Construction Health and Safety - Cost or Investment

7/28/2019 Construction Health and Safety - Cost or Investment

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CONSTRUCTION

HEALTH

AND

SAFETY COST

OR

INVESTMENT?

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ABSTRACT

Occupational incidents, accidents and fatalities are rampant in the Contraction Industry. These have

negative financial impact on businesses through work stoppages, lost production and penalties amongother effects. To minimise negative effects of health and safety, construction companies use differentmethods of investing in health and safety to ensure that projects are carried out in safer environments.These include provision of Personal Protective Equipment, welfare facilities, engagement of safety

personnel, general medical examinations, education and training, safety incentives, improvement intechnology and occupational health and safety management systems. A research was carried out inHarare were questionnaires, interviews and observations were used to determine the effects ofinvesting in construction health and safety. Harare based construction companies, constructionemployees, clients and NSSA Inspectors formed part of the target population. The research revealedthat investment in health and safety leads to increased productivity, improved company safety record,competitive advantage during tendering, reduced insurance premiums, reduced time lost to injuriesand profitability of construction projects. Respondents lamented costs, lack of support, enforcementand top management involvement in health and safety issues as stumbling blocks to an effectiveinvestment in health and safety. The researcher concluded that benefits of investing in health andsafety exceed the costs of improving conditions of work therefore an investment.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Declaration..... (i)

Acknowledgements....(ii)

Abstract.........(iii)

Table of Contents......(iv)

List of Tables......(viii)

List of Figures...(ix)

List of Appendices.....(x)

List of Abbreviations....(xi)

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

1.0 Introduction.1

1.1 Background Information.....1

1.2 Problem Statement......3

1.3 Research Questions.....5

1.4 Research Hypothesis.......5

1.5 Research Aim......5

1.6 Research Objectives....5

1.7 Justification.....6

1.8 Research Outline.....7

CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW

2.0 Introduction.........9

2.1 Investment in Health and Safety.....9

2.1.1 Safety Personnel..........9

2.1.2 Personal Protective Equipment and Clothing....10

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2.1.3 Education and Training......11

2.1.4 Improvement in Technology......12

2.1.5 Safety Incentives....12

2.1.6 General Medical Examinations and Drug Abuse Testing.....13

2.1.7 Welfare Facilities...13

2.1.8 Health and Safety Management System....14

2.2 Effects of Investment in Health and Safety......15

2.2.1 Costs of not Investing in Health and Safety......15

Direct Costs...15

Indirect Costs..16

2.2.2 Benefits of Investing in Health and Safety....19

2.3 Health and Safety Implementation Challenges.....22

2.5 Summary...24

CHAPTER 3: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

3.0 Introduction...25

3.1 Research Design...25

3.1.1 Sampling Frame.....25

3.1.2 Target Population...26

3.1.3 Sample Size...27

3.1.4 Sampling Method...27

3.1.5 Data Sources..28

Secondary Data......28

Primary Data......29

3.2 Summary of Data Collection Methods.....31

3.4 Limitations .......31

3.5 Data Analysis Plan....31

3.6 Summary...32

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CHAPTER 4: DATA PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS


4.1 General Information......33

4.2 Health and Safety Investment...36

4.3 Effects of Health and Safety Investment..39

4.4 Health and Safety Investment Challenges....45

4.5 Summary...46

CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS


5.1 Conclusions...47

5.2 Recommendations.....48

5.3 Areas of Further Research....49

REFERENCES...50

APPENDICES....53

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LIST OF TABLES

Table 3.1 Composition of the Sample Size.....27

Table 4.1 Response Rate for Interviews and Questionnaires.....33

Table 4.2 Profile of Respondents....34

Table 4.3 Percentage Contract Sum Channelled to Health and Safety Issues....38

Table 4.4 Health and Safety Penalties and Work stoppages...41

Table 4.5 Measures to Effective Health and Safety Investment.....44

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LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1.1 Building and Construction Fatalities for the Period 2001 to 2009...4

Figure 4.1 Response Rate for Interviews and Questionnaires.....34

Figure 4.2 Experience of Respondents.....35

Figure 4.3 Projects Normally Undertaken...35

Figure 4.4 Stand-Alone Health and Safety Departments.................................................36

Figure 4.5 Health and Safety Investment Methods..37

Figure 4.6 Degree of Investment for Different Investment Methods...38

Figure 4.7 Percentage Contract Sum Channelled Towards Health and Safety........39

Figure 4.8 Effects of Investment in Health and Safety....39

Figure 4.9 Health and Safety Regulations Violation Penalties....42

Figure 4.10 Effectiveness of Investing in Health and Safety.43

Figure 4.11 Incidents, Accidents and fatalities Experienced from 2007 to 2009 .43

Figure 4.12 Measures to Effective Health and Safety Investment.45

Figure 4.13 Factors Impeding Investment in Health and Safety....45

Figure 4.14 H&S record a prerequisite for tender invitation and adjudication..46

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LIST OF APPENDICES

Appendix A Questionnaire to the Contractor.....A1

Appendix B Questionnaire / Interview Guide to the Client...A7

Appendix C Construction Worker Interview Guide......A9

Appendix D NSSA Inspectors Interview Guide...................A10

Appendix E Observation Guide...................A11

Appendix F Photographs.A12

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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

NSSA - National Social Security Authority

HSE - Health and Safety Executive

H&S - Health and Safety

PPE/C - Personal Protective Equipment and Clothing

OSHS - Occupational Safety and Health Standard

CDM - Construction design Management

OSHAS- Occupational Safety and Health Administration Standard

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CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

1.0 Introduction

Construction is considered a risky business and poses more dangers than any other business on

workers, equipment and materials (Brace and Gibb, 2005). Numbers of accidents recorded at work

places have been increasing, research carried out in the United Kingdom reveal that for the period

2005-2006, construction had a fatality rate of 3.5 deaths per 1000 workers (Hughes and Ferret, 2007).

To make the sector safer to work in, different acts and regulations governing the health and safety of

the construction industry have been crafted, the regulations range from general health and safety to

data protection (Line, 2010). Although health and safety issues are a responsibility of every one at

work (Davies and Tomasin, 1990), the Health and Safety at Work Act of 1974 challenged employers

to regulate their own safety rather than relying on enforcement.

In Zimbabwe there are a number of acts, codes of practice and statutory instruments (regulations)

which govern activities in the construction sector. These include The Factories and Works Act (1970),

Factories and Works (Building, Structural and Excavation Work) Regulations (1976) among others.

Failure by employers to comply with set health and safety regulations can lead to severe fines on their

businesses (Heston, 2010). Salem (2010) concurred with Heston and added that non-compliance risk

losing their business licences.

1.1 Background

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Health and safety at work has a long history. There is evidence of occupational health and safety

which dates as far back as the time of Egyptian Pharaohs during the construction of the Rameuseum

temple by Rameses (II) about 1500BC; He established an industrial medical service where regular

medical examinations were given to workers (Goestch D.L 1962). According to Ridley (2008), a

notable development in health and safety in the United Kingdom started in 1556 when part of a book

on metal mining by Dr Agricola dealt with diseases of miners. The year 1690 witnessed a case

between Boson and Sandford whose ruling established the doctrine of Vicarious liability which

states that the employer is responsible for his/her employee(s) actions while at work.

Since health and safety developed from the change of attitude from protecting machinery to people

(Ridley, 2008), 1784 fever epidemic in Lancashire which claimed many lives particularly children led

to the formation of Manchester Board of health in 1795. This boards main aim was to protect the

health of factory workers and abolish child labour. Following persistent public pressure because of the

fever (Goestch D.L 1962), the government was forced to respond and the first ever Health and Safety

Act known as Health and Morals of Apprentices Act was passed in 1802 (Goestch D.L 1962; Ridley

2008).

Since then, the United Kingdom witnessed the passing of a number of health and safety acts. Some of

the acts include the Factories and Workshop Act of 1901. Following workplace accidents which left

employees dead or injured without compensation, a new law for wage earners known as the

Workmens Compensation Act of 1906 was passed. In the year 1963 The Offices, Shops and Railway

Premises Act was passed and the widely used Health and Safety Act known as The Health and Safety

at Work, etc. Act was passed in 1974.

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Since Zimbabwe was a colony of Britain, a number of legislation pieces were adopted from the United

Kingdom. The Works and Factories Act of 1996 Revised edition serves as the main piece of

legislationchampioning construction health and safety at workplaces in Zimbabwe. There are other

acts, statutory instruments, by-laws and codes of practise which include The Factories and Works Act

Revised edition of 1996, The Pneumoconiosis Act Revised edition of 1996; Factories and Works

(Building, Structural and Excavation Work) Regulations of 1976 and The Modern Building By-Laws

which serve as health and safety legislation pieces among others. The enforcing of the laws,

regulations, codes of practise and by-laws is done by The National Social Security Authority (NSSA)

through their Occupational Health and Safety Department and The Factories Inspectorate Department.

However, Standard Association of Zimbabwe (SAZ) has duty of certifying companies of the OHSAS

18001 which is an internationally recognised standard for occupational health and safety.

Although there is a reduction in the occupational accidents and deaths (Mutetwa, 2010), many

construction site workers, children and other members of public continue to die, injured or suffer from

ill health emanating from construction activities that have not been adequately controlled (HSE, 2006).

1.2 Problem Statement

Everyday some 6,300 people die as a result of work related injuries or diseases more than 2.3

million deaths worldwide per year (Somavia, 2010). In Zimbabwe, fourteen (14) construction workers

died due to work related accidents from 2001 to 2009 giving an average of 1.75 fatalities per year for

the period 2001 to 2009. During that period, the country was going through economic challenges

which saw a 15.5% decline in construction activities in 2003 only (African Economic Outlook, 2004),

however with few construction activities which were taking place, 14 fatalities were recorded. The

figure below shows the fatalities experienced in the Zimbabwe construction industry from 2001 to

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2009. From the figure 1.1 below, the construction industry has been experiencing a steady increase in

the number of fatalities. The year 2007 recorded the highest fatalities with four deaths. In the year

2007, 340 reportable injuries and about 2000 incidences were recorded.

Fig 1.1: Building and Construction Occupational Fatalities from 2001 to 2009

Source: NSSA On Guard 2010

Currently majority of Zimbabwean construction companies do not have good occupational health and

safety programmes at their workplaces (Mutetwa, 2010). Assessment done by NSSA to determine the

level of health and safety compliance in construction industry in 2009, only 25% of the assessed

construction companies provided meaningful personal protective clothing and equipment while only

5% had adequate welfare facilities for their workers (Mutetwa, 2010). Out of the twenty assessed

programme elements, the construction industry failed to score 50% or better in terms of companies

assessed which were compliant with health and safety regulations. Zimbabwean construction

companies assume that implementing health and safety regulations is a cost to their businesses. In a

drive to cut cost, they compromise on the implementation of health and safety regulations by

providing none or inadequate PPE/C and welfare facilities among other things resulting in the industry

performing far below the expected safety standards.

Health and safety regulations are enforcement so that projects could be carried out in safer

environments. Regulations provide threat of fines or suspension of works for non-compliance, thus,

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provide as an incentive for compliance. Non-compliance with health and safety regulations put

companies at risk of having their works suspended and or charged excessive penalties due to poor

health and safety standards. According to Schneider (2011), contractors tend only to consider of health

and safety improvements that result in short term paybacks and they are less apt to be able to finance

their health and safety investments, this can also be said for the Zimbabwe Construction Industry.

While contractors are less motivated to finance their health and safety investments, research done for

the Construction Industry Institute, Hinze (2000) argued that health and safety pays.

1.3 Research Questions

1. What are major health and safety expenditure centres for companies towards improving workplace

safety standards in Zimbabwe?

2. What are the economical impacts of health and safety investment on construction projects in

Zimbabwe?

3. What are the challenges or barriers encountered by the construction industry in quest to implement

health and safety regulations?

1.4 Research Hypothesis

Benefits of implementing health and safety regulations outweigh compliance costs.

1.5 Aim

To analyse the effects of health and safety management on the overall economic performance of

construction projects.

1.6 Research Objectives

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Now that owners (clients) place higher emphasis on safety by pre-qualifying contractors on the basis

of their safety records (Schneider 2011). Zimbabwean companies may lose some big projects on the

grounds of poor health and safety policies; it is hoped that the research will be useful in encouraging

Zimbabwean construction companies and stakeholders to adopt world class safety standards. Good

safety culture is believed to be the most powerful tool for fighting competition locally, regionally and

globally. This would result in Zimbabwean companies winning both local and international projects.

Occupational Safety and Health (OSH) Act 213 of 1991 section 21 subsection 1 says that A worker

shall wear such protective clothing and use such personal protective equipment or devices as are

necessary to protect the worker against the hazards to which the worker may be exposed. Most

construction workers are not wearing proper Personal Protective Equipment (Mtetwa, 2010) which

section 21 subsection 2 of OSH Act 213 of 1991 say that the employer shall enforce that employees

comply. Assessment done by NSSA in 2009 revealed that only 25% of the assessed construction

companies provided meaningful personal protective clothing and equipment (Mtetwa, 2010). This is a

clear sign that companies are less motivated to spend money on health and safety issues.

1.8 Research Outline

This dissertation consists of five chapters.

Chapter One: Introduction

This chapter introduces the reader to the field of construction health and safety, background

information to the development of construction health and safety; the problem statement; hypothesis;

aim of the research; research objectives; the justification and finally the research outline.

Chapter Two: Literature Review

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This chapter endeavours to review relevant literature on construction health and safety regulations and

management. A detailed review to construction regulations governing Zimbabwean construction

industry, different ways businesses violate the set acts, regulations and codes of practise is to be

discussed in this chapter. Effects of health and safety management as well as challenges faced in

implementing health and safety regulations will be discussed in this chapter. Secondary data sources

will be used.

Chapter Three: Methodology

This chapter focuses on the research methodology that will be used during the research process. The

chapter comprises of research design, target population, sample population, data collection procedures

and data analysis plan.

Chapter Four: Data Presentation and Analysis

This chapter details all the findings obtained during the research and the findings will be analysed in

relation to the body of existing knowledge discussed in Chapter Two. Different methods of data

analysis and presentation will be used in the analysis and presentation of data.

Chapter Five: Conclusions and Recommendations

This chapter is for recommendations and conclusions of the research. The researchers

recommendations and conclusion of the effects of health and safety management will be discussed in

this chapter.

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CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW

2.0 Introduction

This chapter seeks to give an overview of construction health and safety. Costs associated with non-

compliance with health and safety legislation, different ways companies invest in health and safety

and benefits of complying with health and safety regulations in construction industry are to be

discussed. The researcher will use literature by authors of different textbooks, journals and internet

articles among other literature.

2.1 Investment in Health and Safety

Costs for injuries can be a substantial burden on employers (Schneider, 2011), to avoid or minimise

occupational incidents firms are inclined to channel financial resources to improve conditions of work

(Rwaveya and Makova, 2010). However, for any investment in health and safety, clients involvement

is crucial (Huang and Hinze, 2006) as they can influence success of investment in health and safety

(Smallwood, 1998) through use of health and safety as prequalifying attribute when tendering and

conduct audits on sites. In the quest to improve working conditions, firms invest in health and safety

regulations through PPE, engagement of competent H&S personnel and welfare facilities among

others methods.

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2.1.1 Safety Personnel

In order to promote health and safety on construction projects, firms have begun to recognise the value

of committing resources to this effort (Hinze, 2000). One way construction companies can invest in

health and safety environment of their operations is through employment of full time health and safety

personnel. Duties of Health and safety personnel include establishing health and safety department

headed by safety managers, safety officers, safety representatives and first aiders among other

professionals. In the opinion of Goestch (1996), the companies that are committed to providing safe

and healthy workplaces employ a health and safety manager and position him/her within the company

corporate hierarchy. The duties and responsibilities of safety managers according to Goestch (1996)

include:-

Establishing and maintaining companywide health and safety program

Conducting hazard identification and risk assessments for projects

Ensuring company compliance with all laws, standards and code

Coordinating health and safety activities

Planning and championing training of employee

Engagement of safety personnel will increase the companys salary and wages bill and associated

costs. Some employees can be prequalified and included in the preliminary and generals during tender.

2.1.2 Personal Protective Equipment and Clothing (PPE/C)

It is the employers legal obligation to provide personal protective equipment to workers to protect

them from the hazards they may be exposed to (Factories and Works Building and Construction

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Regulations 1981). The regulations also obligate employers to train workers on how to use the

equipment and/or clothing and enforce its use by the workers. However, workers are compelled to use

the PPE/C whenever they are exposed to a hazard and keep it in good condition. The following PPE/C

which include steel capped boots, safety harness, hard hats, safety goggles, gloves, respiratory

protective device, protective overall and life lines among other thing are required at construction sites

(On Guard, 1996). PPE provides tremendous benefits to the industry and is an important measure to

reduce, or at least prevent the level of accidents on construction sites. PPE enables workers to have

immediate protection to allow a job to continue; in an emergency it can be the only practicable way of

effecting rescue or shutting down plant; and it can be used to carry out work in confined spaces where

alternatives are impracticable.

2.1.3 Education and Training

According to Tarafdar and Tarafdar (1997), education and training is aimed at imparting knowledge,

developing skills, aptitudes and insights about ones job. Through education and training, employees

learn how to do the job; hazards involved with it and how to work safely on that very job (Sweeney, et

al, 2000). Education and training plays a very important part in the reduction of accidents on

construction sites and is the legal right of employers under the Factories and Works Act of 1996. It is

the responsibility of the employer to provide such training during recruitment, at inductions or when

being exposed to new or increased risks (Hughes & Ferret 2007). The levels of education and training

required covers a wide range of information such as specific company health and safety policies, risk

assessments, method statements, safety procedures, good practice codes, HIV/AIDS issues and legal

requirements.

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Education and training is a prerequisite for the employees who first join the company (induction or

orientation), those who have been transferred to a different job and those whose responsibilities have

changed (Ridley, 2008). Imparting knowledge can be achieved through coaching, training by

supervisors, conferences and seminars, case studies, lectures and workshops among other methods

(Tarafdar and Tarafdar, 1997). Employers also sacrifice their production by taking about an hour of

their daily production time conducting tool-box-talks. These are discussions workers have on daily

basis before start of work. Discussions about hazards and risks associated with the work of the day are

done, since; occupational accidents do happen in workplaces where there is no education and training

(Rwaveya and Makova, 2010). Education and training is concerned with averting of work disasters.

2.1.4 Improvement in Technology

Improvement in construction technology can have a positive effect on the reduction of accidents and

subsequently costs of accidents. Accidents like falls from heights can be mitigated or prevented

through investment in technology. Investment in Mobile Elevated Work Platforms (MEWP) and Mast

Climbing Work Platforms (MCWP) can play a significant role in minimising incidences of falls from

scaffolding (HSE, 2006). More so, investment in mobile cranes and other lifting equipment can reduce

number of musculoskeletal disorders in workers and improves site operations and productivity.

However, introduction of improved technologies into construction sites in an attempt to reduce

accidents and injures is largely dependent on the level of training that accompanies it. Employers must

be aware that productivity on site may not be at its peak during the period of change. As a result,

investment in technology has purchasing and personnel training as initial costs to the initiative.

2.1.5 Safety Incentives

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Safety incentives are used to capture employees interest in health and safety (Hinze, 2000).

According to Levitt and Samelson (1993) safety incentives result in improved worker participation

and interest in reducing occupational accidents. A number of steps can be taken to motivate workers

put their full participation in eliminating or reducing occupational accidents. Financial and non-

financial incentives can capture employees hearts to achieve good working environments with high

standards of safety. However, Dorrell (2007) argue that health and safety should be an incentive on its

own.

Different criterions can be used so as to determine who should be honoured for safety. Criterions used

may include no injuries in a given time period, best practise in executing work, being a brothers

keeper and smartness among other decision criterions. Each and every category will be having a

reward given to a worker or group of workers. Supervisors and managers can be honoured on the

overall performance of the project. Hinze (2000) came up with non-financial incentives which include

baseball caps, pocketknives, windbreakers, coffee mugs, household appliances, ice chests, and a host

of other items.

2.1.6 General Medical Examinations and Drug Abuse Testing

Knowing ones medical status is very important as the employer will use the results to determine the

suitable working condition ones health suites. Drug abusers are risk personnel as they expose not only

themselves to accidents but also other workmates. According to Hinze (2000), drug abuse testing is

one of the effective ways of reducing the incidence of injuries. The usually medical test done include

chest x-rays, audiometric, weight, optometric and pulse tests before a newly engaged worker starts

work. Drug abuse tests are not done only upon assumption of duty but as the work is taking place.

This is done so as to identify and punish those found on the wrong side of the law.

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2.1.7 Welfare Facilities

Principal contractors and others who have control over construction sites are responsible for providing

site welfare facilities and ensuring that the site welfare facilities are adequate for their employees

(HSE, 2006). Welfare facilities include first aid boxes and kits, toilets, showers, hand-washing-basins,

wash tubs, kitchens or canteens with water heater or urn, recreational sheds with chairs and tables,

weather control facilities, piped hot and cold water and waste bins among other facilities (Forster,

1989; HSE, 2006).

The provision of high welfare facilities is likely to reduce the number of accidents and injuries on

construction sites as it promotes recruitment, good morale and employee retention. These reasons

alone should be sufficient justification for the investment in welfare facilities which should encourage

the client and contractors to ensure that they are provided on construction sites from the outset to an

acceptable level. Without the provision of welfare facilities workers are likely to be cold, overheated,

dirty, dehydrated and uncomfortable (Joyce, 2007), this in turn will have an effect on the efficiency

and effectiveness of their work undertaken creating an unsafe environment to themselves and their

fellow workers. The provision of welfare facilities can be seen as an important measure to reduce

accidents on construction sites.

2.1.8 Health and Safety Management System

By the realisation that health and safety management is founded on the provision of a safe and healthy

working environment (Griffith and Watson, 2002), formal health and safety management systems

(H&SMS) have been adopted by many principal contractors. By investing in H&SMS, companies will

be able to craft policies, plans and procedures which are essential in delivering an effective health and

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safety management on sites. Occupational Health and Safety Administration Standard number 18001

(OHSAS 18001) is a management system which contractor can invest in. OHSAS is a world class

safety management standard which promotes a safe and healthy working environment by providing a

framework that allows organisations to consistently identify and control their health and safety risks,

reduce potential for accidents, aid legislative compliance and improve overall performance (British

Standards Institution, 2011).

2.2 Effects of Health and Safety Management

Management of health and safety issues in construction comes with both financial benefits and costs.

Failure to comply with health and safety legislation exposes companies to excessive costs on penalties

(Schneider, 2011) and other costs attributable to lost production time (Tarafdar and Tarafdar, 1997).

However, to ensure that they are in compliance with the set health and safety regulations, companies

expend some funds to impart knowledge and awareness campaigns in their work places. Management

of health and safety in construction has benefits associated with the compliance with the regulations

and costs due to non compliance.

2.2.1 Health and Safety Non-compliance Costs

Failure by companies to comply with the previously described health and safety legislation;

occupational accidents, illness or even death take place at workplaces. According to NSSA, most

occupational accidents and ill health are attributable to the unsafe conditions of work (On Guard

Editor, 2010). The resultant unsafe working environments are prone to accidents which add an extra

cost to the management and the loss of income to the injured employee (Tarafdar and Tarafdar, 1997).

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grossly understated due to ignorance of the related hidden costs or indirect costs. Costs associated with

occupational injuries, death and ill health can be characterised in many ways (Hinze, 2000). Tarafdar

and Tarafdar (1997) categorised such costs into direct cost and indirect costs. However, there are

some costs of accidents and ill health which cannot have any financial value attached to them.

2.2.1.1 Direct Costs

These are costs required by law to indemnify the injured and other payments made by the firm to

either the employee, repair or replacement of equipment (Dorman, 2000) The following are some of

the examples of direct costs which may be incurred by construction companies as a result of

accidents:-

Medical Costs: - Whenever an employee is involved in an occupational accident, the company

incurs hospital medical bills, transport cost for the people looking after the injured while at the

medical centre.

Employee Compensatory Costs

Costs involved on account of waste of materials and damage of plant

In case of a fatality, costs associated with the burial of the deceased

Penalties: - Companies may be prosecuted violating health and safety legislations. Violations can

be brought to the attention of the state by a formal complaint by an individual or organisation

against another employer; a result of whistle-blowing or a violation discovery during health and

safety inspections (Salem, 2010). Such violation(s) may result in the company facing severe

penalties. According to Heston (2010), health and safety penalties are pegged and charged by the

Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) in the United States of America. He went

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him/her would have brought to halt. More so, whenever an injury occurs, productivity of the crew

members or simply other workers who were with the injured will be affected (Hughes and Ferret,

2008). The crew will be forced to work shorthanded while a member is receiving medical treatment.

More so, the crew will be under psychic trauma due to fear and fever for the member injured. This will

force the residual crew members productivity down. Hinze (2000) say when an injury involves a

restricted or lost workday, there will be definite reduction productivity because they will be working

shorthanded until the injured has returned to work. Where the injury results in the injured not coming

back to work, a new worker will be hired. For the crew to reach their level of productivity, it will take

ample time thereby affecting production.

2.2.1.2.3 Replacement of Worker

When an injury renders the injured unfit for duty for quite a long time or for good, a new worker will

then be recruited to fill up the vacancy. Hiring of new employees as a result of accidents has some cost

implications (Hinze, 2000). These include advertisement costs (especially for skilled jobs); interview

costs, PPE/C costs, pre-employment medical examinations and education and training costs.

2.2.1.2.4 Damaged Equipment/Plant

Some occupational accidents results in both an injury and damage to construction equipment or

materials. The cost of restoring things or repairing equipment to pre-accident state will be on the

company not insurance (Hughes and Ferret, 2005). Sometimes specialist plant and equipment

engineers will be hired to fix the problem which would have been caused by the injury.

2.2.1.2.5 Supervisory Assistance

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2.2.2.1 Improved Company Reputation/Enhanced competitive Advantage

Investment in health and safety is an important source of competitive advantage to the organisation

(Gwandure and Matanda, 2002).In the recent years health and safety issues became an issue and

important aspect in the construction sector and beyond. In the UK, the Construction Design

Management regulations (CDM), construction companies without a minimum safety

standard/performance are not included in the tender lists (HSE, 2007). Furthermore, under the same

CDM Regulations, contractors cannot commence work at their sites until they have produced a

comprehensive health and safety plan for the project. Implementation of health and safety regulations

in construction ensures companies that they can compete in the market and be able to secure new

projects and new customers.

2.2.2.2 Reduced Compensation Claims

Workers' compensation is apparently designed to compensate individuals who have suffered

occupational injuries and illnesses (Schneider, 2011). Compensation arises as a result of injuries to

employees or incidents which damage the property (Hughes and Ferret, 2005). Employers

(construction companies) will be exposed to costs of which they will have to pay the affected party a

compensatory amount of money. Implementation of health and safety regulations minimise the

number of accidents and incidents which may result in injury, equipment damage or fatality. Such

decrease subsequently reduces injury or death compensation claims.

2.2.2.3 Time Lost due to Accidents

Whenever an accident happens at a workplace, production time is lost due to absence of the injured at

work, fellow employees attending the injured and the managers sitting for hearings (Hinze, 200).

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Since health and safety management reduces number of accidents, time lost due to accidents is also

reduced. Reduction in time lost to injuries gives a business an opportunity to fully utilise time

available for production purposes.

2.2.2.4 Improved Productivity

Improving health and safety helps you improve morale and productivity in your business (HSE, 2012).

Workers will put their maximum effort into work with less difficulty, less danger. This saves money

which could be lost to claims and penalties thereby adding to profitability of the organisation in the

long run. According to Oxenburgh and Maurice (1991), improving health and safety standards at work

will lead to improved production levels. Stress and accidents at work are two of the biggest causes of

absence from work today (HSE 2012). Absence of workers at work will negatively affect the

productivity of any construction activity.

2.2.2.5 Increased Staff Morale

Implementation of health and safety measures at work increase staff morale and motivation (Rwaveya

and Makova, 2010). The workers will feel important and valuable to the company, hence, health and

safety awareness and a better understanding of risks associated with a certain work improves. More so,

involvement of employees in coming up with health and safety policies motivates them and installs a

feeling of belonging to the company in them. Such a sense of belonging increases employee

productivity.

2.2.2.6 Management Peace of Mind

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Management has overall responsibility for the health and safety performance of their firms (Hughes

and Ferret, 2007). Their involvement and active participation will result in an improved health and

safety culture which will lead, ultimately, to a reduction to in the number of health and safety claims

and prosecutions. Management will have peace of mind by being compliant and up to date with the

implementation of the regulations (BSI, 2012)

2.2.2.7 Reduced Insurance premiums

To protect themselves from the effects of penalties and claims at work, employers (construction

companies) are liable to have a cover against any injury, plant damage and fatality (Ridley, 2008). To

access that cover, construction companies pay insurance premiums to the companies giving them that

cover. According to Schneider (2011), workers' compensation premiums in the construction industry

are high and act as an incentive for companies to reduce their injury rates. Construction companies can

reduce the amount of premiums by instituting health and safety programs at their work places (Hunter,

2005)

2.3 Health and Safety Implementation Challenges

Health and safety it is company responsibility to commit their time and finances to ensure that they are

in compliance with the set regulations. However, in an attempt to comply with the set legislation,

companies encounter some challenges or barriers which make it very difficult for them to achieve their

goal. According to Health and Safety Executive (2003), barriers or challenges faced by companies

intending to initially implement health and safety at their work places include cost of implementation,

lack of support, time required and lack of experience among other things.

2.3.1 Cost of Implementation

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Costs involved in order to have a sound health and safety policy at work are too prohibitive. The costs

will end up making the company uncompetitive when tendering for jobs. The tendency (particularly

on the part of clients) to confuse the lowest tender with the best value leads to compromise on health

and safety issues so as to win jobs (Health and Safety Executive, 2002). As a result, firms end up not

pricing for health and safety, involved in corner-cutting when doing work which results in poor safety;

thus non compliance with health and safety regulations. This was concurred by Hughes and Ferret

(2005), saying that lack of financial resources can cause employers to try to ignore health and safety

requirements.

2.3.2 Time Required

Time required implementing health and safety regulations end up affecting the program of works. For

example, production time will be taken during employees training and Hazard Identification Risk

Assessment (HIRA) which are conducted every morning before the start of work. As a result,

implementation of health and safety issues may lead to time overruns which are costly the company.

2.3.3 Lack of Knowledge

Since education and training is aimed at, imparting knowledge, developing skills, aptitudes and

insights about ones job (Tarafdar and Tarafdar, 1997). Lack of education and training will negatively

impact the health and safety performance of a firm. More so, heterogeneity of information in the

industry makes some important information available to a certain group and not to the other.

2.3.4 Lack of Experience

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According to Hughes and Ferret (2008), experienced workers are important to assist managers to come

up with safe working systems. These are people who are professionally trained people either in safety

or any construction related skills. Shortage of experienced workers at work will result in poor work

practices which will eventually result in incidents and accidents.

2.3.5 Lack of Support

Investment in health and safety requires both time and financial resources of an organisation. Besides

enforcement, to witness an increase in the resources channelled towards health and safety, there is

need for support to companies. Rwaveya and Makova (2010) say companies should receive support

inform of economic incentives, periodic OSH inspectors training for both employees and

management. Schneider (2011) pointed out that it is difficult to get contractors invest in health and

safety especially where short term paybacks are not available. He suggested that improvement fund to

subsidise health and safety investment is crucial. In United States of America, construction industry in

the state of Ohio had several successes through the Ohio Occupational Safety Loan Program, funded

by the workers' compensation funds (Hamrick, 2002).

2.5 Summary

The literature has shown health and safety regulations in force in the construction industry, different

ways companies can expend in order to improve the health and safety compliance record, costs and

benefits of health and safety management and the challenges faced by companies in a bid to comply

with the set laws. The following chapter is the research methodology. This chapter will discuss

different methods of data collection and analysis going to be used by the researcher so as to get

primary data regarding the area of study.

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CHAPTER 3: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

3.0 Introduction

This chapter is basically concerned about the way the data was collected from the field. The chapter

comprises of research design, target population, sample population, data collection procedures and

data analysis plan. Both secondary and primary sources of data were utilised.

3.1 Research Design

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This research is both quantitative and qualitative type of research. According to Naoum (2007),

qualitative research is used to subjectively evaluate the opinion, view, or the perception of a

person, towards a particular subject. Qualitative research shall allowed opinions to be drawn from

different stakeholders in the construction industry to determine if construction health and safety

regulations implementation is beneficial basing on their experiences. Companies were asked to give

costs of non-compliance with health and safety regulations. Calculations were then done to assess

effects of costs incurred for both compliance and non-compliance with health and safety regulations

on the overall project performance of construction projects thus quantitative.

3.1.1 Sampling Frame

Sampling frame is a complete list of all elements of the population from which a sample was be drawn

(Saunders, Lewis and Thornhill 2007). The Harare based construction industry was the sampling

frame.

3.1.2 Target Population

The target population is basically a pool of respondents the researcher desire to visit and collect data

for the purpose of this study.

Clients

Clients were property developers registered with the Institute of Property Developers of

Zimbabwe. In this category, the researcher got the data from property developers which include

NSSA, Old Mutual, CBZ Bank among others

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Contractors

Construction Industry Federation of Zimbabwe (CIFOZ) registered construction companies make

the target population. The researcher collected data from selected CIFOZ registered grade A to

grade E listed principal civil and building contractors. These included Murray and Roberts, Rio

Duoro, Tencraft, Twenty First Century Contractors and Bitcon among others.

Construction Workers

Employees are the people directly affected by health and safety issues. In quest to collect

authentic data, the researcher collected data through face-to-face interviews from the employees.

These included general workers, artisans and supervisors on the ground from construction

companies which were part of the sample and had projects in Harare.

National Social Security Authority (NSSA)

This is an organisation responsible for enforcing implementation of health and safety regulations

in Zimbabwe. NSSA inspectors of factories will be interviewed.

3.1.3 Sample Size

Sample size is a number of objects in a sample. A certain number of participants was drawn from the

target population of contractors, clients and construction workers to make up a sample size. The table

3.1 below shows participants from different categories that make up the sample for this research.

Table 3.1: Composition of the Sample Size

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Stratum Number

Contractors 22

Clients 8

Construction Workers 44

NSSA Inspectors 4

TOTAL 78

3.1.4 Sampling Methods

Non-probability sampling methods were used to collect data. According to Kahl (2012), when using

non-probability sampling methods, subjects are chosen in a non-random manner, and some members

of the population have no chance of being included. He went on to say that authenticity of information

gathered is largely based on the judgement of the researcher. The researcher made use of convenience

and snowball non-probability sampling methods.

Convenience Sampling

As the name implies, this method was used to select contractors and clients who are convenient to the

researcher. Contractors and clients who were conveniently accessible geographically were selected.

This enabled the researcher to easily, quickly and economically obtain data from the potential

respondents (Saunders, Lewis and Thornhill 2007).

Snowball Sampling

This is a non-probability based sampling method aimed at identifying population which is hidden

and/or difficult to locate. This method was used to select construction workers previously involved in

occupational accidents and/or infections. First interviewed by default was asked to provide the names

of a worker of workers who got injured or infected while at work. The interviewed workers were

asked to provide names of other fellow workers within their company who have been injured before.

Those employees whose names have been provided were interviewed.

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3.1.5 Data Sources

The researcher applied a triangulation process of collecting data. Saunders, Lewis and Thornhill

(2007) define triangulation as a process whereby two or more sources of data are used to obtain

research data. In this research, triangulation is important because when two or more sources of data

points out a certain interpretation of events, or certain key interactions or key facts, the quality of data

and the overall validity of the research is improved (Stake 2000). Sources of data to be used by the

researcher include secondary data sources and primary data sources in the form of interviews,

observation and questionnaires. The process largely depends on the type of data the researcher intends

to obtain from respondents.

3.1.5.1 Secondary Data

Secondary data can also be called desk research data. This data is obtained from published sources

from previous researches and government publications. Secondary data sources used include:

textbooks, journals, Acts of Parliament, Statutory Instruments, Internet and brochures.

Advantages of Secondary data

Secondary data provides a good comparative tool. New data may be compared with previous or

existing secondary data to establish changes in a certain field of research.

Several sources are available to help to spell the research problem clearly. The data stimulates new

ideas and approaches, which provides a framework for evaluating and assessing of future work.

Secondary data sources are relatively cheaper and quicker to gather required data compared to

primary sources, thus giving the researcher time to attend to other academic commitments.

Secondary data plays a crucial role in providing information from previous researches on how

other researchers have dealt with specific problems in similar situations. This helps the researcher

to handle similar problems and clearly articulate them.

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Disadvantages of Secondary data

However some of the data were collected for specific intentions which were different from the

current research questions and objectives.

Due to developments taking place in the research area, results from previous researches may not

depict what is transpiring in the field. As a result, primary data will be required to augment

secondary data which lacks new ideas and/or problems in the research area.

3.1.5.2 Primary Data

Questionnaires, interviews and observations were used to collect data from the sample frame.

a) Questionnaires

A questionnaire was used as a data collection instrument to collect data from the respondents.

Questions regarding implementation of health and safety regulations by contractors and their

subsequent effects on the construction project formed part of the questionnaire. Information on the

implementation, non compliance costs and challenges faced by construction companies in quest to

fully comply with health and safety regulations was also collected. A combination of both close ended

and open ended questions was used. Questionnaires were delivered to intended respondents via e-mail

and some were hand delivered. To confirm receipt of the questionnaires and to allow timely response,

the researcher used emails, telephone calls and personal visits.

b) Face-to-Face Interviews

Face-to-face interviews are one of the main sources of primary data. This instrument allows a

researcher to obtain more information compared to a questionnaire. Respondents are given opportunity

to express themselves and more in-depth information is obtained. Face to face interviews were used to

obtain information from construction employees, clients and NSSA officers. Some clients were be

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3.4 Limitations

The researcher encountered some limitations during the field research. Limitations encountered by the

researcher are as follows:-

Some of the questionnaire questions were not answered.

Some respondents did not return the questionnaires claiming that they had a lot of more pressing

issues to attend to.

Questionnaires were supposed to be stamped at the company they were filled. Although some

respondents cooperated and stamped, some refused to stamp claiming that the information will not

be confidential.

3.5 Data Analysis Plan

Primary data gathered was analysed using both qualitative and quantitative methods. Percentages and

scores will be calculated for primary data gathered. Opinion marks will then be weighted to give

percentages. The researcher will make use of different data representation methods to analyse and

present the data. Data will be presented in the form of tables, bar graphs, pie charts among other

methods.

3.6 Summary

This chapter extensively discussed about the research design, target population, sample frame, sample

size and methods of data collection methods used among other issues. The data collected is to be

analysed in the next chapter in order to check if the objectives of the study have been accomplished.

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CHAPTER 4: DATA PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS

4.0 Introduction

Findings from data gathered using questionnaires, face-to-face interviews, observations and interviews

is analysed in this chapter. The chapter outlines actual findings from the field in form of summarised

text, pie charts, graphs and tables. Since there were no quantification without qualification and no

statistical analysis without interpretation (Bauer and Gaskell, 2000) during the course of this research

both approaches of quantitative and qualitative data analysis were employed.

4.1 General Information

Response rate for Questionnaires and Interviews

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Table 4.1: Response rate for Interview and Questionnaire

Questionnaires Interviews

Respondents Intended Distributed Returned % Response Intended Done % Response

Contractors 22 22 14 64% 0 0 -

Clients 0 6 5 83% 8 2 25%

Const-Workers 0 0 0 - 44 29 66%

NSSA Inspectors 0 0 0 - 4 4 100%

TOTAL 22 28 21 57 35

Response rate to both questionnaires and interviews was fair. Majority of the questionnaires

distributed to the respondents were returned with majority of the questions answered. A combined and

more detailed response to both questionnaires and interviews is shown in the figure 4.1 below.

Fig 4.1: Response rate for Interview and Questionnaire

Profile of Respondents

Respondents identified themselves with respect to their profession and experience they have.

Table 4.2: Profile of Respondents

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POSITION EXPERIENCE

1 Quantity Surveyor 2-5 years

2 Project Manager > 10 years

3 Occupational Safety and Health Officer 2-5 years

4 Quantity Surveyor 10 years

6 Occupational Safety and Health Officer 2-5 years

7 Occupational Safety and Health Officer 10 years

9 Occupational Safety and Health Officer >10 years

10 Civil Engineer 10 years

13 Quantity Surveyor >10 years

14 Occupational Safety and Health Officer >10 years

15 Projects Development Engineer >10 years

16 Projects Engineer 5-10 years

17 Projects Manager 5-10 years

18 Principal Quantity Surveyor >10 years

19 Projects Manager 5-10 years

20 Group Property Manager 5-10 years

21 Projects Engineer >10 years

Fig 4.2: Experience of respondents

The researcher was requesting senior management or senior staff to answer the questionnaires; hence

the biggest proportion of respondents has more than ten years experience.

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The work categories of projects respondents usually undertake are civil and building works. The pie

chart in Fig 4.3 below shows that all respondents carried out works in at least one of the categories

which were provided.

Fig 4.3: Types of Projects normally undertaken

Data Validity and Reliability

To ensure that the data collected is valid and reliable, the researcher put a number of measures in

place. Below are the measures the researcher putted in place:-

Top management or senior staff members were requested to answer the questionnaire. Since

information is basically central to the senior staff and top management, data provided is assumed

be valid and reliable.

Allowing the respondents to answer the questionnaire at their most convenient time. Answering

questionnaires whilst busy results in false information being given. In order to get valid and

reliable data, respondents were asked to tell the researcher when to collect the completed

questionnaire.

Employees of respondents who completed questionnaires were interviewed and observations on

their sites were done too. The main aim of doing this was to check the credibility of responses

given in the questionnaires.

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4.2 Health and Safety Investment

Fig 4.4: Stand-alone Health and Safety Department.

Respondents were asked if they had a stand alone health and safety department in their organisations,

64% said they do while 36% do not have health and safety departments. Although all respondents

concurred that health and safety is very important, some firms do not have a stand-alone health and

safety departments thereby agreeing with Schneider (2011) that firms are less motivated to invest in

health and safety issues like employing safety personnel.

Those who said they do not have stand alone health and safety departments were asked how then do

they ensure healthy and safe sites. More than 50% of respondents without stand alone H&S

departments said health and safety issues are being implemented and monitored by foremen,

unprofessionally trained safety representatives and senior artisans. Following different duties Goestch

(1996) say safety managers and officers play, a big question is Will the site staff (formen, safety

representatives and supervisors) be able to fully implement health and safety issues as extra duties

while they have their convetional duties?

Fig 4.5: Health and Safety Investment methods being used

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Both of the respondents (who had H&S department at their workplaces and those without)

acknowledged that they invest in health and safety issues. Provision of PPE/C and welfare facilities is

the most common method of investment used while safety incentives and general medical

examinations are the least used. All respondents admitted that they invest in both PPE/C and welfare

facilities while 43% never invested in safety incentives and general medical examinations. The level

of investment in PPE/C and welfare facilities is high because the Factories and Works Regulations

(1986) make provision of PPE/C and welfare facilities a pre-requisite prior to start of work on site.

Fig 4.6: Degree of Investment for different short listed investment methods.

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Respondents were also asked to provide the degree of use of the investment methods (figure 4.6).

Provision of PPE/C emerged the most highly used method, improvement in technology is the least

used and lastly, safety incentives and general medical examinations are the methods which

respondents never used at their work places. Although the Pneumoconiosis Act (1996), makes it

mandatory for all workers to have pre-employment medicals, only 50% of the respondents invested in

general medical examinations. Low degree of investment in technology, non-investment in safety

incentives and general medical examinations can be probably due to laxity of regulatory bodies in

enforcement and due to the fact that some things are an extra burden which companies are not

enforced to have at their workplaces e.g. safety incentives.

Table 4.3: Percentage of contract sum channelled towards health and safety issues.

% of Contract Sum 0% - 3% 4% - 6% 7% - 9% 10% - 12% 13% - 15%

Number of Respondents 4 3 2 2 2

In order to be able to invest in health and safety, respondents confirmed they set aside a certain

amount of money from the contract sum to be channelled towards H&S. Majority of the respondents

invested contract sums ranging between 0% to 3%. This could be as a result that many construction

companies are still struggling from low activity in the sector. However, Schneider (2000) attributes

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low investment level in construction saying contractors are less motivated to invest as they are after

investments which have early paybacks.

Fig 4.7: Percentage of contract sum channelled towards health and safety issues.

4.3 Effects of health and Safety Investment

Fig 4.8: Effects of investment in health and safety

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Respondents were asked what effect does investment in health and safety issues had on their

organisations. As a result of investment in health and safety, respondents revealed that staff morale

largely increased. Increased staff morale led to 57% of respondents to say that productivity also

largely increased while 43% say productivity slightly increased. On average, 100% of respondents

witnessed that investment in health and safety results in the increase of productivity. Among things

which decreased as a result of investment in health and safety, time lost to injuries, sickness absence

and compensation claims were reported.

More than 90% of the construction workers who were interviewed said improvement in health and

safety will propel them to produce more as a way of appreciating what their employers are doing to

care for them. Staff morale and productivity is attributed to employees motivation having that feeling

of belonging (Rwaveya and Makova, 2010) and thereby agreeing with Oxenburgh and Maurice

(1991), that improving health and safety standards leads to an increase in productivity. More so,

productivity increased as there will be no time lost due to accidents, improved work practices and

workers working with shorthand which leads to little productivity per worker.

By investing in health and safety, the company reduces its Experience Modification Rate (EMR)

which is the riskiness of a company to insure (Schneider, 2011). Investment in health and safety

reduces companys EMR and eventually premiums to be paid to the insurance company. More so, by

instituting health and safety programs, work procedures and practises will improve which will reduce

the number of accidents and incidents to befall that workplace.

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Table 4.4: Health and Safety Penalties and Work stoppages for construction projects

Project Amount

Fined ($)

Work stoppages

(Days)

Reason for Penalty/ Work

stoppage

Effect on the Project

A 7 Shortage of dust masks

Recalibration of machinery

Slight increase in cost

(Professional charges)

B $100.00 2 Silencer to compressor No impact

C Over

$1,000.00

No pre-employment medical

examinations

Not felt

D 2 Safety signs on site and

equipment

Went behind program

E $105.00 2 Absence of First Aid kit No much effect

F $200.00 7 Working at heights without

safety belts

Progress at site was

affected

G $150.00 Worker got injured while on top

of unguarded running mixer

while dislodging aggregates

Worker hospitalised for

10 days and could not

report for duty

(22days). However, the

fine had no effect to

company cash flow

H 7 Provision of adequate PPE/C Exceeded duration

Fig 4.9: Health and Safety penalties and Work stoppages for construction projects

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Respondent were asked to provide amounts of penalties charged and work stoppages experienced due

to health and safety violations. Regardless of poor response to the questions to do with costs

associated with health and safety violations, 80% of those who responded acknowledged that penalties

charged ranged $100 to $500 and longest work stoppage was 7 days. The penalties and work

stoppages were basically for PPE/C, education and training (safety signs). Tabulated data on table 4.4

shows that for all the penalties charged, penalties failed to fulfil their purpose of serving as an

incentive to invest in health and safety as cited by Schneider (2011).

The above scenario can be attributed to the way penalties are determined, who charges them and who

enforces adherence to health and safety regulations. Low penalties in Zimbabwe could be due to the

fact that the High Court is responsible for determining and charging the penalties while NSSA has the

duty of enforcing the regulations. Interviews with NSSA inspectors show that NSSA does not have

powers to determine and charge penalties. NSSA only advises the court on the level of penalty

chargeable for a certain violation. Penalties are pegged and charged by the court which makes them

too low and ineffective to save as a motivation tool to invest. According to Heston (2010) in America,

penalties are pegged and charged by OSHA with a minimum penalty being $7,000 and a maximum of

$500,000. Logically, a $105 penalty for absence of a fully equipped first aid kit which costs about

$300 will not be adequate motivate one to have it as the penalty is lower than the cost of buying one.

Fig 4.10: Effectiveness of investing in Health and Safety Issues.

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Health and safety is very effective in reducing the number of accidents on construction projects,

improve company safety record and improve the profitability of projects through reduced health and

safety related costs.

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Fig 4.11: Incidents, Accidents and Fatalities experienced in construction (2007-2011).

In the figure above, a constant decrease in both incidents and accidents was experienced in the

respondents companies during the period 2007 to 2011. No fatality was record at the respondents

companies. In 2007 to 2008, respondents attributed decrease in accidents and incidents to economic

problems which the country was facing. During that period, there was a sharp decline in construction

projects were running (African Economic Outlook, 2004); very few people were employed on

construction projects and health and safety data was seldom recorded. A sharp increase in incidents in

2009 was attributed to an increase in activity and low levels of resources being channelled towards

health and safety as contractors in the recovery path. During this period health and safety was not a

priority to construction companies. Due to a more stabilised economy, a gradual decrease in accidents

and incidents can be attributed to an increase in the financial resources being channelled to health and

safety issues.

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A decrease in site incidents and accidents results in the decrease in compensation claims (Hinze, 200),

direct costs of incidents and accidents to a company (Dorman, 2000), and other indirect costs like lost

production and equipment damage among other costs. Value of the benefit of not experiencing an

incident or accident is directly proportional to the costs which could be incurred as the result of those

incidents or accidents. From this background, investing in health and safety issues is beneficial to the

contractor as it cushions him/her from penalties and accident related costs thereby, an investment well

done.

Table 4.5: Measures to Effective Health and Safety Investment.

Measure to be taken Number of respondents

Top Management involvement in Health and Safety issues. 4

Construction companies to establish Health and Safety departments and employ

professional personnel therein.

3

Make H&S mandatory on all construction contracts. 2

Proper enforcement of Health and Safety by regulatory bodies. 5

Increase financial resources channelled to Health and Safety. 3

Contractors to come up with realistic program of works to avoid pressure. 1

Fig 4.12: Measures to Effective Health and Safety Investment.

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Respondents were asked to suggest measures they think should be taken in order to have an effective

investment in health and safety in construction industry. The researcher coded the responses using the

logic behind the answer. The above themes were drawn which include top management involvement,

safety departments, making H&S issues mandatory, increase financial resources to safety and realistic

programs of work. Proper enforcement of health and safety by regulatory bodies and top management

involvement in health and safety issues were suggested the most with 26% and 21% respectively. By

having top management involvement, safety departments, financial resources and other things which

affect health and safety will be seriously looked into.

4.4 Health and Safety Investment Challenges.

Fig 4.13: Factors impeding investment in health and safety.

From the questionnaires, cost of implementing health and safety programs emerged the biggest

stumbling block to investment in health and safety issues. 79% of the respondents bemoaned cost of

investment with tender adjudication and time being second largest challenges to investment in health

and safety. Tender adjudication was bemoaned as it favours the cheapest tender which could have

overlooked on health and safety issues. Some of the clients (43%) to the construction industry

consider health and safety as an important tender invitation and adjudication attribute while 57% do

not consider health and safety as shown by the figure 4.15 below.

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Fig 4.14: H&S record a prerequisite to invitation to tender and tender adjudication

Contractor also lamented lack of support in the times of economic hardships. The construction

industry is experiencing low activity and low interest rates. This left contractors not prioritising health

and safety issues. Contractors said there are no incentives, besides enforcement, to invest in health and

safety issues. This can also be due to the fact that the government and regulatory bodies are also facing

the same financial challenges, hence, cannot afford to incentivise investment in construction health

and safety as done in other countries like the United States of America (Hamrick, 2002).

4.5 Summary

Different data presentation methods were used to present results of this project. From the data

collected and presented, it is clear that channelling financial resources towards improvement of work

place conditions is an investment. Data presented in this chapter is now used to draw conclusions and

recommendations to this research in the next conclusions and recommendations chapter.

CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENTATIONS

5.0 Introduction

The essence of the research was to analyse the effects of investment in health and safety issues has on

the construction projects. Having collected data from the field and made a comprehensive analysis in

chapter four (4), the researcher is now able to conclude and give recommendations on the research

subject.

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5.1 Conclusions

Although contractors are putting effort in ensuring that healthy and safe conditions prevail at

construction sites, they are not fully embracing other methods of investing in health and safety like

improvement in technology which have proved helpful in other countries especially United Kingdom.

Only methods which are mandatory by law of Zimbabwe like provision of PPE/C and welfare

facilities are receiving financial support while those which are not mandatory are lagging behind.

This research also concludes that investing in health and safety is beneficial to the contractor through

increased productivity and reduced costs. Investment in health and safety is effective in reducing costs

on construction projects and the whole organisation through improved company safety record, reduced

accidents and increased productivity. However, for investment in health and safety to be effective, top

management is crucial.

More so, failure by companies to invest in health and safety exposes them to penalties. However, this

research concludes that although penalties are furnished to serve as an incentive to invest in health and

safety issues, Zimbabwean penalties are too low to have that effect on the construction industry. Some

contractors opted not to invest because the punishing effects of penalties and work stoppages imposed

by regulatory bodies are insignificant to be felt.

Whilst health and safety investment is very important, this researched showed that construction

industry is facing difficulties in improving conditions of work. Chief among the challenges are costs

of implementation and less attention given to health and safety issues during tendering and tender

adjudication by clients.

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Therefore, the researcher accepts the hypothesis that benefits of investing in health and safety

outweighs the costs of implementation. The research results show that if one invests in health and

safety, he/she will enjoy the benefits of increased productivity, improved company safety record,

reduced accidents and reduced insurance premiums than to violate and pay excessive penalties, face

business closure and low productivity among other things.

5.2 Recommendations

Grounded on the research results, the following recommendations are drawn for the betterment of

health and safety investment in the construction industry:-

Health and safety standards should be considered when inviting for contractors to tender, tender

adjudication and all contract documents should be more health and safety sensitive.

Stringent health and safety penalties should be charged for health and safety violations. By having

stiffer penalties for health and safety violations, companies will be more attentive to health and

safety issues thereby prompting investment. By having stringent penalties coupled with strict

enforcement, financial resources channelled towards health and safety will increase.

Government, NSSA, insurance companies and clients should come up with health and safety

standard improvement packages like loans, tax exemptions, subsidies and low insurance premiums

among other initiatives. Countries like United Kingdom and United States of America have high

health and safety standards in their construction industry as a result of giving support technically

and financially to the construction companies. If this is done in Zimbabwe, health and safety

standards will probably raise.

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Construction companies should fully adopt and implement other methods of investing in health

and safety like incentives and improvement in technology.

Construction companies should open health and safety departments, employ professionally trained

safety personnel at top management level. Having a company with a Health and Safety Director

will be good for the industry.

Lastly, top management should play an active role in championing health and safety in their

companies. Top management can take a lead in health and safety by crafting health and safety

strategic plans, health and safety policies and increase resources channelled towards health and

safety.

5.3 Area of Further Researcher

Since health and safety is a very broad research area, further research can be done in order to

determine the role which can be played by clients to ensure healthy and safe work environments. More

so, ergonomics is another area which holds tremendous promise for economically having healthy and

safe work environments. A research can also be done to determine the relevance and economic

benefits of ergonomics to the improvement of Zimbabwean construction health and safety standards.

REFERENCES

1. Bauer, M.W. and Gaskell, G. (200), Qualitative Researching With Text, Image and Sound: A

Practical Handbook, SAGE

2. Brace, C.L. and Gibb A.G.F, (2005), A health management process for the construction

industry. In: Haupt T and Smallwood,J, (Eds) Rethinking and Revitalising the Construction

safety, health and quality, Port Elizabeth, RSA.

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3. British Standards Association, (2011), OSHAS 18001 Overview, www.bsi.com/OSHA

[Viewed 15 May 2012]

4. Dorman P, (2000), Economics of Safety, Health and Wellbeing at Work. An Overview

5. Dorrell, J, (2007), Safety incentives: do they work? http://www.healthandsafetyatwork.com

[Viewed 3 May 2012]

6. Goestch D.L (1962), Occupational Safety and Health, 2nd Edition, Prentice-Hall, USA

7. Griffith A. and Watson P, (n.d), Construction Management - Principles and Practice, Palgrave

Macmillan, Great Britain.

8. Gwandure, G and Matanda, M (2002), Human Resources Management Module, ZOU,

Zimbabwe

9. Hamrick, C. (2002), Ergonomic Best Practices for the Construction Industry, Ohio Bureau of

Workers Compensation

10.Heston,R, (2010), Consequences of not following OSHA regulations, www.helium.com

[Viewed November 2011]

11. Hinze, J. (2000), Construction Safety and Health Management, Prentice Hall, USA

12. HSE, (2007), Managing Health and Safety in Construction, Construction (Design and

Management) Regulations 2007 Code of Practice, Health and Safety Executive, UK

13. Huary, X. and Hinze, J. (2006), Owners role in Construction Safety. Journal of Construction

Engineering and Management

14. Hughes, P and Ferret, E, (2005), Introduction to Health and Safety in Construction,

Butterworth-Heinemann

15. Hughes, P and Ferret, E, (2007), Introduction to Health and Safety in Construction, 2nd

Edition,


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16. Hughes, P and Ferret, E, (2008), Introduction to Health and Safety in Construction, 3rd Edition,


17. Hunter, P. (2005), State Reforms Help Curb Workers' Compensation Costs, Engineering News

Record, USA

18. Levitt, R. and Samelson, N. (1993), Construction Safety Management, 2nd Edition, John Wiley

and Sons, New York

19. Line, P, (2010), Effects of not following OSHA regulations, (www.helium.com)

20. Moyo D, Towards Occupational Health Governance, On Guard Journal, December 2010

Volume 16 No. 16, NSSA

21. Mutetwa B, An Analysis of Occupational Safety and Health National Performance in 2009, On

Guard Journal, December 2010 Volume 16 No. 16, NSSA

22. Naoum, S. G, (2007), Dissertation Research and Writing For Construction Students, 2nd

Edition

23. Oxenburgh and Maurice (1991), Increasing Safety and Productivity through Health

and Safety , CCH International, Australia,

24. Ridley, J, (2008), Health and safety in Brief, 4th Edition, Butterwoth-Heinemann, Great Britain

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Business, On Guard Journal, December 2010 Volume 16 No. 16, NSSA

26.Salem. E. M. (2010), Consequences of not following OSHA regulations, www.helium.com

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Rai & Co. (Pvt.) Ltd. New Delhi

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Regulations, Number Rgn264

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32. Zimbabwe. 1996. Pneumoconiosis Act Chapter 14:28, Revised Edition

APPENDIX A - CONTRACTORS QUESTIONNAIRE

You are requested to answer the following questions by ticking in the box next to the appropriate

answer of your choice. Where a free response is required, please write it down in the spaces provided.

You are free to supply any additional information that you may feel may be helpful for this research.

Your participation in this research is greatly appreciated.

NB: Please fill in the blank or tick in the box that best represents your respond.

SECTION A: GENERAL INFORMATION

1. Your Profession / Job Position

Architect Quantity Surveyor Project Manager

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Engineer OSH Officer Other

If an engineer, please specify_____________________________________________

If other, please specify__________________________________________________

2. Type of projects normally undertaken

Civil Works Building Works

Commercial Works Other

If other, please specify__________________________________________________

3. How long have you been involved in the construction industry?

Less than 2 years 2 to 5 years

5 to 10 years More than 10 years

SECTION B: HE

Construction Health and Safety - Cost or Investment

Documents