CONSTITUTION OF THE U. S. S. R. - Marxists Internet Archive · 2013-02-04 · little red libre constitution of the u. s. s. r. rights of trade unions in the u. s. s. r, hit *j c v.

LITTLE RED LIBRE

CONSTITUTION OF THEU. S. S. R.

R I G H T S O F T R A D EUNIONS IN THE U. S. S. R,

Hit V. Ytirolxku*J c'

SOCIAL INSURANCEIN THE U. S. S. R.

By X. Yrkovsky

TEN CENTS

No.

10

o6°

DAILV WOI^KEPUBLISHING COMDA.NMI3 W. NA/ASWINGTOM ST. I LU

n

LITTLE RED LIBRARYNo. 10

CONSTITUTIONOFTHEU.S.S.R.

RIGHTS OF THE TRADE UNIONS IN THEU. S. S. R.

BY V. YAROTSKY

SOCIAL INSURANCE IN THE U. S. S. R.

BY N. YEKOV8KY

Published by the

Daily Worker Publishing CompanyChicago, 111.

7°

INTRODUCTION.The dominating interest of the world was for a long

time private property and profit. All legislative effortsof society evolved exclusively around these two poles ofthe axle of capitalism, private property and profit.

But since the world war the equilibrium of this systemhas been disturbed. Part of the globe has emancipateditself from the centrifugal forces of caiptalism. This partbegan to rotate in a different direction.

The Russian revolution took one-sixth of the globe fromcapitalism.

While the capitalists maintain that the, purpose ofthe world is to supply the highest possible profits eventho the workers may starve by it, the Russian revolu-tion raised the principle that the world must supply theworkers with the best living possible tho the capitalistsmay starve by it. And the howl of the "outraged" cap-italists against this new principle is answered by the echoof a phrase which the capitalists themselves have in-variably thrown into the faces of complaining workers:Why don't you work!

This new world of the proletariat, which was begun bythe Russian workers, could not be finished in one day.Its upbuilding is a difficult process. The Russian work-ers are still alone in the work of accomplishing thisprocess.

As a foundation for this new world the Russian work-ers have*made themselves the ruling.class. And as theruling class they center their legislative efforts no longeron how to make and how to increase profits but on howto help and how to protect the workers.

The constitution of the Soviet Union supplies thestructure of the workers' government in Russia. Andthe labor laws of the Soviet Union give a picture of theaccomplishments of the workers' rule in the direction ofthe protection of the workers and their rights.

The constitution and the labor laws of the SovietUnion thus become matters of tremendous interest forthe workers of the world. The accomplishments of theproletarian revolution in Russia cannot be judged alone

by the immediate .changes in the economic well beingof the Russian workers. Although a great change hastaken place in this direction too, yet the general back-wardness of Russian industrial life and the incomparablylower standards that the Russian worker was subjectedto in old Russia must lead judgment on this basis onlyto unsatisfactory and incomplete conclusions. The mainquestion is how far have the workers of Russia succeededin building up their political power. Success in this lineinsures the speedy progress of the construction of thenew society in every other line.

In order to enable the American workers to judge forthemselves what progress the Russian workers havemade in their revolution we submit to them in this littlevolume the most important portions of the constitutionof the Soviet Union and of the labor laws.

We do not want to hide, from the reader the limita-tions of franchise which this constitution provides. Onthe contiary. We call their attention to them. But wealso point out that every constitution is in the lastanalysis an instrument limiting the rights of some people.The outstanding feature of the Russian constitution iswhose rights it limits. And here we can state with thepride and satisfaction of a class conscious worker thatthe constitution of the Soviet Union supplies the fran-chise to the workers and limits the rights of the cap-italists. »* *

It is this fact which made the establishment of thelabor laws possible which we include in this volume.A careful study will be very instructive.

This little booklet is intented as a manual for Ameri-can workers containing in the form of adopted laws allof the demands that they themselves must fight for inthe United States. But it also shows what can be donein the way of protection of labor in a country where achild labor law cannot be declared unconstitutional be-cause it interferes with profits. In Russia child labor isjudged not from its effects on profits but on the healthof the children.

We send out this booklet to make friends for theWorkers' Government of Russia, and to remind the work-ers that only struggle will give and protect their rights.

C O N S T I T U T I O N(FUNDAMENTAL LAW)

OF THE RUSSIAN SOCIALIST FEDERATEDSOVIET REPUBLIC

SECTION I, CHAPTER I.2. The Russian Republic is a Socialist State of Work-

ers and Peasants which is being built up on the basisof the federation of national soviet republics. Withinthe precincts of the Russian Socialist Federated SovietRepublic, all power is vested in the Soviets of workers,peasant, Cossack and Red Army deputies.

4. In order to guarantee to all workers real freedom ofconscience, the church is separated from the state andthe school from the church, and freedom of religiousand anti-religious propaganda is bestowed on all citizens.

5. In order to guarantee to all workers real freedom ofopinion, the Russian Socialist Federated Soviet Republicabolishes the dependence of the press on capitalism andplaces at the disposal! of the working class and the peas-antry all the technical and material means for the pub-lication of newspapers, pamphlets, books, and all otherproductions of the press and guarantees free circulationfor them throughout the country.

6. In order to guarantee to all workers freedom of as-sembly the Russian Socialist Federated Soviet Republicbestows on the citizens of the Soviet Republic the rightto freely organize assemblies, meetings, processions,etc., and places at the disposal of the working class andthe peasantry all the premises suitable for the holdingof meetings.

7. In order to guarantee to all workers real freedomof association, the Russian Socialist Federated SovietRepublic, having destroyed the economic and politicalpower of the propertied classes and having thereby re-moved all obstacles which the bourgeois social orderprevented the workers and peasants from enjoying free-dom of organization and action, gives the workers andpeasants its full support for their unification and or-ganization.

8. In order to guarantee to all workers real access toknowledge, the Russian Socialist Federated Soviet Re-public makes it its business to give them the benefit offree, full and many-sided education.

9. The Russian Socialist Federated Soviet Republicdeclares labor the duty of all citizens of the Republic.

10. In order to fully protect the achievements of thegreat workers' and peasants' revolution, the RussianSocialist Federated Soviet Republic declares it to be theduty of a)ll the citizens of the Republic to protect theirSocialist country and introduces conscription. The hon<orable right to defend the Revolution by force of armsis bestowed only on the workers. Non-working elementshave to carry out other military duties.

11. The Russian Socialist Federated Soviet Republicbestows all the rights granted by the constitution andthe legislation of the Republic to the citizens of theRussian Socialist Federated Soviet Republic also on allthe citizens of the other Soviet Republics who find them-selves on the territory of the Russian -Socialist FederatedSoviet Republic.

On the strength of the solidarity of the workers of allnations the Russian Socialist Federated Soviet Republicbestows all political rights on foreigners, domiciled inthe territory of the Russian Socialist Federated SovietRepublic for the purpose of useful work and belongingto the working class, and also on peasants who do notemploy hired labor, on the basis of the decisions of thesupreme organs of the Union of Soviet Socialist Re-publics.

E. Subjects Within the Competence of Local Govern-ment Organs.

64. Regional, gubernia (state), district (county),uyzed (township), and volost (village or town) organsof the Soviet Government—the executive committees andtheir presidiums and also the deputies' Soviets—must:

(a) Introduce measures for raising the cultural andeconomic level of the given territory.

(b) Draw up and endorse local budgets.(c) Put into practice the decisions of the competent

supreme organs of the Soviet Government.(d) Decide questions of local importance to the given

territory.(e) Co-ordinate Soviet activity within the precincts of

the given territory.(f) Guarantee revolutionary justice and maintain law

and order and public security within the precincts ofthe given territory.

(g) Discuss questions of national importance on theirown initiative and also at the proposal of the higherexecutive committees.

65. The Congresses of Soviets and their executivecommittees exercise control over the activity of the low-er local Soviets and their executive organs.

PART IV.

ARTICLE VI.SOVIET ELECTIONS.

A. The Active and Passive Vote.68. The right to elect and to be elected to the Soviets

is bestowed regardless of sex, religion, race, nationality,residence, etc. on the following citizens of the RussianSocialist Federated Soviet Republic not under 18 yearsof age on the day of the election:

(a) On all those who earn a living by productive anduseful social labor and also on persons engaged in do-mestic work which enables the former to perform pro-ductive labor.

(b) On members of the Red Army and Navy.

(c) On citizens belonging to categories enumerated inparagraphs "a" and "b" of this article, who are unable(to some extent or other) to work.

NOTE: Among the persons who have not becomecitizens of the Russian Socialist Federated Soviet Re-public, the active and passive vote is bestowed on peo-ple designated in Article II of the present Constitution.

69. Persons who cannot elect or be elected even ifthey fitted into one of the enumerated categories are:

(a) People employing hired labor for the purpose ofmaking profit.

(b) Persons living on unearned incomes such as: in-terest on capital, income from enterprises, receipts fromproperty, etc.

(c) Private traders, trading and commercial middle-men.

(d) Monks and the clergy of various cults of all per-suasions and denominations for whom this occupation isa profession.

(e) Employes and agents of former police, of the vari-ous corps of gendarmerie and secret service depart-ments, members of the former ruling houses and alsothose persons who have conducted the activity of theformer police, gendarmerie and punitive organs.

(f) Persons recognized in the established manner asmentally deranged or lunatics.

(g) Persons condemned for covetous and viciouscrimes, for a period established by law or by the courtsentence.

B. On the Holding of Elections.

70. Elections are held on the days established by thelocal Soviets or their executive committees.

71. A protocol is drawn up concerning the result of theelections signed by members of the electoral commission.

72. The order for conducting elections and allso par-ticipation in them by the trade unions and other work-ers' organizations is determined by the All-Russian Cen-tral Executive Committee or its presidium.

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C. On the Verification and Annulment of Elections andRecalling of Deputies.

73. Verification of the validity of elections to the So-viets is conducted by the electoral commission and veri-fication of the validity of the delegates elected to theSoviet Congresses—by the Mandate Commissions.

74. In the event of the invalidity of the election as awhole, the question of annuling the elections is decidedby the immediately higher organ of Soviet power. Thesupreme judge of the Soviet election is the All-RussianExecutive Committee and its Presidium.

75. Electors who have sent deputies to the Sovietshave the right to recall them at any time and conductnew elections.

The Code of Labor Law.

How and Through Whom Are the Rights of the Workersand Employes Protected in the Soviet Union?

It is the purpose of the present article to deal with theprinciples for the protection and labor among the work-ers and employes in State and private undertakings.

Two descriptions of organizations are concerned inthe protection of the rights of the workers:

1. The organizations formed by the workers them-selves—their trade unions and their broad mass organ-izations, the factory councils.

2. The State organizations—the people's Commissariatfor Labor, social insurance, and orgnizations for socialwelfare.

The code of labor law now in force was drawn up bythe People's Commissariat for Labor in conjunction withthe Central Council of the Trade Unions of the SovietUnion (W. L. S. P. S.) in 1922; and was accepted, aftercomprehensive debates in the separate districts, by theCentral Executive Committee of the Union.

The "labor law" of the Soviet Union is thus the firstcode of labor law in the world issued by workers andpeasants who have come into power.

The code is in every respect under the protection ofthe State; the carrying out of the labor laws is super-intended by a labor inspection committee elected at thecongresses and conferences of the trade unions.*

"The whole of the state organs are in duty bound tofurther the objects of the trade union (industrial) fed-erations and their associated bodies, and to place at theirdisposal completely furnished premises for the estab-lishment of 'labor palaces,' 'trade union buildings,' etc.,and to accord them advantageous terms for the use ofthe post office, telegraph, telephone, railways, waterways,etc." (Article 155 of the code.)

1. The Trade Unions and the Protection of Labor.The trade unions of the Soviet Union are based on the

principle of voluntary membership. The financial re-sources of the trade unions are derived from the entryfees and from the monthly deduction to the amount oftwo per cent. From this reserves are formed for the re-quirements of the trade unions: 1. Unemployment bene-fit. 2. Medical aid. 3. Cultural and political work, etc.

The most subordinate trade union body to which theworker appeals in the works or factory, in the institu-tion, or in the economic undertaking, is the factory coun-cil, represented in some cases by the shop stewards,in others by the delegate, the trade union functionary.The factory council is a court of appeal maintaining theclosest connection with the masses of the workers, andis such it holds a uniquely important position not onlyin labor questions, but in the sphere of the social condi-tions of the workers. The factory councils are electedby the general meetings of the workers and employes,for a term of six months, and no difference whatever ismade between workers or employes organizd in tradeunions and those not thus organized.

*The trade unions include only the workers and em-ployes employed in the state and private undertakings.

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The members elected to the factory council are re-leased from all work except the work of the factory coun-cil, their wages are paid as before, and their professionalqualification remains the same during the whole periodof their membership of the factory council. (Art. 160.)

The works or factory undertakes to furnish the meansfor maintaining the factory council, and to put thenecessary premises at its disposal.

The factory councils are responsible to the generalmeetings for their activities. In large works and insti-tutions (employing no less than 200 workers) delegatesare elected (1 to every 10 workers) for the purpose ofmaintaining close connection between the factory coun-cils and the workers. These delegates are elected forthe term of six months. It is the duty of these delegatesto keep the workers informed regarding the decisionsof the factory councils and the general meetings, and onthe other hand to bring forward the wishes and trends offeeling among the workers. The delegates have to calla meeting twice monthly. The decisions of the dele-gates' meetings are binding on the factory councils.

Every factory council devotes its main attention toquestions dealing with the protection of the economicinterests of the workers and employes. At the sametime it is incumbent upon the factory council to sup-port the workers' and peasants' state in every respect,by means of inducing the workers to aid in the improve-ment of industry and in the building up of socialist eco-nomics. It must be emphasized that the proletariat, inrealizing its hegemony, pursues interests of its own, op-posed to those of the other strata of the population.Thus, for instance, the trade unions participate in thecampaigns for the increased productivity of labor andfor the economy regime, in order that prices of goodsmay fall, in the interests of the peasant consumers.

The Task of the Factory Councils.The following are the tasks of the factory councils:1. The protection of the interests of the workers

(workmen, employes, and specialists).2. The raising of the cultural level of the workers

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(founding of clubs, training for responsible economic andtrade union work, etc.).

3. The control of production in the interests of theproletarian state (production conferences, campaigns forthe increased productivity of labor, for the economyregime, etc.). Exactly the same purpose is served bythe commissions of professional qualification beingformed, subordinate to the trade unions, for the im-provement of the qualifications of the workers and forthe training of specialists.

The whole of the activities of the facfory councils areclosely connected with the code of labor law.

Article 1 of the code states:"The provisions of the code of labor law apply to all

wage workers, and are binding on all workers and fac-tories, institutions and economic undertakings (state ̂ andmilitary undertakings, public and private undertakings,and undertakings employing homeworkers), and on allpersons employing wage workers for remuneration."(Chap. 1, § 1.)

Thus the sphere of validity of the code extends equal-ly to the work carried on in the factories and works, tothe work done in offices and institutions, to domestic serv-ants, and to agricultural labor, whether performed in aSoviet undertaking or for a private employer.

The worker is engaged on the basis of working and col-lective agreements determining the nature of his workand the amount of his wages.

"The work contract is an agreement between two ormore persons, in which one party places its labor powerat the disposal of the other in return for remuneration."(Article 27.)

The collective agreement is concluded on the one handby the factory of each undertaking in its capacity as rep-resentatives of the workers and employes, and by theworker on the other, after every single point of theagreement has been previously discussed and acceptedby the general workers' and employes' meeting.

The agreements determine certain conditions of work

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and these cannot be altered by either party alone. Thefollowing condition is, however, imposed:

"Stipulations of an agreement should these involve aworsening of working conditions as compared with theconditions based on the code of labor law and otherlegally valid enactments, are invalid." (Articles 19 and28 of the code of labor law.)

From this it may be seen that the code declares allagreements to be invalid which run counter to the laborlaws, and which worsen working conditions in compari-son with the conditions laid down by these laws.

II. The State Organizations and the MixedCommissions.

(a) The Standardization and Conflict Commission.All agreements made are carried out by the parties

to the agreement through the agency of the Standard-ization and Conflict Commissions (N. K. K.), composedof an equal number of representatives of both parties.Each of the parties chooses one representative and onesecretary each, who have to carry out their duties al-ternately at the meetings of the N. K. K. Should at anymeeting the representative be a representative of themanagement, a worker member of the N. K. K. is to beappointed as secretary.

The part played by the N. K. K. in the works, or fac-tory is very great, and the N. K. K. is authorized to de-cide in a very wide circle of matters.

The code of labor law imposes on the N. K. K. not onlythe duty of carrying out the collective agreements, butalso the following obligations:

I. The examination and Confirmation of the divisionof work and duties according to tariff tables.

II. The confirmation of the standard outputs.III. The determination of .the forms of test and ex-

pert awards.IV. The determination of the terms of holidays.V. To deal with disagreements and conflicts arising

from a violation of the labor law or of the collectiveagreements. ¥

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It sometimes occurs that varying interpretations ofthis or that paragraph of an agreement lead to con-flicts; it is incumbent upon the N. K. K. to make acareful inquiry into the cause of the dispute and to de-cide whether the worker or the employer is in the right,[n order to prevent any possibility of abuse of power onthe part of the management, this commission is also en-trusted with the important question of the dismissal ofworkers and employes. The code of labor law preciselyspecifies the cases in which a workman can be dis-charged (Art. 47), and the question of dismissal must bedealt with by the N. K. K., thus guaranteeing for theworkman under threat of discharge the most unpreju-diced decision.

Should a workman damage machinery or cause mater-ial loss as a result of carelessness or failure to observeregulations, the employer has a legal right to deduct thedamage from the worker's wages, but the deductionmust not exceed one-third of his monthly tariff wage.The decision as to whether and to what amount deduc-tions are to be made, and whether the damage is to bepartially or completely repaid, rests entirely with theN. K. K. (Art. 83).

All complaints made by workers or employes are tobe submitted to the N. K. K. by the factory council orits delegates. The sessions of the commissions arepublic, and the decisions are determined by a majorityvote.

Should any case be foimd impossible of decision bythe Standardization and Conflict Commission, it is sub-mitted to the arbitration chambers, to the boards ofarbitration, and further to the Session of the People'sCourt for labor questions.

(b) The Arbitration Chambers.The arbitration chambers are organs of the People's

Commissariat for Labor. They are set up specially foreach case, and have no permanent existence. After acase has been settled, the arbitration chamber is dis-solved, and ceases to exist as such. The chamber is

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composed of a chairman, to be selected by the People'sCommissariat for Labor from the ranks of its resspon-sible members, and of representatives of the conflictingparties. The chairman has no vote, his sole duty beingto conduct the session, and to promote in every respectthe pronouncement of an award. The representatives ofthe conflicting parties alone possess decisive votes. Thearbitration chambers deal solely with cases which havealready been submitted to the N. K. K. (Art 171), butcould not be settled by this body; an additional conditionhere imposed is that the trade union takes part as rep-resentative of the workers.

Agreements arrived at by the conflicting parties arebinding, and are carried out by the conflicting partiesthemselves (Art. 174).

(c) The Boards of Arbitration.The boards of arbitration, like the arbitration cham-

bers, are not permanent courts of appeal. The chair-man is chosen by the agreement of the conflicting partiesand possesses no vote; he has, however, the right ofdecision in cases where the disputing parties fail to cometo an agreement. The separate cases can be passed onto the board of arbitration on the desire of the conflict-ing parties. An exception to this is formed by the casesknown as "compulsory awards" for state institutions,that is, cases in which on the demand of the tradeunions, the board of arbitration for the settlement ofthe disputes is appointed by the organs of the People'sCommissariat for Labor; in such cases the state insti-tutions and undertakings are not entitled to decline toparticipate in the board of arbitration. Should the con-flicting parties not be able to agree on the choice of thechairman of the board, the authorities of the People'sCommissariat for Labor are lawfully entitled to appointa chairman according to their judgement.

(d) The Labor Sessions.Labor conflicts involve certain specific peculiarities.

One of the first of these peculiarities is the profounddifference in the position of the conflicting parties, the

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employer being economically stronger than the worker.The settlement of such disputes demands an extremedegree of careful attention on the part of the court, andit demands from the judge a high degree of ability todeal with workers; he must be familiar with the socialconditions of the worker as to his duties and rights. Forthis purpose the people's courts are supported by ses-sions for labor questions and both penal and civil ques-tion are submitted to these. The sessions are composedof representatives of the -economic organs on the onehand and of representatives of the trade unions on theother.

The labor sessions composed of these collaboratingelements accomplish an enormous amount of work andhave gained a high degree of popularity among the work-ers.

The code of law places on the employer the entirepenal responsibility for violations* of the labor law.Wage workers, on the other hand are not penally re-sponsible, or only in cases where they act as repre-sentatives of . the employer; in this case they may beheld penally responsible.

Should a works inspector, for instance, find that over-time has been worked in a factory without his knowl-edge or permission, he cannot make the workers penallyresponsible for this, but only the employer or manage-ment.

III. Juvenile Work.In all questions concerning their work contract, juven-

iles possess the same rights as workers who have at-tained their majority. (Act. 31.)

Working hours are restricted to four hours for juven-iles from 14 to 16 years of age, to six hours for juvenilesfrom 16 to 18. The standard output is correspondinglyreduced; the juvenile's output is fixed at three-quartersthat of the adult worker. Juveniles are not permitted todo any night work or overtime whatever, and there area number of branches of -production in which juvenilelabor is completely prohibited. The official lists give139 of such trades.

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Care is taken on the one hand that the developingorganism of the juvenile worker does not suffer fromexcessive work, whilst on the other hand a staff ofqualified workers is being trained. For this latter objectthere exist:

1. The "apprentice service," that is, the organizationsensuring individual training in the factories, works, andother institutions, under the leadership of qualified mas-ters and workers, and, 2. the schooling of the youthfulworkers in the factory and workshop schools and in thetrade union technical classes. (In the R. S. P. S. R.,republics alone, without Ukraine and the other repub-li^s, there are 583 trade union technical schools andcourses of instruction.) The apprenticeship trainingdoes not last longer than four years. Not more than oneapprentice is allowed to every two workers.

Juveniles are legally compelled to undergo medicalexaminations at least once a year.

Besides the holidays customary for all workers, thejuvenile workers have an additional fortnight's holiday,if possible in summer.

IV. Female Labor.A number of special regulations have been issued for

the protection of women and their work.The code prohibits the employment of women in un-

derground work, the carrying of heavy loads, and, witha few exceptions, night work. In 1921 (introduction ofthe Nep) the necessity of reducing unemployment amongwomen caused women to be employed at night time orunderground in some industries*).

Night work and overtime are prohibited, without ex-ception for expectant and nursing mothers. Such womenalso enjoy various other advantages during pregnancyand after the birth of the child. From the fifth monthof pregnancy onwards women may not, without their

*On the proposal of the trade union and of the de-partment of the C. P. of the Soviet Union dealing withworking among women.

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agreement, be employed outside of one definite place(Sec. 133). The law provides that nursing mothers havenot only the customary intervals of rest during work,but are permitted an additional half hour interval atleast every three and one-half hours, so that they maynourish their children (this means at least three in-tervals, including the dinner hour, in the course of aworking day). Intervals are reckoned as part of theworking time and are paid for as such (Sec. 134).

Expectant mothers are given special leave in additionto their regular holidays. Women performing physicalwork have extra leave eight weeks before their confine-ment and eight weeks after, four months leave alto-gether; mental workers receive six weeks leave beforeand six weeks after confinement or three full months.During this period of leave the women receive their fullwages from the sick club, and a lump sum for the new-born child, a sum amounting* to half the average work-ing wage. During the first nine months of the child'slife the mother receives nursing allowance to the amountof one-eighth of the working wage. As a general ruleit is impermissible to discharge pregnant women. Dis-missal is only permissible when its necessity is provedto be absolutely unavoidable. (Thus for instance incases of proved offenses against the penal law, or ofclosing down of the whole undertaking; if the under-taking is only partially closed, the expectant mother isgiven, with her agreement, other work in the same un-dertaking).

Women employes and workers dependent solely onthemselves, or with children under 14 years of age tosupport, are exempt from taxation.

On March 8, on the occasion of the InternationalWomen's Day, the working women in all factories andinstitutions may leave work two hours earlier than theusual closing time.

V. Wages.The wages of the workers are fixed by the collective

agreements, or by individual work contracts (Sec. 58),that is. by agreement. The code of laws, whilst giving

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the contracting parties the possibility of making anagreement as to the amount of the wages, provides that"the amount of the working wage must not be lower thanthe obligatory wage level prescribed by the completentstate organs for the corresponding categories of workand for a certain given time" (Sec 59).

A tariff has been drawn up, dividing the workers intoseventeen categories in accordance with their qualifi-cations and the nature of their work. The wages laiddown by the agreement are to be paid out at least fort-nightly, whilst payment for single or temporary piecesof work has to be made immediately after the work isfinished.

Should the worker have to perform work of variousqualifications, the wage paid him is in accordance withthat fixed by the tariff for the most highly qualifiedgrade of his work.

VI. Protection of Health.The workers and employes receive their full working

wages during their regular holidays. After five and one-half months of work, every worker has a claim to afortnight's holiday. In case of illness the worker re-ceives a longer term of leave (two months and more),apart from his regular holiday. The sick benefit is paidfrom the health insurance fund, to the amount of theregular working wages. The law enacts that the placesof workers or employes absent from work through sick-ness are kept open for them for at least two months—(Sec. 47 and 132). Trade union members requiring spelcial treatment, baths, mineral waters, etc., are enabledto visit sanatoria or health resorts, either free of chargeor at reduced fees by means of the trade unions.

Workers and employes requiring rest and recupera-tion are also enabled by the intermediation of the tradeunions, to spend their holidays in convalescent homesby the sea, or in the so-called "floating convalescenthomes," that is, in steamers making trips on the Volgaand other large rivers.

The labor protection legislation of the Soviet Union

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has as its main object the protection of the health andthe personality of the worker.

Thus no industrial plant may be set running or changeits position, without the previous permission of the laborprotection inspector and of the organs superintendingsanitary technics. The management of every under-taking is legally bound to take every measure for the |prevention of accidents and to avoid the effects of work Iand working conditions tending to injure the health ofthe employes. Workers in professions especially dan- Jgerous to health are given special protective clothing (and appliances.

The working hours are restricted to eight, the unin-terrupted period of weekly rest is 42 hours (Sec. 109).This enactment is carried 6ut in actual fact, it is notmerely on paper. Office employes and mental workers,as well as workers employed below bank or in especiallyinjurious professions (mining, chemical industry), andjuvenile workers, work only six hours daily.

Overtime is prohibited, and is only permitted in a veryfew cases (Sees. 103 and 104), permission having to begranted on every occasion by the Standardization andConflict Commission of the undertaking, and the agree-ment of the workers themselves obtained. The totalnumber of hours worked as overtime may not exceed120 hours per year for each individual worker, nor mavmore than four hours overtime be worked on two suc-ceeding days.

VII. Social Insurance.

All contributions required for social insurance in theSoviet Union are charged exclusively to the emDloyers.No deductions may be made from wages for social in-surance.

Social insurance extends to all persons working forwages, alike whether the work is performed for privateor for state or other public undertakings, or whether theworkers are organized in trade unions or not. The so-cial insurance of the Soviet Union is the sole insuranceof its kind which extends to every case in which the in-

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sured worker requires support (illness, unemployment,confinement, disability, death; see Sec 176).

The sick benefit is paid to the amount of the wagesearned by the worker before losing his working capa-bilities. Should the employer have failed to pay the in-surance contributions, the law protects the workers fromlosing his right to sick benefit by prescribing that thehealth insurance authorities have to pay the amountwhen the worker submits a certificate from the factorycouncil, showing that he has been employed in the un-dertaking. The social insurance of the Soviet Unionagain comes to the aid of the workers when they haveno earnings, not owing to lack of capacity to work, butfrom lack of opportunity, that is, in cases of unemploy-ment. Every person who has been earning wages hasa right to the unemployment benefit, provided he has noother source of income, such as some secondary tradeof handicraft, etc.

"The amount of the unemployment benefit is fixed bythe competent organs, to the amount of at least one-sixth of the average wage paid in the district in ques-tion, and in accordance with the qualifications of theunemployed worker and the length of time in which hewas earning wages before becoming unemployed."(Sec. 185.)

Juvenile workers receive unemployment benefit in ac-cordance with their qualifications, without considerationof the length of time during which they were earningwages.

In cases of temporary incapacity for work unemployedbenefit is paid until the working capacity has been re-stored, or until permanent incapacity has been certifiedby the' competent 'authorities. In this last case theworker may claim a pension as invalid.

Sec. 187 of the labor code states:"All persons who have been earning wages are en-

titled to benefit from the social insurance as soon asthey have lost their working capacity in consequence ofaccident, illness or old age."

It will be seen from this that a claim to an invalid

21

pension is only possible for those belonging personally tothe working class, or to families which have lost their"breadwinner."

The sole restriction existing refers to the old age in-valids. Old age invalids have a claim to old age pen-sions if they were working for wages or salary for atleast eight years before becoming incapacitated (or arethe widows or mothers of such persons). ,

The old age invalids receive either old age pensions orare placed in homes for aged people. Old age pension-ers who are still robust, and desirous of working, aregiven the opportunity of learning a new professionadapted to their powers, and can be placed in suitableinstruction institutions provided by the Soviet Unioninstead of being paid the old age pension.

Invalids who have lost their capacity as wage earners,but who wish to carry on some trade or handicraft(without employing wage earners), are freed from thehandicraft tax, out receive no pension.

With regard to all other supplementary descriptions ofsocial support, the invalids unable to work receive thesame advantages as the other categories of the insured—care and support of children, burial of relations, etc.

War cripples and invalids are not supported by theorgans of social insurance, but by the organs of the(state) Social Welfare.

The task which the labor protection system of theSoviet Union has set itself is to use every availablemeans for preserving all working forces to the utmost,and this not merely in the interests of national eco-nomics, but in the interest of every individual person,for the aim of a socialist state of society is the organ-ization of labor upon a basis securing to every singlehuman being the most advantageous possible conditionsfor the development of his creative powers and faculties.

22

The Rights of Trade Unions in the U. S. S. R.By V. YAROTSKY.

The history of the working class throughout the wholeworld has demonstrated that the workers have securedthe right of organization only as the result of the mostfierce and stubborn struggle. There is no need to recallthat the first quarter of the 19th century was an epochof the struggle of the British workers for the right tocombine. Up to the '80s the French workers had to suf-fer the most intense persecutions for the slightest at-tempt to unite against their masters, nor need we recallthe well-known fact of the complete prohibition of anyworkers' organizations whatsoever in former Russiaprior to the first revolution of 1905. The subsequent lawon societies (March 4, 1906) however, had for its objectthe stemming of the stormy growth of the trade unions,which task it fulfilled successfully.

All these historic facts are now well-known to everyeducated worker. More important, however, is the factthat after the formal recognition on the part of the bour-geoisie of the rights of the workers to form their ownorganizations, the working class was compelled by bitterexperience to admit the truth of Lassalle's conceptionthat every "constitution" (including the law on tradeunions) is nothing more nor less than an "expressionof the real correlation of forces." The offensive of capi-talism against labor in present-day England quite defin-itely confirms this conception, in view of the policy ofthe Conservative government of Great Britain which ismost definitely based on restricting the rights of thetrade unions. And since under bourgeois rule the realcorrelation of forces always has the sharp end of thewedge directed against the working class, the precari-ousness of the entire system of legal norms which de-termine the framework of activity and the rights of thetrade unions in capitalist countries becomes evident.

We find quite a different state of affairs under the con-

23

ditions of the proletarian dictatorship established in theU. S. S. R. after the October revolution. The result ofthe revolution was a radical shifting in the entire sys.-tem of correlation of social forces: the rule of the bour-geoisie was replaced by the rule of the working class.This in the first place was bound to be reflected by acharge in the very nature of the legislation on tradeunions. Instead of the laws and legal standards whichregulate the rights of trade unions being "scraps ofpaper" scrapped at every step by the organs of the bour-geois state and the employers, these standards in theU. S. S. R. are a part of the fundamental laws of theworkers' and peasants' country in which the governmentis constructed on the basis of working class rule. Article16 of the Constitution of the U. S. S. R. establishes onthe one hand the social, and not state legal status of thetrade unions, as workers' organizations constructed onthe basis of independent activity. On the other handthis article definitely brings the trade unions in to the.system of social relations, enjoying particular privilegesin the workers' state. It implies the grant of premisesat "labor palaces," "trade union houses," etc., rent free,reductions in fees for utilizing the post, telegraph, tele-phone, railway and water transport, etc.

Already from the mere fact of the inclusion of supportof the trade unions being amongst the fundamental tasksof the state it arises that the rights and powers of thetrade unions in the U. S. S. R. must be regarded assomething quite different from those in bourgeois coun-tries. Under conditions of proletarian dictatorship theserights are a system of social relations which strengthenthe proletarian dictatorship itself.

This is the reason why the legislation on trade unionsin the U. S. S. R. has a very broad structure and grantsthese unions rights unknown in the legislation of West-ern Europe or America.

First of all, according to the labor legislation of theU. S. S. R., the trade unions are the only lawful repre-sentatives of the workers in social, political and eco-nomic life. This conception is formulated in the "Code

*

24

of Labor Laws" in the following manner: the tradeunions, which comprise citizens working for wages instate, social and private enterprises, institutions andbusinesses have the right to approach various organs onbehalf of the wage earners as a party concluding col-lective agreements and also act as representatives ontheir behalf on all labor and social questions. Article151).

In the system of the state structure, this representa-tive nature of the unions finds its expression in two fac-tors: in the factor of elections to the Soviets, and in thefactor of representation on the Soviets. In the elec-tions to the Soviet from the factories the participationof the trade unions in which the workers of the givenenterprises are organized is obligatory. At the sametime for those categories of workers for whom votingcannot be conducted in enterprises (commercial work-ers, Soviet employes, educational and art workers) theelectoral meetings are summoned by electoral commis-sions in agreement with the unions and must take placeunder the chairmanship of a representative of the tradeunions. Besides this, irrespective of this participationof the union in the election, there is representation onthe Soviets themselves not only of the trade unionmsses, but also of the trade union apparatus in each elec-toral district (town, province, uyezd): two from everyunion and a definite number from the inter-union or-ganizations.

In the supreme state organs (C. E. C. of the U. S. S.R., C. E. C. of the R. S." F. S. R. and other republics) wefind a definite representation of the trade unions, al-though the elections are conducted by the congress ofSoviets personally, and not according to representationof the separate organizations. The significance and roleof the unions is so considerable that in all lists of can-didates adopted by congresses there is included a defin-ite number of trade union workers in order that theopinion of the workers may also be expressed throughthe apparatus of the unions. In the leading organs ofthe state and economic structure (such for instance as

25

the Council of Labor and Defense) there is a represen-tative of the All-Union Trade Union Center (the A. U.C. T. U.) with full voting powers in appointing membersof the Supreme Economic Council of the U. S. S. R. therepresentative nature of the trade unions is also takeninto account and a definite number of members appoint-ed from amongst trade union workers who upon ap-pointment continue working in the trade union move-ment.* v

In the economic field the trade unions are investedwith no less, if not more rights than in connection withstate structure. We 'have already pointed out thatamong the members of the Supreme Economic Councilthe trade union movement is well represented. General-ly speaking, representation of the unions in the organregulating economic life and establishing economic policyconstitutes a substantial part of the work of the tradeunions in the U. S. S. R. While not interfering in thedirect administration of production, the trade unionstake active part in the work of the leading organs ofadministration and construction in the national eco-nomic system. There is not a single union in the U. S.S. R. which does not devote a considerable amount ofthis time and energy to working out and testing the plansand projects of economic construction in the respectivebranch of national economy. One may cite as an ex-ample the metal workers' union which takes active partin elaborating plans for the entire metal industry of theU. S. S. R.

Therefore, the code of labor laws establishes for thelower organs of the trade union movement extremelywide powers for participation in the construction of na-

*There is no need to state here that the unions arean actual "reservoir" for the state and economic sys-tem and many workers in the trade union movement aregradually transferred entirely to economic and statework. What is more, the overwhelming majority ofposts in the U. S. S. R. are occupied by those who havepassed through the school of the trade union movement.

26

tional economy. Article 158 of the code formulates theirrights in this field in the following manner:

"The object of activity of the committee (factory orlocal committee) is:

"(a) Representation*and the defense of the interestsof the workers and employers which it comprises, be-fore the administration of the enterprise or institutionon all labor and social questions concerning the workers.

"(b) Representation before governmental and socialorganizations.

"(c) Supervision of the accurate fulfillment of theadministration of the enterprise or institution of the es-tablished laws on labor protection, social insurance,wages, rules of sanitation and technical safeguards, etc.,also co-operation with the state labor protection organs.

"(d) Measures for improving the cultural and mater-ial life of the workers and employes.

"(e) Help in the normal process of production instate enterprises and participation through the respec-tive trade unions in the regulation and organization ofthe national economy."

In the various forms of economic organizations of asocial nature (consumers co-operatives, housing co-op-eratives) in the insurance offices created on the basisof special legislation—the trade unions have no less im-portant rights. In the field of consumers' co-operationfor instance, organized within the IT. S. S. R. by theCentrosoyuz, the leadership of the workers' co-operativesis in the hands of the special Central Workers Section,which is under the jurisdiction of the All-Union CentralCouncil of Trade Unions (A. U. C. T. U.) and the mem-bership elected by congresses is appointed by the tradeunions.

Such are the rights of the trade unions in the state,social and economic structure. As we see they aremarked by considerable scope and make the trade unionsactive participators in socialist construction. But thereis one field in which the unions not only participate,in which they are actually and juridically supreme. This|s the flejcj of labor regulation. The state apparatus of

27

labor regulation in the U. S. S. R. is organized and ad-ministered by the People's Commissariat for Labor. Itis the latter which establishes the minimum wages forthe entire country, organizes labor inspection, puts intoforce and elaborates the norms ot labor legislation, etc.Everything that is put into force over and above thenorms of labor legislation established on a general statescale, is established by agreement through collectiveagreements between the workers and the administrationof the enterprise or institution. But in each of thesefields the decisive word belongs to the trade unions.The People's Commissariat for Labor is a state appara-tus. However, the candidature for the post of People'sCommissar for Labor, sanctioned by the C. E. C. of theU. S. S. R7, is the privilege by the All-Union Congress ofTrade Unions and its decision is obligatory for the state:analogically, the most responsible workers of the Com-missariat for Labor itself are also apointed by thetrade union movement. And not a single labor legisla-tive is passed without the consent of the A. U. C. T. U.With regard to collective agreements these are conclud-ed and can be concluded in the U. S. S. R. only by thetrade unions.

All this comprises a systematic order of rights andpowers of the trade unions under the conditions of theproletarian dictatorship. The share of the participationof the trade unions in the political and economic lifeof the workers' state is so considerable by this systemof rights of the trade union movement that at first glanceit would seem that the trade unions, even though onlypartially, were the state apparatus. However, such animpression is absolutely incorrect. The state in theU. S. S. R. does not even control the formation of tradeunions. The trade unions are not subjected to any kindof registration on the part of the state organs. They arestrictly social organizations which themselves controltheir existence from the first moment of their forma-tion. Article 152 of the code of labor laws establishesthis quite clearly and definitely. This article reads:

"The trade unions organized on lines determined by

28

the respective congresses of these organizations are notliable for any registration in state institutions, estab-lished for societies and unions, and are registered in theinter-union organizations uniting them, in the mannerestablished by the All-Russian Congress of TradeUnions,"

In the most "liberal" of the norms regulating the tradeunion movement, in the British legislation on tradeunions, it is established that the unions also need notregister in the state organs. But if they want to havelegal rights, i. e., the right to possess property, conductjudicial cases, or in general enjoy the rights of thetrade union, they are obliged to register in the estab-lished order with the general registrar of societies andassociations. In the U. S. S. R. the state authoritiesrecognize as juridical units all organizations of workersregistered as trade unions by the intef^union organiza-tions and not by state organs and invests such tradeunions (Article 154 of the Code) with the rights of "ac-quiring property and owning same; concluding all kindsof agreements, transactions, etc., on the basis of theexisting legislation. . ."

Thus the labor legislation of the U. S. S. R. the na-ture of trade unions as social organizations is enipha-sizedt

The investment of extensive rights to such a freesocial independent organization, absolutely outside thecontrol of state organs and on the contrary controllingthe work of the said apparatus arises from the fact thatthe legislation understands the nature of the tradeunions as organs expressing the social opinion of theworking class, i. e., that social opinion on the supportof which the entire state order of the U. S. S. R. is based.The workers' state based upon proletarian dictatorshipcannot fail to see in the system of extensive rights ofthe trade unions a guarantee of its own stability andsubsequent" endurance. As we have pointed out above,the real correlation of social forces in the U. S. S. R.makes the trade unions a powerful social-political andeconomic factor and therefore pre-determines the widescale and many-sided nature of the norms regulating therights of the trade unions in this country.

Social Insurance in the U. S. S. R.

By N. YEKOVSKY.

I. Organizational System.

Contact 'with the T. U's.The main distinction between the organizational sys-

tem of Soviet Insurance from bourgeois systems is thatSoviet Insurance organs are based from top to bottomon the principle of closest contact with the trade unions.

Central Social Insurance Administration and the ChiefSocial Insurance Department.

The work of social insurance in the U. S. S. R. comesunder the People's Commissariat for Labor of the U. S.S. R. which directs it through the Central InsuranceAdministration. At the head of the latter is a directorappointed to this position by the All-Russian Council ofTrade Unions who is at the same time a member of theCollegiate of People's Commissariat for Labor. Thedirection of. social insurance in the Soviet Union is car-ried out by the social administration of the respectiverepublics attached to the People's Commissariat for La-bor of the allied republics and also directed by personsnominated by trade union organizations. The SocialInsurance Administrations are accountable to the Col-legiate of the People's Commissariat of Labor on theone hand and to. the responsible central inter-union or-ganization on the other.

30

Councils of Social Insurance of the Union and Republics.

With the object of obtaining common regulation of allsocial insurance matters, direction of the activities of theContral Social Insurance Administration, examinationand ratification of plank, budgets, etc., there is organ-ized under the People's Commissariat of Labor an All-Union Council of Social Insurance, composed of fourrepresentatives from trade union organizations and fourrepresentatives from economic organs and departmentswith representative of the P. C. for L. (chief of the Cen-tral Social Insurance) at the head. For regulation of thework of social insurance in the allied republics, similarcouncils are organized under the P. C. for L. of theserepublics. Thus the trade unions are also ensureddominating influence in the Social Insurance Councils.

Insurance Offices.The direct administration of social insurance locally is

entrusted to the insurance offices. The local insuranceoffices are established on the territorial principle, em-bracing a district within a radius of not less than twoversts and with not less than 2,000 insured persons. Thelocal offices are headed by a committee elected for adefinite term (one-half to one year) by the conferenceof trade unions of a given locality, provincial insuranceoffice fiulfilling the functions of local offices in the pro-vincial town and dealing with the allotment of pensionsfor the whole province and the regulation of the in-surance fund of the province as well as directing theactivities of the local offices—are organized in all pro-vincial cities. The committees of these offices are elect-ed at the district sessions of the trade unions.

Both the local and the provincial insurance offices areaccountable to the higher organs and to the local de-partment of the P. C. for L. and corresponding organsof the trade unions.

For serving insured workers engaged in large enter-prises and also in enterprises situated a long distancefrom the insurance offices, the latter set up their ownbranchpa in these enterprises.

31

Transport Insurance Offices.The serving of railway and water transport workers

and employes, in view of their specific forms of organ-ization of labor, is entrusted to transport insurance of-fices organized on an extra-territorial principle and man-aged by a committee, members of which are elected atthe sessions of transport workers' unions.

Auditing Commission.For control of the activities of the insurance office

committee at the same time as the election of the latter,auditing commissions are also elected, whose duties in-clude the control of financial, operative and economicactivities of the offices, inspection of accounts, moneys,etc.

II. THE FINANCIAL SYSTEM.

Social Insurance Expenditure at Expense of Employers.The' main difference in the financial system of Soviet

insurance from the bourgeois lies in the fact that j'n theU. S. S. R. all the burden of expenditures for insuranceof the workers and employes falls on the shoulders ofthe employers, whereas in bourgeois countries, the work-ers pay more than the employers. In accordance withthe present code of labor laws, funds of the insuranceorgans are established from insurance contributions paidby enterprises and institutions on their own accountwithout the right to deduct same from the pay of work-ers and employes.

Dimensions of Insurance Contributions.Insurance scales are established by a special regula-

tion of the Central Executive Committee and Council ofPeople's Commissars of the U. S. S. R., obligatory forevery locality of the Soviet Union. By the existing regu-lation of February 26, 1925, a tariff is established amount-ing for the entire mass of insured to about 14 per centof their total wages.

Insurance Funds.The contributions of insurers are entirely at the dis-

position of the insurance offices which allot from their

32

revenue 5 per cent for the Ail-Union funds, 5 per centfor the Republic funds and about 26 per cent for themedical fund, the remaining 62 per cent being expendedon pensions and relief and also on organizational items.The all-union fund is expended on reinforcing the fundsof the respective republic on the organization and main-tenance of health resorts and sanatoria on an all-unionscale, maintenance of social insurance museums, organ-izational expenses at the center, etc. The republic fundsare expended on the corresponding requirements of arepublican scale. As far as medical funds are con-cerned, these are transferred to the accounts of thehealth organs for the rendering of free medical aid tothe insured and their families.

Order of Collection of Insurance Contributions.All institutions and enterprises in which wage workers

are engaged are Obliged to present a declaration everymonth to the office and the amount due for the periodfixed by the local insurance organs. In the event ofnon-payment of contributions by the established date,the insurer, no matter who he is, is obliged to pay apenalty to the extent of 2 per cent for the first and 3per cent on every following month, while the amountowing together with the fine is collected by the agentsof the office, directly without recourse to court—by acompulsory order for the confiscation and sale by auc-tion of the property of the debtor. Apart from this, theindividuals (owners or directors of government institu-tions and enterprises) guilty of not paying contributionsin the course of three months consecutively, also ofknowingly making a false declaration or-communicationare liable to summons before the criminal court andpunishment by a fine (from personal funds) or imprisonment.

Amounts of the Insurance Payments Contributed.During 1925, the insurance organs of the Soviet Union

collected from the insurers more than 250 million roublesor nearly 95 per cent of the entire sums due and in thefirst half of the current year about 310 million ruobles

33

which represents 96 per cent of the computed amountand a little less than 14 per cent of all wages paid inthe U. S. S. R.III. RELIEF FOR INSURED AND THEIR FAMILIES.

Sphere of Influence.In accordance with the present code of labor laws,

social insurance extends to all categories of hired labor,independent of the nature and period of the work, natureof payment or in which (state, individual, concession,etc.) enterprise their labor is employed.

The number of insured embraced by the insurance of-fices is illustrated in the following figures: On January1st, 1923, 4,940,000; January 1st, 1924, 5,455,000; on Janu-ary 1st, 1925, 6,062,000; January 1st, 1926, 7,732,000 andMarch 1st, 1926, 7,804,000.

IV. FORMS OF INSURANCE.

Forms of Relief.The existing code of labor laws covers the following

aspects of the insurance relief: (a) rendering medicalaid; (b) granting of relief for temporary labor incapa-city (illness, injury, quarantine, pregnancy, childbirth,nursing sick members of the family); (c) renderingsupport for nursing infants, purchase of articles for careof infant, burial of insured and of members of his fam-ily; (d) granting of relief for unemployment; (e) pen-sion for invalids and (f) pension for members of fam-ilies of wage earners in event of death of unaccountableabsence of breadwinner (p. 176, Code).

Apart from the above-mentioned forms of aid, the in-surance offices also provide the insured with sanitoriumand health resort and places them during the compul-sory two weeks vacation in rest homes.

Rendering Medical Aid.The work of rendering medical aid to insured and their

families is concentrated in the hands of special depart-ments of the Health Commissariat organs directed bypersons elected by the trade unions. Receiving from

*

34

the insurance organs about one-third of their entire in-come, these departments are obliged to render to theinsured and their families clinical aid free of chargeand are given first precedence, also hospital treatments,aid for invalids at home, maternity aid, inoculation ofall kinds and also to undertake all kinds of special treat-ment (water, light, X-rays, e,tc.), with the free issue ofmedicine and the necessary medical appliances in allcases. The organs of health protection also organizecreches for the children of insured working women.

The plans for rendering medical aid to to insured andtheir families are discussed in special councils with theparticipation of representatives of the trade unions andinsurance offices.

Relief During Temporary Disablement.In the event of temporary incapacity for labor, on the

part of the insured, certified by a doctor, the insuranceoffice is obliged to pay the insured from the firsf day ofdisablement up to the time of recuperation or of theestablishment of permanent incapacity, an income corre-sponding to the actual wage received prior to illness, butnot exceeding seven roubles fifty kopecks per day.*

Pregnant women and nursing mothers engaged inphysical labor receive the above mentioned income dur-ing eight weeks before and eight weeks after childbirth.Those engaged in mental work, six weeks before andsix weeks after childbirth.

It is apropos to observe here that the fears of bour-geois legislators ais expressed by them when workerspresent demands for the payment of complete wagesduring illness, that this system would "encourage lazi-ness" is unjustified and an absolute slander on the work-ing class: statistical data of Soviet insurance offices asin the co-efficient of illness of our workers (about tendays per year per insured) refute this calumny in amost convincing manner, for the co-efficient in bourgeois

*This maximum is temporarily established for personswith high salaries.

*35

countries, where the worker is merely granted part of hiswages during illness, is not only not lower, but even insome cases higher than ours.

In 1925, relief for temporary incapacity absorbed 30per cent of the entire budget of the insurance institu-tions (not including the fund for treatment).

Supplementary Grants.In addition to the above-mentioned grants to women in

childbirth, a grant is made both to employed women andalso to the wives of insured workers, for the purchaseof necessary articles for the child for one month priorto birth to the extent of one-half of the average monthlywage in the given locality (for Moscow, this wage isabout 80 roubles), and a grant for feeding the child tothe extent of one-eighth of this wage during nine monthsafter birth.

Grants for burial of the insured or members of theirfamilies, or their dependents amount to the monthly av-erage wage of a given locality for the burial of personsof more than ten years of age, and to half this sum forthe burial of persons below this age.

Supplementary forms of relief cost the insurance insti-tutions about 15 per cent of their budget.

Unemployment Benefits.Unemployment insurance covers all persons who for-

merly worked for wages irrespective as to the causes oftheir leaving work, on condition that they have no meansof existence. The conditions for receiving this grant isregistration in the employment bureau during the es-tablished time. For unskilled workers and employesthere must be a one-year and three-year wage-earningstatus respectively. Skilled workers and employes andalso men demobilized from the Red Army and fleet re-ceive 30 per cent of the average local wage and otherunemployed two-thirds of this sum during nine monthsof the year.

Besides this, unemployed have the right to receive sup-plementary forms of relief (see above) and also medicalaid on a par with other forms of insured persons.

36

In addition to monetary aid, the unemployed also re-ceive from the labor'commissariat organs, labor aid inthe form of collective and public work organized for thispurpose. They also are trained at the expense of thesocial insurance organs in special workshop schools or-ganized for raising their qualifications.

Side by side with this, the unemployed also enjoy awhole number of privileges in the form of exemption fromall kinds of taxes, very low rents, reduced fares to placeof work or on returning to native place.

Expenditure on rendering monetary aid to the unem-ployed comprised 10 per cent of the entire budget of theinsurance institutions during 1925.

Relief for Labor.

Right to relief for disability is enjoyed by all wageearners who have lost their labor capacity from injuries,venereal ailments or old age, but in the latter case, theymust have eight years wage earning status. Invalid'spensions are granted to an extent of two-thirds of theformer wage of the invalid if he is absolutely incapaci-tated for labor but not in need of outside attendance(second group) receive two-thirds of the above-men-tion^d pension, but persons incapacitated for regularwork at a trade yet capable of obtaining means of ex-istence by temporary, casual or light work (third group)receive the full pension.*

In respect to invalids with partial loss of labor capa-city (IV, V, VI groups) these get a pension to an extentof one-third, one-sixth, one-tenth of their wages respec-tively if their incapacity is. the result of injury or tradeillness.

Besides this, invalids have the right to supplementaryrelief and medical aid on a par with other forms of in-sured workers and may also receive instead of pension,

*The full pension for an invalid of the first group suf-fering from a trade illness are granted three-quarters offormer wage and not two-thirds, and the pensions ofother forms of invalids are raised accordingly.

37

complete maintenance in the hotels for invalids organ-ized by the insurance organs. Invalids also enjoy theright to special reductions in taxes, rent, free trainingfor children, etc.

Relief for Families of Deceased.

Persons having the right to receive pensions in theevent of death of the wage-earning breadwinner (irre-spective of wage earning status) are: minors or chil-dren incapable of labor, brothers and sisters of the de-ceased and incapacitated persons or parents caring forthe children under eight years of age, or the husband orwife of the deceased. This pension is given from thetime of presenting application: up to sixteen years ofage for minors and to the persons engaged in caring forthe children up to the time they attain eight years.

The families of insured workers deceased from generalcauses, receive: two-thirds of full pension (see above),in the event of there being three or more pensioners, halfof the full pension for two pensioners, and one-third offull pension in cases of one member of the family havingright to pension. The families of persons deceasedthrough injury or trade illness receive an augmentedpension to an extent of three-quarters, one-half and one-third of the wages of the deceased respectively.

Pensions to invalids who have lost their labor capa-city through general ailments or old age, as also thefamilies of persons deceased through general ailments,are granted if they have no means of existence. Pen-sions for persons suffering from injury or trade illnessesas also for their families are granted, independent of theproperty position of the pensioners.

Besides the grants mentioned above, families pro-tected by the insurance organs receive supplementarygrants from the medical aid and the tax, and other re-ductions mentioned above.

Expenditure on relief to invalids and members of theirfamilies, absorbed 21 per cent of the entire budget of theinsurance organs during 1925.

38

Aid in Sanatoria and Health Resorts.Besides the above forms of aid, the insurance organs

also render treatment to the insured in sanatoria andhealth resorts and also place them in rest homes, uponwhich from 8 to 10 per cent of the insurance budget isexpended. This aid is rendered in sanatoria, rest homesand health resorts situated in the beautiful palaces of theformer bourgeoisie and the nobility, now handed overto the insurance organs by the governmnt of the IT. S.S. R. Besides free fare at the expense of insurance or-gans as also free treatment and maintenance, the in-sured receive complete wages from the insurance organsboth during temporary disablement, during the time oftheir journey and also while in the sanatorium. Theperiod of sojourn in the sanatoria fluctuates from fiveweeks for fatigue or nervous cases, etc., three and one-half months for tuberculosis, while in rest homes theperiods from two to four weeks in accordance with thelength of vacation received by the workers. In 1924,200,000 workers passed through the sanatoria, rest homesand health spas. In 1925, 250,000 passed through and itis expected that during, the present year there will be noless. Eighty per cent of the places are given to workersand twenty per cent to employes.

* * *The above is a general outline of the work of the

social insurance in the U. S. S. R.It goes without saying that besides the achievements

in this work there are no small number of weak points.In particular in the matter of unemployment relief inthe U. S. S. R., which is explained by the specific char-acter of the unemployed, the overwhelming majority ofwhom are recruited from the peasantry and de-classed,who have never worked as wage earners. The mainreason, however, is the poverty of our country ruined bythe imperialist and civil wars.

But the workers of the Soviet Union are not discour-aged by these defects, for they hope to overcome themby their energetic work of strengthening their natiomaleconomy, the position of which is improving day by day.

39

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RUSSIAN WORKERS AND WORKSHOPS IN 1926By Wm. Z. Foster 25 Cents

GLIMPSES OF THE SOVIET REPUBLICBy Scott Nearing 10 Cents

RUSSIA TURNS EASTBy Scott Nearing 10 Cents

EDUCATION IN SOVIET RUSSIABy Scott Nearing 10 Cents

THE NEW THEATER AND CINEMA IN SOVIETRUSSIA

By Huntley Carter $6.00

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