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Constraints and Motivations
For Physical Activity Participation in Sedentary
Working People in Hong Kong
By
Lam Yuet Ming 06018610
AN HONOURS PROJECT SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF
THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF
BACHELOR OF ARTS
IN
PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND RECREATION MANAGEMENT (HONOURS) HONG KONG
BAPTIST UNIVERSITY
April 2009
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HONG KONG BAPTIST UNIVERSITY
24th April, 2009
We hereby recommend that Honors Project by Miss Lam Yeut Ming
entitled
“Constraints and motivations for physical activity participation
in sedentary working
people in Hong Kong” be accepted in partial fulfillment of the
requirements for the
Bachelor of Arts Honors Degree in Physical Education and
Recreation Management.
_____________________ ________________________ Dr. Eva Tsai
Prof. Chung Pak Kwong Chief Adviser Second Reader
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ACKNWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to express my heartfelt gratitude to my chief
adviser, Dr. Eva Tsai,
for constructive advice and valuable recommendations that
enlightened me a lot
during the whole process. I would also like to show my special
thanks to Prof. Chung
Pak Kwong for being my second reader. Appreciations were given
to the sedentary
working people who had given me essential data for analysis and
their kindly helps.
Finally, I was indebted to my family, especially my sister. They
provided me
with unlimited support to finish the study. Special thank to my
friends, Wong Yuen
See and Lee Lap Keung for their assistances in data
collecting.
_____________________________ Lam Yuet Ming Department of
Physical Education Hong Kong Baptist University Date: 24th April,
2009
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ABSTRACT
The purpose of this study was to understand the major
constraints to leisure time
physical activity and the major motivations of the sedentary
sedentary working
peoples in Hong Kong, to highlight the association between the
stages of leisure time
physical activity participants and socio-demographic indicators.
In this study, 128 of
sedentary working people aged 20-49 were invited to do the
questionnaire. The result
showed that the result showed that the most important leisure
time physical activities
motivations perceived by the sedentary working people in Hong
Kong was
interest/enjoyment motivation for both of the females and
males(males: mean =2.50,
female: mean =2.01). The result showed that the most important
leisure time physical
activities constraints perceived by the sedentary working
peoples in Hong Kong was
time constraints for both of the females and males (males: mean
=2.39, female: mean
=2.44). In order to increase the sedentary working people to do
more physical
activities, the government and recreation professionals can
promote more leisure time
physical activities which with fun and enjoyment.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER Page
1. INTRODUCTION
Statement of the
Problem...............................................................
1
Research
Questions........................................................................
4
Definition of
Terms........................................................................
6
Delimitations..................................................................................
8
Limitations.....................................................................................
8
Significance of the
Study...............................................................
9
2. REVIEW OF LITERATURE
Motivations for people to participate in physical
activity.............. 10
Constraints for people to participate in physical
activity............... 16
3. METHOD
The criteria of the
subjects..............................................................
22
Development of the
questionnaire..................................................
22
Procedures......................................................................................
25
Method of
analysis..........................................................................
26
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CHAPTER Page
4. ANALYSIS OF DATA
Results............................................................................................
27
Discussions.....................................................................................
44
5. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
Conclusions.....................................................................................
53
Finding............................................................................................
54
Recommendations of Further
Study............................................... 56
REFERENCES.....................................................................................................
75
APPENDIX..........................................................................................................
80
A. Questionnaire (English
Version)...........................................................
80
B. Questionnaire (Chinese
Version)...........................................................
84
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LIST OF TABLES
TABLES Page
1 Frequency and percentage of the subjects’ Background
information...........................................................................................
30
2 Frequency and percentage of the subjects’ working hours
per
day.......................................................................................................
31
3 Stages of LTPA
participation................................................................
32
4 Independent Sample t-test for motivations between
male and
female...................................................................................
59
5 Independent Sample t-test for constraints between
male and
female...................................................................................
60
6 Independent Sample t-test for motivations between
single and married sedentary working
peoples.................................... 61
7 Independent Sample t-test for motivations between single
and married sedentary working
peoples............................................... 62
8 Independent Sample t-test for motivations between below
average group and average
group........................................................
63
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TABLES Page
9 Independent Sample t-test for constraints between below
average
group and average
group......................................................................
64
10 One-way ANVOA test on the sedentary working peoples’
different stages of LTPA participation and leisure time
physical activity
motivations................................................................
65
10a Post Hoc test (Student-Newman-Keulsa, b) of interest
/enjoyment
motivations among regular participants, non-regular
participants
and
non-participants.............................................................................
66
10b Post Hoc test (Student-Newman-Keulsa, b) of competence
motivations
among regular participants, non-regular participants and
non-participants...................................................................................
66
10c Post Hoc test (Student-Newman-Keulsa, b) of social
motivations
among regular participants, non-regular participants and
non-participants...................................................................................
67
11 One-way ANVOA test on the sedentary working peoples’
different stages of LTPA participation and leisure time
physical
activity
constraints..............................................................................
68
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TABLES Page
12 One-way ANVOA test on the sedentary working peoples’ age
groups and leisure time physical activity
motivations....................... 69
12a Post Hoc test (Student-Newman-Keulsa, b) of
Interest/enjoyment
motivations among 20-29 group, 30-39 group and 40-49
group......... 70
12b Post Hoc test (Student-Newman-Keulsa, b) of competence
motivations among 20-29group, 30-39 group and 40-49
group........... 70
12c Post Hoc test (Student-Newman-Keulsa, b) of social
motivations
among 20-29group, 30-39 group and 40-49
group............................... 71
12d Post Hoc test (Student-Newman-Keulsa, b) of appearance
motivations
among 20-29 group, 30-39 group and 40-49 group
............................. 71
13 One-way ANVOA test on the sedentary working peoples’ age
groups and leisure time physical activity
constraints............................ 72
13a Post Hoc test (Student-Newman-Keulsa, b) of time constraints
among
20-29 group, 30-39 group and 40-49
group.......................................... 73
13b Post Hoc test (Student-Newman-Keulsa, b) of financial
constraints
among 20-29 group, 30-39 group and 40-49 group
............................. 73
13c Post Hoc test (Student-Newman-Keulsa, b) of interpersonal
constraints
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among 20-29 group, 30-39 group and 40-49
group.............................. 74
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Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION
It is not difficult to find the Hong Kong people who have to sit
for a long time
during their working time. But when you ask them how many hours
do they spent on
their regular physical activity per day. Mostly the answer is
none. According to a
statistics on behavioral risk factors from the Center for Health
Protection in 2008,
2100 Hong Kong people aged 18 to 64 had a long sitting time and
more than 55.7% of
them set at least 6 hours per day on average (Department of
Health, 2008).
Participation in regular physical activity is an important
factor to achieve the
health benefits for people especially the people who are
engaging to the sedentary
lifestyles. Taking part in sport activities has various
benefits. For psychological
benefits, through participating in physical activities, people
can escape from physical
and personal pressure, nostalgia and perceived autonomy (Cordes
& Ibrahim, 1999).
For health benefits, through participating in physical activity,
people could improve
health and reduce the risk of disease (Parry and Shaw, 1999).
The study indicated that
physical activity increase is a possible prevention strategy for
cancer, obesity, and
cardiovascular disease (Salmo, Owen, Crawford,Bauman &
Sallis, 2003). For social
benefits, playing sport can strength social cohesion and make
new friends. Although
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many studies proofed that there are many benefits for doing
physical activity, however,
there are a big numbers of people who do not take action.
In addition of having enough physical activity to benefit from
the health, some
studied found out a relation between healthy problems to the
sedentary lifestyles and
physical inactivity. In the study, America adults who spent more
time in sedentary
behaviors and were not sufficiently physically active had an
increase likelihood of
being overweight or obese (Takemi, Genevieve, David, Jo &
Neville, 2008).
Moreover, Dunstan (2007) found that people who spend more time
on sedentary
lifestyles, such as watching television, will get a high level
of glucose in their blood.
In Hong Kong, according to the survey (Leung, Fung, Tsai &
Wong, 2007), the
Hong Kong peoples aged 25 to 34 were the least active age group,
both the males and
female in this group did much less exercise than the 55 to 64
age group. Only 9% and
12% of age group 25-34 and 35-44 did at least three times a week
in Hong Kong.
These findings indicate that younger people tend not to do
enough physical activity,
which is at least 30 minutes of moderate-intensity physical
activity (WTO, 2008), as a
result, they are difficult to achieve the benefits from physical
activity.
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Further, many indicators show that there are a large number of
people engaged in
very sedentary lifestyles. According to Health Survey 2003/04,
it was found that 45.1
% of females aged 15 and above had not participated in any
exercise or sport within
one month. According to the Hong Kong Baptist University’s
department of physical
education, in 1200 interviewers, only 39% of people did
medium-intensity physical
activity at least once a week. (South China Morning Post,
2008)
Although previous studies have explored and pointed out that
differences in
motivations and barriers to physical activity in different age
of groups in different
gender. None of them focused on office worker as sub-group nor
most of them did not
focused local Asian Countries. There is a necessary to
understand more about why the
sedentary workingwomen do or do not participate in physical
activity. An improved
understanding can help physical activity professionals provide
better their services to
attract this sub-group and help the activity program provision,
health-promotion
campaigns, Leisure and Cultural Services Department (LCSD) and
others provide and
promote suitable leisure time physical activity according this
sub-group’s needs.
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Statement of Problem
The purpose of the study was to understand the major constraints
to leisure time
physical activity and the major motivations of the sedentary
sedentary working people
in Hong Kong, to highlight the association between the levels of
physical activities
and socio demographic indicators.
Research Questions
The main research questions of the study are:
1. What are frequencies of participating in leisure time
physical activity of the
sedentary working people in Hong Kong?
2. What are the most important constraints to physical activity
leisure time of
sedentary working people for both males and females in Hong
Kong?
3. What are the most motivations for leisure time physical
activity of sedentary
working people for both males and females in Hong Kong?
4. Is there an association between the marital status of the
sedentary working
people in Hong Kong and their constraints of participating in
leisure time
physical activity?
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5. Is there an association between the marital status of the
sedentary working
people in Hong Kong and their motivations of participating in
leisure time
physical activity?
6. Is there an association between the sedentary working people
in Hong Kong
and their constraints of participating in physical activity
among different of
stages of participating in leisure time physical activity?
7. Is there an association between the sedentary working people
in Hong Kong
and their motivations of participating in physical activity
among different of
stages of participating in leisure time physical activity?
8. Is there an association between the sedentary working people
in Hong Kong
and their constraints of participating in leisure time physical
activity among
different age groups?
9. Is there an association between the sedentary working people
in Hong Kong
and their motivations of participating in leisure time physical
activity among
different age groups?
10. Is there an association between the sedentary working people
in Hong Kong
and their constraints of participating in physical activity
among different
economic status?
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11. Is there an association between the sedentary working people
in Hong Kong
and their constraints of participating in physical activity
among different
economic status?
Definition of Terms
The following terms were operationally defined specifically for
this study:
Physical Activity
Physical activity is defined as any bodily movement produced by
skeletal
muscles that require energy expenditures (WTO, 2009).
Leisure Time Physical Activity (LTPA)
LTPA are the activities that one participates in leisure time.
The activities are
physical in nature which result in expending energy, they can be
competitive,
non-competitive or for self-enjoyment (Tsai, 2005). They could
be physical recreation
activities, team sports, individual sports or exercises like
jogging and gym.
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Constraint
Raymore, Crawford,Godby & VonEye (1993) defined that
constraint are limits
or inhibits that prevents a person from participating when the
person has a desire to
undertake some leisure experience. Jackson (1993) stated that
constraints are barriers
that inhibit a person for engaging in a particular behavior.
Motives
Motives refer to impulses, inner drives, or intentions that
cause a person to move,
to do something, or to behave in a certain way (Brehm,
2004).
Sedentary work
Sedentary work involves sitting most of the time, but may
involve walking or
standing for brief periods of time. Jobs are sedentary if
walking and standing are
required only occasionally. (National Occupational
Classification Career Handbook,
2006).
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Delimitations
The study was delimited by the following factors:
1. The subjects used in this study were sedentary working people
who aged
between 20 and 49.
2. The study delimited to worker of who were convenience chosen
in different
companies. Sedentary working people who did not belong to these
companies
were not studied.
Limitations
The following limitations were established for this
investigation:
1. It was assumed that all subjects would answer the
questionnaire honestly.
2. The study subjects in this study were limited to those who
worked at office.
3. The study was limited by the small sample size.
4. Convenience sampling method was used. Biased sample may
occur.
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Significance of the Study
There were many physical activity facilities and programs
provided by
government and non-government organizations, sports
associations, and fitness
centers. The physical activity participation rate in women is
remained low. In order to
tailor-make more sports and recreation sport participation rate
of the sedentary female
workers in Hong Kong, it is prompt to understand the motives and
constraints that
hindered their physical activity participation. This research
highlights the motives and
constraints of in the sedentary female workers in Hong Kong
reality so that the
government, sports associations and others would be pay
attention on those motives
and constraints and provide the most suitable physical activity
facilities and programs
to the Hong Kong sedentary working people in Hong Kong
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Chapter 2
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
Introduction
Knowing the participation motivations and constraints are
important to
understand the participation motives and constraints, a review
of literature
concentrates on the following sections: (1) Motivations for
people to participate in
physical activity; (2) Constraints for people to participate in
physical activity; (3)
Summery.
Motivations for People to Participate in Physical Activity
To understand why individuals choose to participate, exert
effort, and persist in
an activity can be classified along a continuum of
self-determination (Deci & Ryan,
1985). According to the Self-Determination Theory (SDT; Deci
& Ryan, 1985) there
are different types of motivation because of the different
reasons or goals that give
rise to an action. There are two basic types of motivation. One
is intrinsic motivation,
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which refers inherently enjoyable/interest, competence and
social motives. Another
one is extrinsic motivation, which refers to a lead to a
separable outcome such as the
appearance improvement and fitness improvement (Deci & Ryan,
1985, Frederick &
Ryan, 1993 & Ryan, Frederick, Lepes, Rubio, & Sheldon,
1997). Therefore, we have
to exam and understand their motivation for sedentary working
people.
In the following, it will divide the motivations into five main
aspects consisting
of interest/enjoyment, competence, social motives, appearance
and fitness
improvement for literatures review to understand how to motivate
the people to
participate in physical activity (Cindy, John & Irene, 2008;
Anderson, 2003; Wilson,
Rodgers, & Fraser, 2002; Koivula, 1999).
Interest/ Enjoyment
The Physical activities showed its interesting and fun to
participate. In the
research of different motivation and actual participation due to
gender typing in
Stockholm, Sweden (Koivula,1999) found that both of the women
and men rated fun
and enjoyment as the most and second most important motive for
participating in
physical activity. Ebben & Brudzynski (2008) examined the
Motivation and barriers
to exercise among 1044 college students (66%women and 34% men)
and found that
most (76.8%) reported they were exercising. Enjoyment pleasure,
feel good/ better
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and general health were the common motives.
Further, Henderson, Glancy & Little (1999) indicated that
positive emotional
rewards that turned a person’s for participating in physical
activity. For example,
when an activity is enjoyable or worth doing form a personal
point of view (e.g. I
think it is fun), it can help to sustain people participation. A
study (Yan & McCullagh,
2004) examined the differences in participatory motivation in
physical activities
among Chinese (PRC), American born Chinese (ABC) and American
children and
adolescents (USA). The ABC participants are most likely to enjoy
physical activities
and have fun through physical activities. All of the above
evidence shows that
physical activity with fun is an attractive factor. It is an
important factor for the
sedentary working people to participating in physical activity
in this study.
Competence
Competence affected people’s physical activity participation.
Koivula (1999)
indicated the scores on competence scale, it is a factor which
effects the participants
to participating physical activity, but at the rating of men and
women were found to be
very similar. However, Frederick and Ryan (1993) did not find
any gender difference
for competence motives. And in the study (Yan & McCullagh,
2004), the USA female
and male participants took part in physical activities due to
the reasons of sport
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competitions and improving skills.
Sit, Kerr, & Wong (2008) have done study on (360) the
mid-aged Chinese
Women who were aged 30–59 years old in Hong Kong. According to
the level of
physical activity, the women were classified into four stages,
which were
precontemplation (PC), contemplation (C), preparation (P), and
action and
maintenance (AM). And they pointed out that the
competence-challenge is the most
important motives for physical activity participation in the
preparation group, which
were doing moderate physical activity fewer than five times a
week. From the above,
we know that most of the people, especially males, participate
in physical activity due
to the competence.
Social motives
For the social motives, in the study (Yan & McCullagh, 2004)
out of 424
volunteers (202 females and 222 males) from 12 to 16 of years of
age, PRC
participants, social affiliation and wellness were the main
participation reasons for
both females and males. Same as Henderson and Ainsworth (2001)
observed that
social support was an important element of African-American and
American Indian
women choosing to be physically active.Moreover, Koivula (1999)
found that for the
socializing, there were some differences between men and women;
women had higher
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values on social factors than men for participation in physical
activity. Therefore, the
social motive is proofed to be an important factor to motivate
the sedentary working
people in this study.
Appearance and fitness improvement
In the research that differentiating men’s and women’s motives
for sport
participation and exercise of 233 students (132 women, 101 men)
from the
southeastern United States, Kilpatrick, Hebert & Bartholomew
(2005) found that the
most common motives for exercise were the positive health,
fitness and health/
management. Furthermore, they revealed men had higher levels of
motivation then
women for challenge, competition, social recognition and
strength and endurance.
And women had higher levels of motivation then men for weight
management.
Similarly, Sweden (202 women and 208 men) were examined in the
study of
differences in motivation and actual participation due to gender
typing, Koivula (1999)
indicated that the women had the highest level scores in the
motivations for
appearance – related in sport and exercise participation.
In addition, Segar, Spruijt-Metz and Nolen-Hoeksemal (2006)
designed to
investigate the relationship between 59 midlife women’s physical
activity motives and
their participation in physical activity in European-Americans.
The result showed that
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twenty-six participants (44%) were categorized as having motives
related to weight
loss and/or body shape for physical activity participations.
Moreover, Anderson (2003)
indicated the number of motives as correlates of physical
activity in women who were
the undergraduate and graduate student women at the University
of Houston. It found
that improving physical appearance, controlling weight and
improving cardiovascular
and general fitness were the top three motives for participating
physical activity for
the subjects.
Further, Schuler, Roy, Vinci, Philipp and Cohen (2006)
indentified barriers and
motivations to exercise associated with older African American
and European
American women (98 European American and 115 African American
women). It
found that improving/ maintaining their health was the most
frequently cited
motivation to do physical activity (48.7%), especially the women
with high income
level. And Sit, Kerr, & Wong (2008) found a similar result
that indicated that the most
top important motives factors for physical activity
participation were fitness- health,
followed by enjoyment-interest and appearance. Especially, the
women were doing
moderate physical activity fewer than five times a week.
For the above studies, I discover that more and more people
consider their
fitness- health and appearance, so that the appearance and
fitness improvement
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motivates can show it’s important to affect the physical
activity participation of the
sedentary working people.
People to participate in physical activity
The constraints for sedentary working people are divided into
three main
categories consisting of personal constraints, practical
constraints social and cultural
constraints (Cindy, John &Irene, 2008; Zhu, Timm, &
Ainsworth, 2000).
Personal constraints
The personal barriers to female include lack of self-confidence,
leak of body
image, lack of knowledge, the health problems and fatigue. Bopp,
Lattimore, Wilcox,
Laken, McClorin, Swinton, et al. (2007) has done a research on
examining the
perceived influences on PA participation, the link between
spirituality and health
behaviors and the role of the church in promoting PA in African
Americans. They
found out that fatigue was the constraints for both the men and
women who did not
participate in physical activities. The major reasons for
fatigue in men were due to
work schedules and physical exertions while at work and in women
were due to work
and family obligations. The younger women and men who did not do
exercise
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because of lacking knowledge about how to exercise and lacking
knowledge about
exercising inspire of health concerns. Schuler, Roy, Vinci,
Philipp and Cohen (2006)
indicated that the top barrier to exercise for the old women in
their study were chronic
health problems and pain.
Moreover, without a good body image would be a blockage which
affected the
people did not participate in physical activity. Silliman,
Rodas-Fortier and Neyman
(2004) assessed the diet and exercise habits and perceived
barriers to following a
healthy lifestyle of 471 college students (male: 199, female:
265). They found that the
male had more confident with their body image than the female.
So a bad body image
would be the blockage for the female to participate in physical
activities. Similarly,
Ball, Craqford and Owen (2000) examined the associations between
feeling fat and
other weight-related barriers to physical activity on 2,298
Australian adults, 47% men
and 53% women. They indicated that for both male and female
between ‘too fat’ as a
barrier and being too shy/embarrassed. And there was no
significant between ‘too fat’
and ‘poor’ health’ as constraints to physical activity for man
or women.
Further, form the survey of the Sport England’s (1999), it
mentioned that the
girls and women the relationship between body image and physical
activity is a
vicious circle. Also, it showed that the more self-conscious
women feel about their
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bodies the less likely they are to take part in physical
activity. Moreover, women cite
lack of self-confidence as one of the barriers for not
participating in physical activity.
The last, the fitness level also would be a constraints.
According to the report
from the County Council of City and County of Cardiff (2007)
indicated that two out
of five adults in Cardiff 36.5% identified that their fitness
level was the main reason
for non-participation in physical activity. And the Cardiff
identified that family
(12.8%) and work (12.8%) commitments were the other main reasons
for no
n-participation in physical activity.
Practical constraints
The practical barriers to female include lack of money, lack of
time and facility
consistency. For the facility consistency, Bopp, Lattimore,
Wilcox, Laken, McClorin,
Swinton, et al. (2007) has done a research on African American
men and women (24
men, 20 women) to examining the perceived influences on PA
participation. They
indicated that not having a convenient place to walk, not having
facilities with
equipment and an unaffordable fee would be a deterrent to being
physically active.
For the lack of money, many studies showed that it is one of the
important
constraints. Andajani-Sutjahjo, Ball, Warren, Inglis and
Crawford (2004) mentioned
that ‘not being able to find physical activity facilities that
are expensive is the
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common barriers to physical activity. Similarly, a survey was
done by the Sport
England’s (1999) it revealed that 19% of women said having more
money would
encourage them to take part in sport and physical activity. This
compared to 12% of
men. Lack of money would be one of the barriers to prevent them
in taking part in
physical activity. They cannot afford the extra spending for the
club membership, pay
for equipments or sporting clothing. Although some organizations
such as the LCSD
provide cheap fee of sport classes and faculties, it is
difficult for working people to
take part in because of the unsuitable time or the full
quote.
Lack of time is the most important constraints what affects the
sedentary
working people to choose whether participating physical
activity. Andajani-Sutjahjo,
Ball, Warren, Inglis and Crawford (2004) mentioned that the main
barriers reported by
young women related to motivation and time. As the result of
their research found that
they were lack of time due to work commitments. Similarly,
Silliman, Rodas-Fortier
and Neyman (2004) assessed the diet and exercise habits and
perceived barriers to
following a healthy lifestyle of 471 college students (male:
199, female: 265). They
found that the most commonly barriers to physical activities are
“lack of time”, and
then was “lack of motivation” and “lack of willpower”. But there
are no differences in
barriers to exercise by gender. In addition, Sttutts(2002) has
explored the determinants
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of physical activity in 137 adults Americans in his study. He
found that time
constraints were the most barriers for inactive lifestyles, but
regular exercisers are just
as likely to view time as a barrier as those who are
sedentary.
Form the survey of the General Household (2000), it showed that
18% of women,
compared to 14% of men in Britain, are responsible for the care
of an elderly or
infirm relative. And the Women’s Sports Foundation (2004)
pointed out that the one
of the key reasons for not taking part in physical activity is
the lack of available time
due to childcare and care of the elderly or housework.
Social constraints
The social barriers include family and social support and gender
role. Bopp,
Lattimore, Wilcox, Laken, McClorin, Swinton, et al. (2007)
pointed out that both the
younger men and the younger women would not go to exercise due
to lack of social
support. For the same reasons, ethic of care has been framed as
a constraint to
mothers’ leisure (Henderson & Allen, 1991; Brown, Miller
& Hansen, 2001).Similarly,
in the graduate study in child development by Robert and
Erikson, they indicated that
for girls, some gender-associated constraints to physical
activity included lack of role
models, social pressures, and lack of parental encouragement.
And girls had more lack
of parental encouragement constraints than boys. Also, girls
would assess their
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general athletic ability more negatively than boys, regardless
of actual performance.
Gender roles have been identified that affect women’s
participation in physical
activity (Summerfield, 1990). Now in the modern societies, women
have multiple
roles such as a daughter, a wife, a mother and so on. And they
have to take difficult
responsibility in different kind of the roles. For example, they
to take care their babies
when they become mothers. Furthermore, Harrington and Dawson
(1995) tended to
suggest that women’s place within society, women’s roles and
responsibilities, often
limit women’s freedom of choice. Furthermore, lack of technical
skills, of private
transportation, and of financial resources is also experienced
by women more
intensely than men. In addition to the survey of Hakobyan
(2008), there was a sample
of 369 men and women, aged 18-65 years old that lived in
Armenia. The result
showed that 30% participants lack of time due to work or study
and 29% participants
lack of time due to family responsibilities such as taking care
of children and doing
housework.
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32
Chapter 3
METHOD
The method of this study was divided into the following
sections: (1) the criteria
of the subjects; (2) development of the questionnaire; (3)
procedures; (4) method of
analysis.
The criteria of the subjects
The subjects were the aged between 20-49 females living in Hong
Kong. All of
them are the official worker, and need to sit for a long time
(about more than 5 hours
per day on average) during working. And their place of work will
be quite evenly
distributed in different kind of trades including finance
companies, trading and
logistics companies, import/export trades, recreation
organizations, social service
organizations, school and so on.
Development of the questionnaire
The date was collected with a combination and modification of
the
questionnaires use in the previous studies (Tsai & Coleman,
1999, Ryan, Frederick,
Lepes, Rubio, & Sheldon, 1997). Studying the questionnaire
of Tsai and Coleman
(1999) is the first step and then some of the suitable questions
were selected. The
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33
second is to find the Scale to measure the motives for
participating in physical
activities through surfing in the internet. And the Motives for
Physical Activities
Measure – Revised (MPAM-R) (Ryan, Frederick, Lepes, Rubio, &
Sheldon, 1997)
was used in this study. And the final step is to translate the
questionnaires into
Chinese version.
The questionnaire was divided into four parts (A) Physical
Activity participation
pattern, (B) Motivations for PA participation, (C) Constraints
to PA participation, (D)
General information. Before going to do the questionnaire, there
will be a simple
guidelines and definition of physical activity in this study. In
part A of the
questionnaire measures the sport pattern of the subjects. It
emphasized on the frequent
they participated in physical activities, how much time they
spent on physical
activities each time in average. And ask whether they
participate in physical activities
in the past three months and let them to list three physical
activities they usually
participated in and what types of physical activities they
wished to participated in.
Finally, participates need to indicate where the usually had
physical activity, who
usually accompany them form sport participation. (See Appendix A
& B).
In part B and Part C, they were modified form the questionnaire
used in the
studies of Tsai and Coleman (1999) and Ryan, Frederick, Lepes,
Rubio, & Sheldon
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34
(1997). The aim of these two parts is to assess the strength of
five motives for
participating in physical activities and to examine the sport
constraints of the women
encountered which modified form the questionnaire Tsai and
Coleman (1999).
In part B, the factors were classified into five motives and set
randomly. The six
motives were (1) interest/enjoyment referred to motives items 2,
6, 8 and 15. (2)
Competence referred to motive items3, 7 and 14. (3) Appearance
referred to motives
items 4, 11 and 16. (4) Fitness referred to motives items 1, 10
and 13. And (5) social
referred to motives items5, 9, 12 and 17. The original scale
Motives for Physical
Activities Measure – Revised (MPAM-R) Ryan, Frederick, Lepes,
Rubio, & Sheldon
(1997) is a 7-point scale form 1 (not at all true for me) to 7
(very trued for me). And in
this study it modified to be 0 (not at all true for me) to 4
(very trued for me) was used
and the subjects have to rate the true motives that affect their
engage in physical
activities.
In part C, The factors were classified into six dimensions and
set randomly. The
six dimensions were (1) time constraints referred to constraint
items 2, 5 and 6. (2)
Financial constraints referred to constraint items 11 and 12.
(3) Interpersonal
constraints referred to constraint items 3, 10, 13 and 19. (4)
Environmental constraints
referred to constraint items 1, 14, 17 and 20. (5) Physiological
constraints referred to
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35
constraint items 4 and 21. (6) Personal attitude referred to
constraint items 7, 8,
9,15and 16. In this part, 5-point Likert-type Scale from 0
(extremely unimportant) to 4
(extremely important) was used and the subjects had to rate the
importance of the
constraints that affect their participation in physical
activities.
The last part (D), it aims to get the general information of the
subjects. It
includes the age, sex, marital status, education level and how
many hours they work
per day and how hours will they sit during the working time.
Procedures
Questionnaire was easy to understand, but there were a few
typing mistakes. In
this study, the questionnaires will be given to different people
who I know. Though the
helping from her or him. She / he will help me to give theirs’
colleagues or bosses to
finish the questionnaires in different kind of companies. It
used the Ramadan method to
choose the companies. When the questionnaires were given to the
person, they will be
collected after five working days. The sample was obtained by
using convenient
sampling.
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36
Method of analysis
Collected data will be input into SPSS (Statistical Package for
the Social Science)
for Window 15.0 version. The significant (alpha) level was set
at .05.Descriptive
statistics such as standard deviation, frequency, percentage and
mean will be used to
describe the social demographic information such as the personal
data and the
physical activity pattern of the subjects. One-way ANOVA will be
used to test the
constraints and motivations among different economical status,
age group and will
find out the significant in constraints and motivations and
different level on physical
activity; independent t-test will be used to test the
constraints and motivations
between single and married.
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37
Chapter 4
DATA ANALYSIS
The purpose of this study was to investigate the leisure time
physical activity
constraints and motivations of the sedentary working people who
sitting for more than
5 hours per day. It also measured weather the demographic affect
their constraints and
motivations to engage to leisure time physical activity. The
descriptive statistics,
independent t-test, one-way ANOVA were used to analyze the data.
The analyses of
the data were presented in the following results:
1. Description of the personal data, including gender, age,
economic status,
education levels, number of working hour per day, number of
sitting hours per day,
marital status.
2. Description of the most important motivations and constraints
of participating in
leisure time physical activity among the male and female
sedentary working
people.
3. A result from Independent Sample t-test on gender
differences
4. A result from independent Sample t-test between the sedentary
working people
with different marital status on leisure time physical activity
motivations
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38
5. A result from independent Sample t-test between the sedentary
working people
with different marital status on leisure time physical activity
constraints.
6. A result from independent Sample t-test between below average
group and
average group of sedentary working people on different of
leisure time physical
activity motivations
7. A result from independent Sample t-test between below average
group and
average group of sedentary working people on different of
leisure time physical
activity constraints
8. A result from One-way ANOVA, which analyzes difference in
different stages of
leisure time physical activity participation and different
leisure time physical
activity motivations.
9. A result from One-way ANOVA, which analyzes difference in
different stages of
leisure time physical activity participation and different
leisure time physical
activity constraints
10. A result from One-way ANOVA, which analyzes difference in
different age
groups in different leisure time physical activity
motivations.
11. A result from One-way ANOVA, which analyzes difference in
different age
groups in different leisure time physical activity
constraints.
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39
Descriptive statistic of respondents
Background information
The modified questionnaire obtained personal information of
sedentary working
people who sit more than 5 hours per day. A total 128 sedentary
working people were
invited to respond to the questionnaires. There were 56% (n=72)
were female and
44% (n=56) were male.77 %( n=98) aged between 20-29, 16 %(
n=20), aged between
30-39, 8% (n=10) and aged between 40-49, 8% (n=10) (See Table
1).
For the economical status, 24% (n=31) were below average, 70%
(n=89) were
average, the rest 6% (n=8) were above average.
For the education levels, 19.5% (n=25) were F5 or below
education level, 7%
(n=9) were F6-F7 education levels, most of 73% (n=94) the
sedentary working people
were university or above education levels.
For the Marital status, 86% (n=110) were single, while 14%
(n=18) were married
(See Table 1).
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40
Table 1
Frequency and percentage of the Subjects’ Background
information
Background Social Demographics Frequency Percentage
( %) Sex Male 72 56 Female 56 44 Age 20-29 98 77 30-39 20 16
40-49 10 8 Economical status below average 31 24 average 89 70
above average 8 6 Marital status single 110 86 married 18 14
Education levels F5 or below 25 20 F6 to F7 9 7
University or above 94 73
For the working hours per day, most of the subjects 33.6% (n=43)
had 8 hours of
work per day, next had 9 hours of work 25.8% (n=33) per day and
next had 10 hours
of work 24.2% (n=31) per day and mean was 9.48 and standard
deviation was1.641
(See Table 2).
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41
Table 2
Frequency and percentage of the Subjects’ working hours per
day
Working Hours per day Frequency Percentage (%)
8 hours per day 30 23.4
9 hours per day 25 19.5
10 hours per day 20 15.6
More than 10 hours 21 16.4
Total 128 100
For the sitting hours per day, most of the subjects 23.4% (n=30)
had 7 sitting
hours per day, next were 8 sitting hours 19.5% (n=25) per day
and next were 5 sitting
hours15.6% (n=20) per day and mean was 7.63 and standard
deviation was 2.042.
Stages of leisure time physical activity participation
About 71% (n=91) of subjects had done some leisure time physical
activities in
the past three months. The most three popular leisure time
physical activities among
them were badminton, swimming and hiking.
The rest 29% (n=37) had not done leisure time physical
activities in the past
three months. The most popular leisure time physical activities
among them were
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42
hiking, badminton and swimming.
About 63% (n=81) of subjects were non-regular participants in
leisure time
physical activities in the past three months, (N=30, 23.4%) of
them were not
non-participants in leisure time physical activities in the past
three months and only
(N=17, 13.3%) were regular participants in leisure time physical
activities in the past
three months (See Table 3).
Table 3
Stages of LTPA participation
Stages of LTPA participations Frequency Percentage (%)
non-regular participants 81 63
non-participants 30 23.4
regular participants 17 13.3
Total 128 100
Independent Sample t-test for motivations on gender
difference
According to the result of independent Sample t-test, there were
significant mean
difference between males and females in interest/enjoyment
motivations (t=-3.70,
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43
P=.00) (Males: mean =2.50, Female: mean =2.01), competence
motivations (t=-3.26,
p=.00) (Males: mean =2.06, Female: mean =1.62) and social
(t=2.61, p=.01), (Males:
mean =2.02, Female: mean =1.67).
However, there was no significant mean different between them in
fitness
motivations (t=-.99, p=.32) (Males: mean =2.35, Female: mean
=2.46) and
appearance motivations (t=-.54, p=.59) (Males: mean =.10,
Female: mean =.72 (see
table 4).
Independent Sample t-test for constraints on gender
difference
There were no significant mean difference between males and
female in time
constraints (t=-.37, p=.71) (Males: mean =2.39, Female: mean
=2.44), perceived
financial status constraints (t=.09, p=.93) (Males: mean =.99,
Female: mean =.97),
interpersonal constraints(t=-1.12, p=.26) (Males: mean =1.26,
Female: mean =1.42) ,
environment constraints(t=.10, p=.99) (Males: mean =1.99,
Female: mean =1.99) ,
physiological constraints (t=1.45, p=.15) (Males: mean =2.13,
Female: mean
=1.87)and personal attitude constraints (t=.82, p=.41) (Males:
mean =1.54, Female:
mean =1.42) (see table 5).
______________________
Insert Table 5
_____________________
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44
Independent Sample t-test for motivations between single and
married sedentary
working people
The results of Independent t-test on the factors of leisure time
physical activity
motivations between the subjects with different martial status
were shown in table 7.
There were significant mean difference between single and
married sedentary
working people in appearance motivations, (t=2.04, p=.04)
(Single: mean =2.30,
Married: Mean=1.89). Single sedentary working people had larger
appearance
motivations than the married official workers (see table 6).
______________________
Insert Table 6
______________________
On the other hand, there were no significant difference between
them in
interest/enjoyment motivations (t=1.92, p=.06) (Single: mean
=2.27, Married:
Mean=1.90), competence motivations (t=1.15, p=.25) (Single: mean
=1.84, Married:
Mean=1.61), fitness motivations (t=1.74, p=.08) (Single: mean
=2.44, Married:
Mean=2.15) and social motivations (t=1.32, p=.19) (Single: mean
=1.86, Married:
Mean=1.60).
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45
Independent Sample t-test for constraints between single and
married sedentary
working people
There were significant mean difference between single and
married sedentary
working people in interpersonal constraints (t=2.24, p=.03)
(Single: mean =1.39,
Married: Mean=0.94) and environmental constraints (t=2.84,
p=.01) (Single: mean
=2.08, Married: Mean=1.49).
From the above information, we could conclude that the single
sedentary
working people significantly had larger interpersonal
constraints and environmental
constraints than the married sedentary working people.
______________________
Insert Table 7
______________________
On the other hand, there was no significant difference between
them in time
constraints, (t=0.13, p=.90) (Single: mean=2.42, Married:
mean=2.39), perceived
financial status constraints (t=1.71, p=.09) (Single: mean=1.03,
Married: mean=0.67),
physiological constraints (t=1.31, p=.19) (Single: mean=2.06,
Married: mean=1.72)
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46
and personal attitude constraints t=.87, p=.39) (Single:
mean=1.51, Married:
mean=1.33)(see table 8).
Independent Sample t-test for motivations different economic
status
There were no significant difference between below average group
and average
group in interest/enjoyment motivations (t=1.26, p=.211) (Below
average: mean
=2.37, Average: Mean=2.17), competence motivations (t=1.36,
p=.175) (Below
average: mean =1.98, Average: Mean=1.76), fitness motivations
(t=1.66, p=.099)
((Below average: mean =2.57, Average: Mean=2.34), social
motivations (t=1.56,
p=.121) (Below average: mean =2.01, Average: Mean=1.76)and
appearance
motivations (t=1.40, p=.165) (Below average: mean =2.41,
Average:
Mean=2.18).( See table 8)
______________________
Insert Table 8
______________________
Independent Sample t-test for constraints different economic
status
There were significant mean difference between below average
group and
average group of sedentary working people in financial
constraints (t=3.05, p=.003)
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47
(Below average: mean =1.37, Average: Mean=.86) and personal
attitude constraints
(t=2.59, p=.011) (Below average: mean =1.81, Average:
Mean=1.39).
From the above, we could conclude that the below average group
significantly
had larger financial constraints and personal attitude
constraints than the average
group.
On the other hand, there were no significant difference between
below average
group and average group of sedentary working people in time
constraint (t=0.67,
p=.502) (Below average: mean =2.49, Average: Mean=2.38),
interpersonal constraints
(t=0.56, p=.579) (Below average: mean =1.40, Average:
Mean=1.30), environmental
constraints(t=1.74, p=.085) (Below average: mean =2.22, Average:
Mean=1.92) and
physiological constraints(t=1.82, p=.071) (Below average: mean
=2.31, Average:
Mean=1.92)(see Table 9).
______________________
Insert Table 9
______________________
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48
One-way ANVOA test on the sedentary working people’ different
stages of LTPA
participation and leisure time physical activity motivations
In this part, One-way ANOVA test was used to analyze 3 stages of
LTPA
participations were compared with each other. The result showed
that there were no
significant mean differences in fitness motivations (F=1.710,
p=.185) and appearance
motivations (F=2.056, p=.132) between sedentary working people
of different stages
of LTPA participations.
However, there were significant mean differences among 3 stages
of LTPA
participations in interest/enjoyment motivations (F=9.302,
p=.00), competence
motivations (F=7.788, p=.001) and social motivations (F=5.001,
p=.00) (See table
10).
According to Student-Newman-Keulsa, b (SNK) Post Hoc test,
for
interest/enjoyment motivations, there were no significant mean
difference between
non-participants group and non-regular participants group. The
mean for regular
participants group (mean=2.18) was significantly larger than
non-participants group
(mean=1.87). Regular participants group had larger
interest/enjoyment motivations
than non-participants group. (See Table 10a)
For the competence motivations, there were no significant mean
difference
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49
between non-participants group and non-regular participants
group. The mean for
regular participants group (mean=2.41) was significantly larger
than non-participants
group (mean=1.51). Regular participants group had larger
competence motivations
than non-participants group. (See Table 10b)
For the social motivations, there were no significant mean
difference between
non-participants group and non-regular participants group. The
mean for regular
participants group (mean=2.25) was significantly larger than
non-participants group
(mean=1.53). Regular participants group had larger social
motivations than
non-participants group. (See Table 10c)
____________________________________
Insert Table 10, 10a, 10b, 10c
____________________________________
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50
One-way ANVOA test on the sedentary working people’ different
stages of LTPA
participation and leisure time physical activity constraints
One-way ANOVA test was used to analyze 3 stages of LTPA
participations were
compared with each other. The result showed that there were no
significant mean
differences in time constraints (F=.996, p=.372), perceived
financial constraints
(F=.201, p=.818), Interpersonal constraints (F=.614, p=.543),
environmental
constraints (F=.589, p=.557), physiological constraints
(F=1.436, p=.242) and
personal attitude (F=1.848, p=.162) between sedentary working
people of different
stages of LTPA participations (See table 11).
____________________________________
Insert Table 11
____________________________________
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51
One-way ANVOA test on the sedentary working people’ age groups
and leisure time
physical activity motivations
In this part, one-way ANOVA test was used to analyze 3 types of
different age
groups of sedentary working people (20-29 group, 30-39group and
40-49 group) were
compared with each other. The result showed that there were no
significant mean
differences in fitness motivations (F=1.768, p=.175).
However, there were significant mean different in
interest/enjoyment motivations
(F=4.882, p=.009), competence motivations (F=3.088, p=.049),
social motivations
(F=4.302, p=.016) and appearance motivations (F=3.211, p=.044)
(See table 12).
According to Student-Newman-Keulsa,b Post Hoc test, however,
for
interest/enjoyment motivations, there were no significant mean
difference among
20-29 group (mean=2.33), 30-39 group (mean=1.84)and 40-49
group
(mean=1.88)(see Table 12a).
For the competence motivations, there were no significant mean
difference
among 20-29 group (mean=1.90), 30-39 group (mean=1.50) and 40-49
group
(mean=1.50) (see Table 12b).
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52
On the other hand, for the social motivations, there were no
significant mean
difference between 20-29group and 30-39 group. The mean for
20-29 group
(mean=1.90) was significantly larger than 40-49 group
(mean=1.18). (See Table 12c)
For the appearance motivations, there were significant no mean
difference
between 20-29group and 30-39 group and between 30-29 and 40-49.
The mean for
20-29 group (mean=2.30) was significantly larger than 40-49
group (mean=1.67).
Form the above information, it could be conclude that 20-29group
had larger social
and appearance motivations than 40-49group. (See Table 12d)
One-way ANVOA test on the sedentary working people’ age groups
and leisure time
physical activity constraints
In this part, one-way ANOVA test was used to analyze 3 types of
different age
groups of sedentary working people (20-29 group, 30-39group and
40-49 group) were
compared with each other. The result showed that there were no
significant mean
differences in environmental constraints (F=1.298, p=.277),
physiological constraints
(F=1.132, p=.326) and personal attitude (F=.133, p=.876).
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53
However, there were significant mean differences in time
constraints (F=3.394,
p=.037), perceived financial constraints (F=3.445, p=.035) and
interpersonal
constraints (F=3.559, p=.031) (See table 13).
According to Student-Newman-Keulsa,b Post Hoc test, however, for
time
constraints, there were no significant mean difference between
20-29 group and 30-39
group,20-29 group and 40-49 group. The mean for 30-39group
(mean=2.75) was
significantly larger than 40-49 group (mean=2.00). 30-39group
had larger time
constraints than 40-49group (See table 13a).
However, for the financial constraints, there were no
significant mean difference
among 20-29 group (mean=1.09), 30-39 group (mean=.65) and 40-49
group
(mean=.60) (see Table 13b).
And for the interpersonal constraints, there were no significant
mean difference
between 20-29group and 30-39group. The mean for 30-39group was
significantly
larger than 40-49 group (mean=.70). 30-39group had larger
interpersonal constraints
than 40-49group (See table 13c).
______________________________________________________
Insert Table 12, 12a, 12b, 12c, 12d, 13, 13a, 13b &13c
______________________________________________________
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54
Discussion
In this research, 128 sedentary working people were invited to
do modified
questionnaire. The result was used to give a better
understanding of the motivations
and the constraints that affected their participation in leisure
time physical activities
(LTPA), as well as the effect of demographic backgrounds on both
the motivations
and constraints, dividing into three parts as of follow:
1. Results of the Leisure Time Physical Activity Motivations of
sedentary working
people
2. Results of the Leisure Time Physical Activity Constraints of
sedentary working
people
3. Results of the Leisure Time Physical Activity Motivations
Motivations on gender difference
In this study, the result showed that the most important leisure
time physical
activities motivations perceived by the sedentary working people
in Hong Kong was
interest/enjoyment motivation for both of the females and males.
It was same as
Koivula (1999) who found that both of the women and men rated
fun and enjoyment
as the most or second most, important motive for participating
in physical activity.
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55
For the competence and social motivations, the results showed
that males have
greater motives than the female. It was similar to the result of
Creedon (1994)
indicated that the male relatively more concerned about
competition than female.
Similarly, according to Frederick, et al., (1993) reported that
man rated competition
and challenge as the important motives.
But it was interesting that this study found that males had
greater social motives
than female. It was different from the result of Frederick, et
al., (1993) reported the
social factors as the top reasons for females.
For the fitness and appearance motivations, it was not
surprising that females had
greater motivations than males. As the female in Hong Kong like
keeping fit and lose
weight in order to attract the males even if they lies within
the normal range. Under
the trend of slim is beauty, they have to keep fit. The results
showed the same as
Finkenberg et al. (1994) reported that women valued appearance
and weight
management more than did men.
Motivations on different marital status
For the sedentary working people with different marital status,
this study
reflected that there were no mean significant differences in the
motivations which
were interest/enjoyment, competence, fitness and social between
the single and
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56
marred sedentary working people. But it reflected that those
single sedentary working
people perceived more appearance motivation than married
sedentary working people.
It is because the single one who want a good appearance to
attract another parts so
that the appearance would be the second important motivation for
participating LTPA.
The first important motivation was fitness.
Motivations on different economical status
In this study, it was found that there were no significant
differences between the
economical status and leisure time physical activity
motivations. The result indicated
that the economical status would not affect the sedentary
working people’ motivations
to participate in leisure time physical activity.
Motivations on different age groups
Considering different age groups, the most important motivation
for the all age
groups are fitness motivations. The reason may that nowadays
more and more people
in every age level also considered their health. It was similar
with the finding form Sit,
Kerr, & Wong (2008) reported that the most top important
motives factor for physical
activity participation was fitness-health.
Besides, the result showed that the age group 20-29 had
significantly greater
social motivation than the age group 40-49. It could be the age
groups 20-29 want to
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57
get more social-interrelationship than the other age groups.
They had just worked in
the society for a few years and would be willing to build up
more interpersonal with
different kinds of people. Therefore, they participate in LTPA
for more social-
interrelationship for people.
Last but not least, we found that age group 20-29 perceived more
appearance
motivations than age group 40-49.This is possibly because most
of the age group
20-29 was not married, so that they want to keep a good
appearance to attract the
opposite sex. The physical activities can help the people
maintain a good appearance
for motivating the sedentary working people to participate
leisure time physical
activity.
Motivations on different stages of LTPA participants
The sedentary working people were classified into three stages
of LTPA
participants: regular participants, non-regular participants and
non-participants in
leisure time physical activities.
The most important motivation for the regular participants
was
interest/enjoyment. The sedentary working people have regular
participated in LTPA,
which provides more fun for them. For the non-regular
participants and
non-participants were the fitness motivations.
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58
Among these three groups, there were significant differences
between the
interest/enjoyment, competence and fitness motivations and the
frequency in
participating LTPA.
The result reflected that the regular participants had more
interest/enjoyment
than the non-regular participants. The regular participants
would participate the
leisure time physical activities more than three times in a
week; it is similar with Sit,
Kerr and Wong (2008). Most of them would be participate the
physical activities
which can provide fun, excitement and pleasure for them.
Also, for competence, the regular participants had more
competence than
non-participants. It was similar with the founding of Sit, Kerr
and Wong (2008) that
the competence-challenge is the most important motives for
physical activity
participation, which were doing moderate physical activity fewer
than five times a
week. In this study, the regular participants did about three
times a week, so the
situation was same as the Sit, Kerr and Wong (2008) defined the
moderate physical
activity participants. Lastly, the regular the regular
participants had more social
motivations than the non-participants. At the same time, the
regular participants had
more fitness motives than the non-participants. It was similar
with the founding of the
Venus and Mars in the Gym, when women exercise regularly, health
and fitness
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motives for exercise could become more salient than motives
related to physical
appearance (Robergs, Bereket & Knight, 1998).
Results of the Leisure Time Physical Activity Constraints
Constraints on gender difference
In this study, the result showed that the most important leisure
time physical
activities constraints perceived by the sedentary working people
in Hong Kong was
time constraints for both of the females and males. The
following important
constraints for the female were physiological, environmental,
personal attitude,
interpersonal and financial.
The following important constraints for male were environmental,
physiological,
personal, interpersonal and financial. According the opinion of
Tsai and coleman
(1999), it was true that leisure had to compete for a limited
amount of resources with
other spheres of live such as work and family, the preferences
in allocating resources
to leisure is affected by the perceived importance of leisure in
one’s life. They have
many obligations such as work. This reflects a low priority
being given to leisure time
physical activity.
Constraints on different martial status
With different martial status, this study reflected that there
were no mean
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60
significant differences in most of the perceived constraints
including time, perceived
financial, physiological and personal attitude constraints
between the single and
married sedentary working people. But it reflected the single
sedentary working
people perceived more environmental constraints and
interpersonal constraints than
married sedentary working people.
This was totally different of the previous studies. Brown et al.
(2001) indicated
the constraint that mother of young children perceived was
combination of structural.
The subjects concentrated on the single and nowadays the Hong
Kong like to get
married and had a baby born at a later stage so that they would
not affected by the
martial status.
Constraints on different economical status
It was found that there were significant mean differences
between the
economical status and financial and personal attitude. The group
‘below average’
perceived larger financial constraints and personal attitude
constraints than the
average group.
This result reflected the same findings of the Sport England’s
(1999); lack of
money was the constraints to prevent people to take part in
leisure time physical
activities. Also, in the personal attitude constraints for the
below average group, it
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would be that they had faced the lack of skills and lack of
knowledge about the
physical activity.
Constraints on different age groups
Considering different age groups, age group 30-39 perceived
greater time and
interpersonal constraints than age group 40-49. The reason may
that in this group of
participations who have married and have baby so that they had
to spend more time
on their family obligations. It was similar to the result of
Women’s Sport Foundation
(2004), which it pointed out that the reasons for not taking
part in physical activity is
the lack of available time due to child care or housework. It
reflects the situation that
the Hong Kong people like late marriage and giving birth. So the
situation reflects on
the age group 30-39.
Also age group 30-39 had less interpersonal constraints then the
age group 40-49.
Age group 30-39 had better social-interrelationship than 40-49.
Therefore, they could
receive more interpersonal support on participating in leisure
time physical activity.
Constraints on different stages of LTPA participants
The sedentary working people were classified into three stages
of LTPA
participants: regular participants, non-regular participants and
non-participants in
leisure time physical activities. And the result reflected that
there were no mean
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significant differences between the constraints and the
frequency in participating
LTPA. This revealed that constraints showed different groups had
similar level of
constraints to participated in physical activities.
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Chapter 5
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
This chapter consists of two main parts. They were (1)
Conclusion and (2)
recommendation of future study.
Conclusion
Interviews were done with sedentary working people in Hong Kong
on two weeks in
March and the results were concluded as follows.
Demographic Background information of sedentary working
people
1. Total number of respondents was 128, 56.25% (n=72) were
female and 43.75%
(n=56) were male. 76.6 %( n=98) of the respondents aged 20-29,
15.5% (n=20) aged
30-39 and 7.8% (N=10) aged 40-49.
2. The proportion of respondents with their economical status
were 24.2 %( n=31)
were below average and 75.8% (n=97) were average.
3. For their education level, 19.5% (n=25) were F5 or below
education level, 7% (n=9)
were F6-F7 education levels, most of 73.4% (n=94) the sedentary
working people
were university or above education levels.
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4. For the working hours per day, 33.6% (n=43) had 8 hours of
work per day, next
had 9 hours of work 25.8% (n=33) per day and next were 10 hours
of work 24.2%
(n=31) per day and mean was 9.48 and standard deviation
was1.641.
5. 85.9% (n=110) of the respondents were single while 14.1%
(n=18) of the
respondents were married.
Findings
1. For the females, the perception of interest/enjoyment was the
most important
motivations, followed by fitness motivations and appearance
motivations. For the
males, the perception of fitness was the most important
motivations, followed by
appearance and interest/enjoyment.
2. The single sedentary working people significantly had larger
interest/enjoyment
motivations, competence motivations and appearance than married
sedentary
working people.
3. There were significant mean differences stages of LTPA
participants and
interest/enjoyment motivations, competence motivations and
social motivations
but no mean differences among the groups in fitness motivations
and appearance
motivations. Regular participants group had larger
motivations
interest/enjoyment motivations, competence motivations and
social motivations
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than the Non-participants group.
4. There was no significant mean difference between the
economical status and all
the motivations among the groups.
5. There were significant mean differences between the age
groups and
interest/enjoyment motivations, competence motivations, social
motivations and
appearance motivations but no mean difference among the groups
in fitness
groups.
6. Age group 20-29 had larger social motivations than age group
40-49.
7. Age group 20-29 had larger appearance motivations than age
group 40-49.
8. The perception of time constraint was the most important
constraints for both
males and females, for the males, followed by physiological
constraints and
environmental constraints, for females, followed by
environmental constraints and
physiological constraints.
9. The married sedentary working people significantly perceived
larger financial
constraints, interpersonal constraints and environmental
constraints than the single
sedentary working people.
10. There were no significant mean differences between the
stages of LTPA
participants and all the constraints among the groups.
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66
11. There were significant mean differences between economical
statuses and the
financial constraints and personal attitude constraints but no
mean differences
among the groups in time constraints, interpersonal constraints,
environmental
constraints and physiological constraints. Below average group
had larger
financial constraints and personal attitude constraints than
average group.
12. There were significant mean differences between the age
groups and time
constraints, financial constraints and interpersonal constraints
but no mean
difference among groups in environmental constraints,
physiological constraints
and personal attitude constraints.
13. Age group 30-39 had larger time constraints than the age
group 40-49. Age group
20-29 had larger financial constraints than the age group 30-39
and 40-49.
14. Age group 30-39 had larger interpersonal constraints than
30-39.
Recommendation for further study
1. The small sample size cannot reflect the entire situation in
Hong Kong. This may
affect the generalization of the results. Therefore, a larger
sample size can be
generated a generalizable in further study.
2. The items and choices on leisure time physical activity
motivations and
constraints of the study were limited. It may not able to
reflect all factors affecting
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the sedentary working people of leisure time physical activity
motivations and
constraints. It is recommended that more detailed questionnaire
should be made in
further study.
3. The sedentary working people can be defined strictly in
further study.
4. Qualitative studies can be conducted to acquire in-depth
understanding of the
importance leisure time physical activity motivations and
constraints perceived by
the sedentary working people.
5. Health status and number of children of the sedentary working
people may also be
obtained to compare to get a better understanding of theirs’
leisure time physical
activity motivations and constraints in Hong Kong.
6. The time spent on each day of the sedentary working people
may also be obtained
to determine the reasons of why they found time constraint the
most important to
their participation in leisure time physical activity.
7. Research can also include leisure time physical activity
motivations and
constraints of non-sedentary working people, so that the
particular of sedentary
working people can be cited out and compared.
In conclusion, understandings of the major constraints to
leisure time physical
activity and the major motivations of the sedentary working
people in Hong Kong
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will help the professionals to enact the recreation policy which
focus on the sedentary
working people. Although there are a number of weaknesses in
this study, it is hoped
that this study will go some way and stimulate in developing a
more perfect and
comprehensive conceptual framework in future research.
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Table 4 Independent Sample t-test for motivations between male
and female Leisure time physical activity Motivations
n Mean SD t p
Interest/enjoyment Male 72 2.01 .72 -3.69 .00* Female 56 2.49
.74 Competence Male 72 1.62 .73 -3.26 .00* Female 56 2.06 .81
Fitness Male 72 2.35 .73 -.99 .32 Female 56 2.46 .57 Social Male 72
1.67 .79 -2.61 .01* Female 56 2.02 .71 Appearance Male 72 2.20 .10
-.54 .59 Female 56 2.28 .72 *P
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Table 5 Independent Sample t-test for constraints between male
and female Leisure time physical activity Constraints
n Mean SD t p
Time Male 72 2.39 .85 -.37 .71 Female 56 2.44 .71 Financial Male
72 .99 .88 .09 .93 Female 56 .97 .81 Interpersonal Male 72 1.26 .83
-1.12 .26 Female 56 1.42 .74 Environmental Male 72 1.99 .86 .01 .99
Female 56 1.99 .82 Physiological Male 72 2.13 1.05 1.45 .15 Female
56 1.87 1.00 Personal attitude Male 72 1.54 .83 .82 .41 Female 56
1.42 .81 *P
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Table 6 Independent Sample t-test for motivations between single
and married sedentary working people Leisure time physical activity
Motivations
n Mean SD t p
Interest/enjoyment Single 110 2.27 .79 1.92 .06 Married 18 1.90
.49 Competence Single 110 1.84 .79 1.15 .25 Married 18 1.61 .78
Fitness Single 110 2.44 .66 1.74 .08 Married 18 2.15 .65 Social
Single 110 1.86 .77 1.32 .19 Married 18 1.60 .75 Appearance Single
110 2.29 .78 2.04 .04* Married 18 1.89 .76 *P
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Table 7 Independent Sample t-test for motivations between single
and married sedentary working people Leisure time physical activity
Constraints
n Mean SD t p
Time Single 110 2.42 .75 0.13 .90 Married 18 2.39 1.00 Financial
Single 110 1.03 .88 1.71 .09 Married 18 0.67 .54 Interpersonal
Single 110 1.39 .81 2.24 .03* Married 18 0.94 .55 Environmental
Single 110 2.08 .84 2.84 .01* Married 18 1.49 .62 Physiological
Single 110 2.06 1.05 1.31 .19 Married 18 1.72 .84 Personal attitude
Single 110 1.51 .83 .87 .39 Married 18 1.33 .72 *P
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Table 8 Independent Sample t-test for motivations between below
average group and average group Leisure time physical activity
Motivations
n Mean SD t p
Interest/enjoyment Below average 31 2.37 .78 1.26 .211 Average
97 2.17 .76 Competence Below average 31 1.98 .86 1.36 .175 Average
97 1.76 .77 Fitness Below average 31 2.57 .72 1.66 .099 Average 97
2.34 .64 Social Below average 31 2.01 .86 1.56 .121 Average 97 1.76
.74 Appearance Below average 31 2.41 .88 1.40 .165 Average 97 2.18
.76 *P
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Table 9 Independent Sample t-test for constraints between below
average group and average group Leisure time physical activity
Constraints
n Mean SD t p
Time Below average 31 2.49 .84 .67 .502 Average 97 2.38 .77
Financial Below average 31 1.37 .95 3.05 .003* Average 97 0.86 .77
Interpersonal Below average 31 1.40 .89 .56 .579 Average 97 1.30
.76 Environmental Below average 31 2.22 .90 1.74 .085 Average 97
1.92 .81 Physiological Below average 31 2.31 .95 1.82 .071 Average
97 1.92 1.04 Personal attitude Below average 31 1.81 .88 2.59 .011*
Average 97 1.39 .77
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*P
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Within groups 76.62 .61 Total 79.14 *P
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Table 10c Post Hoc test (Student-Newman-Keulsa, b) of social
motivations among regular participants, non-regular participants
and non-participants
Frequency in participating LTPA
n Subset for alpha=.05
1 2 Non-participants 30 1.53 Non-regular participants
81 1.84
Regular participant 17 2.25 Sig. .13 1.00
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Table 11 One-way ANVOA test on the sedentary working people’
different stages of LTPA participation and leisure time physical
activity constraints Leisure time physical activity Constraints
SS MS F P
Time Between groups 1.24 .62 1.00 .372 Within groups 77.54 .62
Total 78.77 Financial Between groups .29 .15 .20 .818 Within groups
90.41 .72 Total 90.70 Interpersonal Between groups .77 .39 .61 .543
Within groups 78.67 .63 Total 79.44 Environmental Between groups
.83 .42 .59 .557 Within groups 88.29 .71 Total 89.12 Physiological
Between groups 3.03 1.52 1.44 .242 Within groups 131.94 1.06 Total
134.97
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Personal attitude Between groups 2.44 1.22 1.85 .162 Within
groups 82.66 .66 Total 85.10 *P
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Within groups 75.28 .60 Total 79.14 *P
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20-29 98 1.90 Sig. 1.50 Table 12c Post Hoc test
(Student-Newman-Keulsa, b) of social motivations among 20-29group,
30-39 group and 40-49 group
Age groups n Subset for alpha=.05
1 2 40-49 10 1.18 30-39 20 1.75 20-29 98 1.90 Sig. 1.00 .54
Table 12d Post Hoc test (Student-Newman-Keulsa, b) of appearance
motivations among 20-29group, 30-39 group and 40-49 group
Age groups n Subset for alpha=.05
1 2 40-49 10 1.67
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30-39 20 2.17 2.17 20-29 98 2.30 Sig. .05 .57 Table 13 One-way
ANVOA test on the sedentary working people’ age groups and leisure
time physical activity constraints Leisure time physical activity
Constraints
SS MS F P
Time Between groups 4.06 2.03 3.39 .037* Within groups 74.72 .60
Total 78.77 Financial Between groups 4.74 2.37 3.45 .035* Within
groups 85.96 .69 Total 90.70 Interpersonal Between groups 4.28 2.14
3.56 .031* Within groups 75.16 .60 Total 79.44 Environmental
Between groups 1.81 0.91 1.30 .277 Within groups 87.30 0.70 Total
89.12 Physiological
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Between groups 2.40 1.20 1.13 .326 Within groups 132.57 1.06
Total 134.97 Personal attitude Between groups .18 .09 .13 .876
Within groups 84.92 .68 Total 85.10 *P
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Table 13c Post Hoc test (Student-Newman-Keulsa, b) of
interpersonal constraints among 20-29group, 30-39 group and 40-49
group
Age groups n Subset for alpha=.05
1 2 40-49 10 .70 20-29 98 1.37 30-39 20 1.41 Sig. 1.0 .88
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