by age groupings. Those who were 21
years and younger looked for, in order of descending importance:
(1) Offered the right subject. (2) Overall image. (3) Social life.
(4) Teaching reputation. (5) Employment prospects. (6) Entry
qualications. For those over 25 years, the aspects in order of
descending importance are: (1) Offered the right subject. (2)
Attitude to mature students. (3) Teaching reputation. (4) Academic
support facilities. (5) Distance from home. Thus in the UK, the
perception of important aspects is somewhat in tune with the
perceptions of both the Canadian students and their parents, in
that the availability of the specic program and the teaching
reputation are of high importance. There is an increasing call for
post-secondary education in Canada to have a larger real world
focus with the inclusion of school-sponsored co-op programs for
students, co-op work terms for professors, and increased partnering
between universities and business (Ambler, 2003). The Association
of Universities and Colleges of Canada (2003e) notes that time
spent in learning environments in foreign countries enhances the
employability of graduates by developing an international
perspectives by exposing the students to a different language,
encouraging intercultural competence, resiliency, exibility, and
international business. Some industry support exists within Canada,
with the CESC nding that business support of Research and
Development (R&D) in universities has risen from 7 percent in
1991 to 9 percent in 1999 and the universities funding their own
R&D rising from 14 to 23 percent (Canadian Education Statistics
Council, 2003, p. 368). In the United Kingdom, business support of
R&D has decreased from 8 percent to 7 percent in the same time
period, with the universities funding their own staying consistent
at 4 percent (Canadian Education Statistics Council, 2003, p. 368).
With the increasing acknowledgement of the importance of education
in todays global knowledge economy, established education
institutions are expanding enrolments, increasing the variety of
programs, and increasing the variety of courses offered in
established programs. When the established institutions do not
respond quickly, the entrepreneurial spirit comes to the fore by
introducing new
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institutions, which then acts as one factor in established
education institutions being forced to enter the advertising and
publicity arena to attract the best students. A summary of changes
in key statistics is given in Table I. Consumerism As dened by the
American Marketing Association (AMA), consumerism is the actions
taken to protect the public from infringements upon their rights as
consumers (American Marketing Association, 2004). However, in the
public domain, consumerism is dened differently. Merriam-Webster
expands the AMA denition to include the theory that an increasing
consumption of goods is economically desirable; also: a
preoccupation with and an inclination toward the buying of consumer
goods (Merriam-Webster, 2004). This difference may be explained by
the attitude found within the literature that:. . . if consumers
are content with business practices, they will have favourable
attitudes toward business activities and unfavourable attitudes
about consumerism and government regulations (Bhujan et al., 2001,
p. 226).
160
Other authors have noted that while consumers have been found to
have unfavourable attitudes about business activities, they
question whether either the consumer movement or government
regulation is capable of controlling or changing these negative
practices (Fornell, 1992; Barksdale et al., 1982; Ger and Belk,
1996). Consumerism is seen as a country-specic phenomenon having
different aspects according to the country, according to the
priorities of the population, and the potential avenues of redress
(Ho, 2001). Despite the differences, the recognition of consumers
as a priority is increasing around the world. Consumerism is seen
as both the bane of the developed world which will, if left
unchecked, lead to the worlds destruction (United Nations
Development Program, 1998) and the salvation of the developed
world, which will inevitably lead to increased prosperity as
articulated by Prime Minister Tony Blair in a speech given before a
joint session of United States Congress in which he extols the
value of ever-expanding consumerism, of prosperity for the sake of
prosperity, ofCanada Total population (2003) Number of universities
(2003) Number of full-time students (2003) Number of part-time
students (2003) Number of instructors (2003) Number of
international students (2003) Student/teacher ratio Government
contribution per student ($) Student tuition (2004) ($) Percentage
change of government contribution (ten-year period) Industry
support of university R&D (percentage of total budget)
University support of university R&D (percentage of total
budget) 31,629,700 75 580,400 246,000 33,700 59,845 4.1:1 14,182
4,025 60 9 23 United Kingdom 59,200,000 172 1,255,555 830,520
119,900 242,755 6.2:1 7,468 7,296 236 7 4
Table I. Summary of differences
freedom for the sake of freedom (Auster, 2003). The ability of
consumerism to nourish and promote human life is undeniable.
However, as with so many other concepts, the negative patterns that
perpetuate consumerism and the effects of too much are perceived as
ultimately destructive (United Nations Development Program, 1998).
This is recognized by academics as well as the government and
consumer advocacy groups (Guest and Colston, 2002). This linkage of
consumerism to destructiveness is felt not only within
industrialized countries with the highest level of consumerism, but
also in the developing world due to the increasingly global nature
of travel, commerce, communication, and politics. Increasingly
globalization and standardization of products and services into
global brands and global standards are inuencing the tastes and
desires of the global marketplace, increasing opportunities for
corporations to increase sales not only by opening new territories
but by increasing existing marketplaces consumption. Consumerism
has long been recognized as not limited to tangible consumer goods,
but has expanded to the service areas, including education
(Emerald, n.d.). The importance of education to the promotion of
human rights, increasing the standard of living, and preservation
of the environment is recognized by the United Nations Development
Program (1998). This recognition, as well as the increasing
recognition of the world as one marketplace, has prompted
universities to respond to these changes by expanding their reach
beyond the borders of their traditional students as dened by
nancial and/or social classes and their country of origin. To do
this, universities export programs to the developing world to
educate those aspiring professionals who will develop their
homelands in an international framework within their homeland.
Universities also provide opportunities for students from the
developing world to be educated about the world of practice in the
institutions home country. Both options allow for a more global
perspective of both the students and the educators enhancing the
opportunities for both to understand the philosophies, customs,
traditions, and diversity of new commercial marketplaces. Through
this, these institutions are adhering to the United Nations
Development Program 1998 report through compliance with its new
agenda by: . providing the opportunity for education either at home
or internationally; . providing an environment in which new
technologies and methods that are emerging in developing countries
can be explored both in the developing country as well as in the
universitys country of origin; . providing the education that
increases the perspectives of its students to be inclusive of the
global environment; . providing the education that increases the
opportunities for consumer education, information, and
environmental protection; . strengthen international understanding
by educating students by international professors in an inquisitive
environment; . building stronger alliances between and among human
rights movements by increasing the global populations knowledge of
such movements and their legitimacy; and . building on local
initiatives and amplifying the think global act local synergies
(United Nations Development Program, 1998).
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Through developing programs that respond to these, the
educational institutions engage in consumerism that contributes to
the changes in the consumers attitudes. These changes are cyclical
in that the educational institution promotes the acquisition of
knowledge, which changes consumer attitudes, which then change the
perceptions of required knowledge, which changes consumer
attitudes. These changes may not be sufcient. Birnbaum (1988) cites
the American education system as poorly managed but unwilling to
break out of its politico-economic background to re-examine itself.
Others have noted the reticence of academic institutions to change,
thus presenting a challenge that to date has been denied (Davies,
2002). Few consumer advocacy groups address the issue of
post-secondary education, and fewer address the international
aspect of this issue despite the linkages between education and
consumerism which were rst noted in the late 1970s (Doyle, 1998).
When these issues are addressed, it is primarily the cost of the
education that is of concern. This emphasis on the cost of
education is noted in the public sector as diverting attention from
the issue of providing quality education that is inclusive,
tolerant of diverse views, oriented toward equity and toward
social, racial and religious integration (OBrien, 2001, p. 250),
all being additional concerns of consumerism in education, a
concept that must be redened when applied to education. Many of the
developed countries, including Canada (StatsCan 2004), the United
Kingdom (Department of Trade and Industry, 1998), the EU, Japan,
and the United States (Zaragoza, 2003) have recognized the
evolution of the economy to be based on knowledge. This economy is
built on both access to information and the development of new
information and knowledge. These form a foundation for education,
making education a principal building block for global advancement
for and by the consumer. Through these international programs, the
technology of both countries can be optimized. The advantage of
this can be found both in the rapid dissemination of technology
within business as a requirement for competition within the global
economy, as well as the adaptation and exploration of time-honored
traditions in the developing world that are now being scientically
proven to be useful and successful in the developed world. This
two-way transfer of knowledge is benecial to both those countries
that export education as well as those who hire the students from
these institutions. In teaching in both of these environments, the
educators are made more aware of the opportunities for consumer
education, information, and environmental protection as they differ
and are the same within the differing environments. The educators
themselves are international when they teach in satellite programs,
giving those students the advantage of the knowledge both of their
experience and the educators, enhancing the educators knowledge
base. This advantage to the educator may not be as pronounced if
the educator does not leave their home country, which may inhibit
the knowledge base that is imparted within the instructional
materials. One of the consequences of satellite educational
institutions is the alliances that may be built among the
instructors and advocacy groups, such as human rights, that will
enrich the worlds knowledge of human conditions in international
settings. This consequence will benet the students as well as
assist organizations such as the United Nations to disseminate much
of this knowledge, including human rights and environmental issues.
The consumers of education are not solely the student who is the
recipient of the education. The effects of education are not specic
in their targeting. Rather, education
given to one person is spread throughout the population by the
thoughts and actions of that one person. These far-reaching
implications of education are recognized by agencies such as the
United Nations in the quest for development of the global village.
Instead, consumers are recognized as those who utilize a good or
service, thus blurring the identity of the consumer of education
due to the nature and effects of education. However, the person who
ultimately makes the choice as to the intent and subject matter of
the education is the student and perhaps their funders, who might
include family, academic institutions, political agencies, and
commercial enterprises, among others. The person who ultimately
engages in the educational experience and has the opportunity to
determine the extent of the benet of this experience is the
student, making the student an important participant among the
ultimate consumers of the educational experience. Thus,
universities are not able to solely appeal to the student, although
recognizing that the student is often one of the primary
determinants of which institution is chosen. This rising
consumerism, however, does have negative implications for
educational institutions. Studies have looked at the reasons behind
the students choices as including nancial, access to graduate
schools, school reputation, job placement, the schools reputation,
and the schools social reputation (Spiegler, 1998). Students enter
their post-secondary education with expectations of positive
outcomes that will result in good jobs. A recent decision by Oxford
colleges in the UK to take out insurance in the uncertain event of
students suing for failure to attain necessary grades for future
employment or education (Simon, 1991) is an indication of some of
the negative aspects of this changing environment, where education
has become a marketplace commodity instead of remaining true to the
understanding of professorialism. Michael (1997) denes
professorialism as similar to Brubachers (1990) epistemological
consideration, which is the decision of professors to monitor
themselves in when, how, and what to offer to students for their
consideration, because education is a knowledge industry with a
mission to educate the minds and train the hands under conditions
that may be sometimes less than comfortable or acceptable to the
students (Michael, 1997). Gerstner et al. (1994) write that the
treatment of students as consumers allows academics to negate their
ivory tower elitist status by instituting real world practices in
higher education institutions (Gerstner et al., 1994). Other
authors debate whether or not students are capable of being treated
as consumers given their limited knowledge of the workings of the
world into which they hope a university education will take them,
and given their general immaturity. Cheney et al. (1997) look at
the commercial world interpretation of consumerism as supplying the
consumer with what they desire. With this denition, they question
whether the student knows or understands what the requirements of
the career choice they make are, such that they can determine the
course content. They argue that the metaphor of student-as-consumer
will damage higher education because: . the student-as-consumer
metaphor actually distances students from the very educational
process which is supposed to engage them by instituting the
singular focus of paid employment instead of the exploration and
acquisition of knowledge;
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.
164
.
.
the provision of momentary customer satisfaction should not be
confused with providing a high-quality educational experience or
with ongoing educational improvement; market-driven,
customer-oriented response mechanisms often represent in practice a
type of pseudodemocracy that gives power without regard to
requirements or abilities; the measurement mania accompanying the
rise of the student-as-consumer metaphor is reductionistic in its
conception of the educational process; and much can be lost in the
translation of contemporary business-management fads to the
experiences of higher education because the fads present cookbook
style thinking and do not allow for learning how to think (Cheney
et al., 1997).
Instead, Cheney et al. (1997) advocate the adoption of a
co-creator philosophy between universities and students that
engages students not only in academic philosophies and practices
held by universities, but by taking the ideas of both society and
universities to challenge and change the world through investment
in life-long learning and the human community.
Practical implications Education has long been recognized as the
means by which to achieve change, create new ideas, and initiate
the new practices that move a country toward increasing prosperity
(Wheatley, 2001). The Association of Universities and Colleges of
Canada (2003d) endorses this, stating higher education and research
cooperation at an international level turns the forces of
globalization to societies advantage (Association of Universities
and Colleges of Canada, 2003d, p. 8). Thus, there must be a new
denition of the concept of consumerism within education that both
endorses the rights of students to receive quality education that
will adequately and appropriately prepare them for the workplace
and endorses the rights of educators to maintain the academic
integrity and freedom to structure their classes, assignments,
exams, and research to meet the underlying premise of humankind,
including universities. Traditionally universities incorporated
intellectual training before a person entered the workplace. This
tradition has caused some dissent concerning the ability of
universities to relate to the working world. The discussion adopts
the concept of atrophy and stasis. Within biology, in organisms
that are in stable environments, where needs are met and evolution
is not necessary for survival, genetic drift occurs making the
organism vulnerable to competition. For universities, the
environment is stable and their need to be attuned to the evolution
of the environment has been minimized by the security that was put
in place to ensure their continuation. Further, as Kuhn (1977,
1962) noted, academics who have founded their career on one line of
thinking do not readily admit to errors, resulting in the emergence
of new paradigms only when the old guard has retired, died, or
become incapacitated. Thus, universities continue to train people
for a workplace that may not be reective of the reality of the
environment. Heifetz (1999) recognizes this potential in his
understanding of two types of leadership:
(1) Technical/operational leadership that is based on authority.
(2) Adaptive leadership that is based on the principles of living
systems. Of the two, universities apply technical/operational
leadership both in their administration as well as in their
classrooms (Kuhn 1977, 1962), a factor that may not appeal to
upcoming students who have been raised in an era of consumerism. In
the recent past, the workplace has changed from labour- and
product-based to knowledge-based, a fact that enhances the role of
universities. In educating and training this workforce,
universities also become incubators for spin-out companies in which
the theory that is taught is changed and tested before the
knowledge is copyrighted (Sykes, 2003). To enhance funding, these
incubators require optimal ideas and personnel. This requires
universities to attract world-class students, which amplies the
need for attention to be paid to the recruiting process that is a
response to the rising consumerism in global education.
Universities are experiencing increasing competition for students
from other universities, partially due to governmental funding for
universities dependent upon enrolment statistics within individual
programs and as a whole. This has resulted in increased numbers of
students from non-traditional cohorts enrolling in education, which
decreases the naturally occurring decline in the population of the
traditional cohort (Michael, 1997). However it is recognized that
there are limits to a continuation of this phenomena and
universities have started to examine other markets. Both the
increasing competition for funding and the recognition of limited
resources has resulted in the export of university programs to
other countries into the global marketplace (Association of
Universities and Colleges of Canada, 2003c). In particular,
universities in the United States, the UK, and Australia are not
only exporting their programs but are competing actively among the
target population for international students to enter their
universities. This international trade in education is recognized
as important to countries by preparing students for employment in a
global marketplace by exposing the international students to the
culture, attitude, practices, and opportunities in the country of
education (Association of Universities and Colleges of Canada,
2003d) as well as exposing the educational institution and others
in the community to the international students culture, attitude,
and practices. Companies are beginning to recognize that cutting
the work force and buying technology does not automatically
generate productivity and prots (Gordon, 2003). Unfortunately,
companies are not nding the skills and knowledge in potential
employees that are needed and are therefore structuring their own
educational programs and calling them corporate universities
(Garman, 2003), including one that is cited as exemplary, the
Defense Acquisition University structured by the US Department of
Defense (Schettler, 2003). This adds to the competitiveness. These
corporate universities are cited as having numerous benets to
corporations, including discovering new talents and employee groups
that are capable of innovative thinking that leads to redesign and
restructuring of process (Gearon, 2003). At this point, these
universities do not offer degrees that have the equivalencies of
traditional universities, but as observed in the United Kingdom
when standards were adjusted to provide for colleges to apply for
university status, this may only be a temporary restraint.
Universities also serve as a means through which national culture
is questioned, researched, and formulated. The Canadian culture,
which values cosmopolitanism,
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internationalism, and respect for diversity and tolerance, is
increasingly becoming unique within North America (Association of
Universities and Colleges of Canada, 2003d). The Conference Board
of Canada recognizes the importance of both Canadian students
studying abroad and international students studying in Canada as
key indicators of a countrys economic wellbeing (Canadian
Broadcasting Corporation, 1999). However, this is not recognized by
the federal government funding sources funding less than $1 (0.41)
per capita on international education of Canadian students possibly
contributing to the paucity of less than 1 percent of Canadian
students participating in international exchange programs
(Association of Universities and Colleges of Canada, 2003d). A
recent study concerning the country of origin of the terminal
degrees of 50 of Canadas universities found a total of 2,490
commerce academics. These faculties ranged from four members for
Brandon University to 232 members for HEC Montreal. Of the academic
staff who listed their qualications, there were 642 (or 25.7
percent) who listed their terminal degree as originating in a
Canadian university, and 657 (or 26.3 percent) who listed their
terminal degree as originating in the United States. Of PhD or
equivalent degrees obtained outside of North America (235, or 9.4
percent), the largest number was obtained in England (101 or 4
percent), with the next closest being from France (64 or 2.6
percent). The majority of those holding terminal degrees from
France taught in Quebec Universities. There were 525 (21 percent)
who did not disclose information about the origin of their terminal
degree (Freeman and Knight, 2004) attesting to the importance
Canadian universities place upon the international perspective. In
addition to this, there are established exchange programs between
visiting research chairs in the United States and Canada which
further enhance structuring an international environment for
students in both countries. Through the 2001 Summit of the Americas
Action Plan, political leaders throughout all three Americas
recognized the importance of international education. There are 195
universities listed within the United Kingdom. Using similar
criteria for determining university status as was used with
Canadian universities, web sites for 79 u niversities in England
were searched to determine the country in which the educators
terminal degree was obtained. In total there are 4,365 full-time
lecturers and professors noted on web sites as of March 30, 2004 of
business schools within English Universities. These faculties
ranged from no staff information on the web in nine universities,
to ve faculty members of Bristol University to 200 faculty members
at London South Bank University. Of the academic staff who listed
their qualications, there were 858 (or 19.6 percent) who listed
their terminal degree as originating in an English university, 27
(or 0.6 percent) from a Welsh university, 28 (or 0.6 percent) from
a Scottish university, and 8 (or 0.2 percent) from an Irish
university. Of PhD or equivalent degrees obtained outside of the
United Kingdom and Ireland (212 or 4.8 percent), the largest number
was obtained in the United States (125, or 2.9 percent), and only
15 (or 0.03 percent) from Canada. There were 1,911 (or 43.8
percent) who did not have a PhD and 1,320 (or 30.2 percent) did not
disclose information about the origin of their terminal degree. It
must be noted, however, that the country of origin may not be the
same as the country where the terminal PhD degree is obtained.
However, when compared to the education standards and the
international perspective reected by the terminal PhD degree,
England has an overall lower percentage of PhD educators and has a
lower
number of educators who received their terminal PhD from outside
their boundaries than does Canada. With the increasing numbers of
universities from which to choose, including the paper mills that
have emerged, and the increasing sense of consumerism that is
discussed in the academic literature, it is increasingly becoming
incumbent on the potential student to choose their post-secondary
educational institution carefully. By denition, universities
promote their consumers interest by offering the chance to take
advantage of opportunities that are not available without degrees.
However, the educational market is not an equal market because the
student is at a distinct disadvantage in lacking the knowledge of
the prevailing market conditions (Michael, 1997). Universities are,
to varying degrees, dependent upon the students demand for
education. However, the evaluation of post-secondary education is
very difcult as it is intangible (Harvey and Busher, 1996) with the
quality of higher education being complex and long-term (Baldwin
and James, 2000), making other variables important in the
determination of which university to attend. One of these variables
is the name of the institution, meaning the reputation of the
institution (Treadwell, 2003). Similarly, the reputation of the
country in which the educational institution is located is
similarly important to consumers (Srikatanyoo and Gnoth, 2002).
Together, these factors can be seen as intrinsic to the top ten
factors previously listed herein for both students and their
parents. This approach to education is not without its limitations.
Andrews (2003) notes the need for academic personnel to adopt new
teaching methods, including approaches that turn the classroom into
a workshop to encourage the student to become an active learner, a
role not previously expected or accepted. Baldwin and James (2000)
conducted a study of the limitations on the higher education
applicants knowledge and understanding of the higher education
system, both requisites for an informed consumer. A study completed
in the UK recognizes the need for students and potential students
to become informed consumers. This study cites a number of
shortfalls within the UK system that must be corrected for
potential students to achieve informed consumer status. These
include: . improving decision making tools, for example developing
a check list that forces the student to examine elements such as
the choice of their subject (e.g. entry requirements, relevance to
life after graduation), course structure (e.g. balance between
structured tuition, self study, work experience, etc.), type of
university/college and its environment, sources of income
(including loans, parental contributions, the availability of
student employment, and help with budgeting), subsequent career
aspirations and expectations; . improving and ensuring the
reliability and validity of the aforementioned core information; .
improving access to nancial information concerning tuition, living
costs, book fees, and potential income opportunities; . providing a
more comprehensive guide to career paths, including access to
testimonials from individuals who have graduated from particular
institutions and the career possibilities, opportunities, and
obstacles encountered;
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168
.
improving career advice from people who are engaged in the eld,
especially those non-tradition individuals who are traditional elds
or those who are contemplating entering non-traditional elds;
improving the quality and accuracy of information about different
institutions; and utilizing new technologies to bridge the gap
between the users and the providers of information (Universities
UK, 1998).
This listing of recommendations may in fact represent an
opportunity for Canadian universities to modify their recruitment
information without the cost of a study. Traditional universities
are often bound in the framework upon which their reputation was
built. Often, that framework restricts its adoption of the
innovation that corporate universities can more easily incorporate,
partially because they do not have the history and historical
structures of universities, and partially because universities are
structured to survive regardless of economic performance making
them less than responsive to the marketplace. With the increased
awareness of the costs of education, universities must learn to
learn and change in order to survive, thereby adopting those
characteristics of a learning organization that are appropriate.
Organizational learning was rst identied by Cangelosi and Dill
(1965). Despite this and the terms popularity, there is little
agreement on the terms meaning or the facets that are necessary for
it to occur within organizations (Crossan et al., 1999).
Organizational learning is fundamental to the development of
organizational design, as well as organizational renewal, both
fundamentals of competitive advantage (Doz, 1996; Epple et al.,
1991). The concept of learning is dynamic, with both the process
and the results continually changing the learner. Dodgson (1993)
nds that learning within an organization unies the individual,
group, and corporate levels of analysis. But as implemented within
many organizations, learning may in fact close the organization to
the external environment, thus restricting the organizations
ability to contemplate new ideas and concepts (Kuhn 1962, 1977).
Simon (1991) recognizes that organizations are capable of learning
only through their members. The individual members through which
the learning happens are now recognized as including many of those
who are important to organizations, being employees, consumers, and
stakeholders. However, as Tsang (1999) notes, learning in
organizations is synergistic, in that the lessons learned go beyond
the capabilities of each individual. This brings to the fore
learning theory as proposed by Gardner (1999), which cites humans
as having eight or nine basic intelligences, including the two that
are predominantly used in educational settings (i.e.
logical/mathematical and linguistic), those that are most notable
in the arts (i.e. musical, bodily kinesthetic, and spatial), those
that are inward directing (i.e. interpersonal and intrapersonal),
and the three most newly described (i.e. naturalist intelligence,
spiritual intelligence, and existential intelligence). It is
recognized that these intelligences are used by different people at
different times with different degrees of success, but these
intelligences form a comprehensive outline for how learning can be
facilitated. Although Gardner (1999) proposes that these
intelligences are individual, it is individuals who are the essence
of a company and who undertake the organizational learning that
occurs both because of them and through them. In consumerism, it is
these individuals and their ability to learn that promotes them as
valuable consumers.
It is because of the use of different intelligences that brands
are perceived as unique to each individual. The branding of
universities is immediately obvious with the mention of names such
as Oxford, Cambridge, Harvard, Princeton, and McGill. These
university names are known, recognized, and admired around the
world because of the branding that has been built over decades, and
for some more than a century, while some of their practices remain
obscure. For example, few individuals know that Oxford grants its
baccalaureate recipients with a Masters degree following a set
period of working in their eld of training without attendance at a
university. All that is required is compliance with application
procedures for the advanced degree. Numerous authors have stated
that the quality of education at the Ivy League universities in the
United States is equivalent to or has lesser economic value than
degrees at other American institutions. Other educational
institutions that do not have the historical prestige of these
brands are now working at branding. This branding is becoming
essential because the product of education is interchangeable and
the market, specically in the UK where there are 195 higher
education institutions for a population in 2003 of 59.5 million,
whereas in Canada where there are 75 higher education institutions
for a population in 2003 of 31.6 million. Higher education
institutions in the UK represent 2.6 times the number found in
Canada. Thus, the need for branding in an oversupplied market
becomes paramount (Twitchell, 2002), especially when the product is
promoted across international boundaries. Butler (2002) writes that
this branding will assist UK universities in setting out their
particular strengths and proclivities such that all students can be
serviced within the UK environment. It is postulated by Belanger et
al. (2002) that if this branding is successful, it will enhance the
student retention of these institutions. Other authors have noted
the difculties of global branding including the rapidity of change,
evolution, and progress in the marketplace (Briggs, 2001). In an
article in Precision Marketing, more than two thirds of marketers
felt their company lacked the expertise to successfully translate
brand messages between nations (Precision Marketing, 2004) a factor
that complicates universities attempts to appeal to international
students due to cross-cultural implications and associated meanings
(Gray et al., 2003). Another article has noted the reluctance of
departments and faculty within British universities to afrm the
government proposals that encourage them to begin to brand the
university (PR Week, 2003). However, branding of universities is
occurring within the UK environment, with a resulting debate as to
the success or the thoroughness of precursor research (Clegg,
2003), while recognizing that many UK universities have employed
outside PR or consulting agencies to research and initiate the
branding process for the university (Design Week, 2003). Branding
of Canadian business schools has and is continuing to occur,
although with fewer studies being described in the literature
(Corwin, 2000).
Consumerism in education
169
Where to from here? We live in an increasingly complex world,
one that forces us to evolve and grow in ways not previously
contemplated. To respond to this many corporations have established
their own universities, a trend that may have a negative impact
upon traditional universities unless there is a willingness by
these traditional institutions to change. These universities are
successful on many fronts, including increased
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170
employee satisfaction and retention (Murray, 2003). Some of the
important concepts that have proved successful and are described in
the literature include: . Johnson (2003) discusses the factors that
have enhanced the success of the university structured by the
Sprint organization. The survival of the university is seen as
resulting from their ability to measure the results as a
demonstration of value which goes beyond the student year-end
evaluations that are prevalent in universities today. Sprint offers
a traditional learning environment in a bricks-and-mortar
university as well as a virtual university offering e-learning,
thus engaging students who are unable to travel due to family,
work, or personal commitments. It is necessary, however, to
recognize that e-learning presents challenges that are not easily
overcome. Another aspect of traditional universities that is
incorporated by Sprint is the practices of these universities to
perform as benchmarks for evaluation. This willingness to adapt to
the needs of students is encapsulated by encouraging employees to
learn in their own way. Sprint also ensures that the education
offered is in alignment with its core business strategies and is
updated and revised with the evolution of its business. This means
that the technology that is utilized is the technology that will be
encountered in the workplace, despite the initial costs. Sprint
understands the importance of technology and education, and
therefore does not cut these budgets, but instead prunes the
content of courses so that they are constantly updated to current
practices. This updating may only become available through
alliances with traditional universities, other businesses, and
others, a task that Sprint enters into to ensure the quality of the
education imparted within the walls of their university. . Gardner
(2000) writes of tools that are necessary for successful
negotiation that are easily adapted to the educational environment.
These tools include observing and learning from institutions that
are successful; encouraging students to do the same and to practise
this using role-playing and coaching; allowing each individual to
challenge directly those aspects that do not work while always
collecting evidence that there are different ways to approach the
topic; encouraging utilization of many different methods of
teaching including role-playing, story telling, logical argument
and jokes, among others. That is, in teaching and in structuring
the university, be innovative and creative. . Flexibility and an
openness to change are seen as a hallmark of Defense Acquisition
University, which is seen as one of the leading corporate
universities in the United States (Schettler, 2003). Despite being
sponsored by the armed forces of the United States, the DAU
actively searches for collaborators while giving both students and
supervisors as much control of their learning process as possible.
DAU works to remain as current as possible, trying to ensure that
information is accurate, timely, and readily available. . Equally
important is the necessity for universities to fulll their original
mandate that of exploration of the universe and all within in it
utilizing academic freedom to explore and discuss previously
untapped or unacknowledged areas. This requires the maintenance of
the concept of fundamentals that have long been established, being
strong communication skills, use of an interactive style, and
asking thought-provoking questions
.
(Smart et al., 2003, p. 71) together with prociency in the use
of technology that will both enhance the teaching as well as the
research capabilities of the educator. In the attainment of the
original mandate, is the recognition that the application of this
mandate may need to be re-examined in light of the evolution of the
world of commerce. This evolution within commerce is increasingly
being related to chaos theory and complexity theory as applied to
organizations (Pascale et al., 2000) and should be applied to
universities. Universities need to remember that the potential for
social engineering that originates in systems thinking ultimately
stagnates the university and negates the originating mandate under
which they operate. This reality brings forward the need for
universities to remember the Law of Requisite Variety from
cybernetics, which states that the survival of any system depends
upon the systems capacity to cultivate variety in its internal
structure. In universities this means the ability of its staff to
hire those who offer a new perspective rather than comply with
established research patterns and norms.
Consumerism in education
171
ConclusionsThe universe is governed by quantum mechanical laws.
This means there are probabilities for alternative histories. Any
entity in the world around us owes its existence not only to laws
of physics but to an inconceivably long sequence of indeterministic
probabilistic events (Gell-Mann, 1994, p. 17).
Universities are educating those who will create the future of
the world as well as informing the world today. The role of
education is crucial in todays quickly evolving environment. Within
this role, universities are responsible to many, including the
students who are educated in this environment as well as the
population where these students live. From the literature we are
aware of the attributes that students and their parents look for
when considering universities together with the decreasing
resources that hinder students in their educational pursuit. The
literature also discusses the effects of the creeping consumerism
that is being expressed by many of the stakeholders of higher
education institutions. This is already noted as having negative
consequences, such as universities that respond to their student
base by guaranteeing degrees regardless of effort expended,
decreased quality of graduates, a backlash to this decreased
quality by industry establishing its own universities and
educational programs that are beginning to attract students who
would otherwise attend traditional universities, and the publics
perception of universities as having lesser standards and thus
increasing the difculty for graduating students to obtain jobs and
devaluing the degrees, which in turn defeats the purpose of global
expansion. It is necessary to consider whether the student can be
given the responsibilities of being a consumer of education, and if
so, under what conditions. Universities and funding sources must be
able to meet and collaborate on the issues that are most relevant
to the world as it operates. Promises of increased standards of
living and wage opportunities through education must be weighed
against the implications. The UK Prime Minister Tony Blair has not
taken into consideration the
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impact that a two year foundation degree will have on the
reputation of the higher education institutions of that country.
Whereas most universities in North America have adopted a four-year
baccalaureate as a standard, he has instituted a two-year degree
that will carry the same name as the more comprehensive four-year
degree. The royal family is ensuring the future kings education and
Tony Blair is ensuring his sons education by enrolling their sons
in four-year degrees. However, the UK has instituted two-year
degrees that for many are not distinguishable and therefore negate
the standard of education in the UK. This failure is already noted
internationally. In a study recently completed by Freeman and
Knight (2004), UK PhD recipients are not viewed favourably when
applying for academic jobs in Canada. This indicates that the
traditional impact of a good product, such as a British education,
can be eroded if the brand is not carefully monitored (Lamming,
2001). This emphasis on the high value of the management of an
institutions reputation is mandatory in todays world of
instantaneous communication (Schmitt, 2000). It also emphasises the
impact of extraneous variables that impact upon a brand, such as
the populations attitudes and behaviors. The negativity of going to
England for education is compounded by government-sponsored studies
that reveal the racial and ethnic discriminatory practices by the
white British population (Modood and Acland, 1998). When this is
compared to Canadas reputation for high quality innovative
education courses, its stunning scenery and the friendliness of its
people make it a rm favourite with overseas students (Evans, 2003),
the UK has some intensive work to be completed at several levels.
If universities do not actively respond to their consumer base,
others will, and universities will suffer losses in both reputation
and the ability to respond to the world as it continues to evolve.
On the other hand, if universities are held accountable to the
strict mandates of the term consumerism when applied to their
students, the quality of education offered will be negatively
impacted. If universities are not allowed the professorial
component that encourages growth both in academia as well as the
world of commerce, society will lose one of the greatest resources
it has available to it. There is a ne line that universities must
establish and defend that will allow the academics within
universities to express intellectual integrity and quality in both
their teaching and their research. This expression must include
students as both participants and recipients not only while engaged
in classes, but also as participants and recipients within the
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