Conscience

ConscienceConscience

AugustineAugustine

• Voice of God speaking to usVoice of God speaking to us

• Considered most seriouslyConsidered most seriously

• ““See God as your witness.”See God as your witness.”

• Intuitionist approachIntuitionist approach

• People are able to sense right and People are able to sense right and wrong because God reveals it to us wrong because God reveals it to us personally.personally.

Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274)Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274)Classic definitionClassic definition

• ““The mind of man making moral The mind of man making moral judgements”judgements”

• Grounded in his Grounded in his Natural LawNatural Law philosophy philosophy

• Humans created with ‘recta ratio’ (right Humans created with ‘recta ratio’ (right reason) of basic moral principlesreason) of basic moral principles

• This is ‘synderesis’This is ‘synderesis’

• Conscience= applying reason to particular Conscience= applying reason to particular questions of right and wrong questions of right and wrong

• Rationalist ApproachRationalist Approach

An example:An example:

• Major premise (synderesis)- all evil must be avoidedMajor premise (synderesis)- all evil must be avoided• Minor premise (reason)- murder is evilMinor premise (reason)- murder is evil• Conclusion (conscientia)- murder must be avoidedConclusion (conscientia)- murder must be avoided• Therefore- conscience can make decisionsTherefore- conscience can make decisions

• The synderesis rule – always follow good and avoid The synderesis rule – always follow good and avoid evilevil

• Haring points out, this is not an impersonal/ Haring points out, this is not an impersonal/ intellectual ability, but recognises the intellectual ability, but recognises the uniquenessuniqueness of of the individualthe individual

• Conscience can be mistaken… Apparent Conscience can be mistaken… Apparent goods followed not Real goodsgoods followed not Real goods

• Therefore, conscience is fallible (not perfect)Therefore, conscience is fallible (not perfect)

• Example: “If a mistaken reason bids a man to Example: “If a mistaken reason bids a man to sleep with another man’s wife, to do this will sleep with another man’s wife, to do this will be evil based on ignorance of divine law he be evil based on ignorance of divine law he ought to know; but if the misjudgement is ought to know; but if the misjudgement is occasioned by thinking the woman really is occasioned by thinking the woman really is his own wife and she wants him, then his will his own wife and she wants him, then his will is free from fault.”is free from fault.”

• Acting according to conscience is not a Acting according to conscience is not a guarantee of right action, but it is a guarantee guarantee of right action, but it is a guarantee of moral blamelessnessof moral blamelessness

• But following conscience is still But following conscience is still absolutely necessaryabsolutely necessary

• God given us ability to reason God given us ability to reason (distinguish between right and (distinguish between right and wrong)wrong)

• To ignore reason is “same as To ignore reason is “same as dismissing the command of God” = dismissing the command of God” = always wrongalways wrong

• Conscience is the ultimate moral Conscience is the ultimate moral authority for the individualauthority for the individual

EvaluationEvaluationHighly influential view- supported by Highly influential view- supported by

Catholic ChurchCatholic ChurchExplains why conscience can sometimes Explains why conscience can sometimes

be incorrect: wrong use of reason – be incorrect: wrong use of reason – following apparent goodsfollowing apparent goods

Clear set authority/guidance – supported Clear set authority/guidance – supported by Bibleby Bible

Everyone can experience reasonEveryone can experience reasonIncluded knowledge and reasoning as well Included knowledge and reasoning as well

as religion so everyone can apply it.as religion so everyone can apply it.

XX Some acts can never be morally blameless: Some acts can never be morally blameless: acts may still break the law entitle acts may still break the law entitle punishment – regardless of right intention/ punishment – regardless of right intention/ following conscience.following conscience.

XX Assumes good and evil are the same for Assumes good and evil are the same for everyoneeveryone

XX What happens if you don’t believe in God? What happens if you don’t believe in God?

XX Assumes no emotion is expressed Assumes no emotion is expressed

XX Are humans really that rational Are humans really that rational

XX Can conscience conflict with reason? Which Can conscience conflict with reason? Which one do you follow in an ethical decision?one do you follow in an ethical decision?

Joseph ButlerJoseph Butler

• Central to our humanity-essential part of Central to our humanity-essential part of being human being human

• Separates us from animalsSeparates us from animals• ““There is a principle of reflection in men There is a principle of reflection in men

by which they distinguish between by which they distinguish between approval and disapproval of their own approval and disapproval of their own actions…this principle in man…is actions…this principle in man…is conscience” (1726)conscience” (1726)

• Like Aquinas, it is what we use to judge an Like Aquinas, it is what we use to judge an action good or badaction good or bad

• Automatic and authoritative in the way it Automatic and authoritative in the way it operatesoperates

• It “magisterially exerts itself” It “magisterially exerts itself” spontaneously “without being consulted”spontaneously “without being consulted”

• Has the final say in moral choices-governs Has the final say in moral choices-governs and orders other aspects of human natureand orders other aspects of human nature

• Person’s God-given guide to right conductPerson’s God-given guide to right conduct

• Therefore should always be followedTherefore should always be followed

• It is “our natural guide, the guide assigned It is “our natural guide, the guide assigned to us by the Author of our nature”to us by the Author of our nature”

EvaluationEvaluation

Intuitionism does ring true for many. Intuitionism does ring true for many. Emphasis is not on reason but on instinct Emphasis is not on reason but on instinct

XX Doesn’t allow for conscience to be wrong Doesn’t allow for conscience to be wrong (fallible) unlike Aquinas’ view. (fallible) unlike Aquinas’ view.

XX Is conscience something people Is conscience something people allall have have experience of? And do people have the experience of? And do people have the samesame experience of it? experience of it?

XX What about when two people have What about when two people have opposing ‘intuitions’ about a moral matter?opposing ‘intuitions’ about a moral matter?

John Henry NewmanJohn Henry Newman• Interested in studying human knowledgeInterested in studying human knowledge• Humans do not use scientific reasoning and logic Humans do not use scientific reasoning and logic

all the timeall the time• We know what is right and wrong through We know what is right and wrong through Illative Illative

SenseSense -feelings of guilt and responsibility -feelings of guilt and responsibility• ““we feel responsibility, are ashamed…this implies we feel responsibility, are ashamed…this implies

that there is one to whom we are responsible, that there is one to whom we are responsible, before whom we are ashamed, whose claims before whom we are ashamed, whose claims upon us we fear.”upon us we fear.”

• Rather than through use of reason/ conditioningRather than through use of reason/ conditioning• Our conscience is the ‘Voice of the Lawgiver’Our conscience is the ‘Voice of the Lawgiver’• Conscience is therefore following the voice of GodConscience is therefore following the voice of God

EvaluationEvaluationEmphasises the importance of feelings and how Emphasises the importance of feelings and how

these feelings e.g. of guilt are linked in with these feelings e.g. of guilt are linked in with conscienceconscience

Emphasises importance of taking responsibility for Emphasises importance of taking responsibility for our actionsour actions

Understands that conscience is based on more Understands that conscience is based on more than just reason and can involve intuitionsthan just reason and can involve intuitions

XX What happens if you do not believe in God? Do you What happens if you do not believe in God? Do you not hear the voice?not hear the voice?

XX Can the voice be ignored? Or will this cause Can the voice be ignored? Or will this cause punishment?punishment?

XX What happens to human freewill if God is What happens to human freewill if God is constantly telling us what to do?constantly telling us what to do?

Sigmund FreudSigmund Freud• Theory of mind: PsychoanalysisTheory of mind: Psychoanalysis• Psychodynamics of the mind- specific workings of Psychodynamics of the mind- specific workings of

the mind/ conflictsthe mind/ conflicts• Id- pleasure principleId- pleasure principle• Ego- reality principleEgo- reality principle• Superego- moral principle- controlling self- Superego- moral principle- controlling self-

imposing rules on the ego. Partly unconscious. imposing rules on the ego. Partly unconscious. • Freud saw conscience as an aspect of the Freud saw conscience as an aspect of the

superegosuperego• “…“…observes the ego, gives it orders, judges it and observes the ego, gives it orders, judges it and

threatens it with punishment, exactly like the threatens it with punishment, exactly like the parents whose place it has taken” (1933)parents whose place it has taken” (1933)

How does the superego How does the superego develop?develop?• Id, ego and superego develop in that order Id, ego and superego develop in that order • part of a complex developmental process from birth to part of a complex developmental process from birth to

maturitymaturity• Oral (0-1)Oral (0-1)• Anal (1-3)Anal (1-3)• Phallic (3-5/6) (Crucial for development of superego - Phallic (3-5/6) (Crucial for development of superego -

Oedipus/ Electra complexes occur)Oedipus/ Electra complexes occur)• Latency (5/6- puberty)Latency (5/6- puberty)• Genital (puberty-maturity)Genital (puberty-maturity)

• Sequence is biologically determined but also affected by Sequence is biologically determined but also affected by others: especially parents - nature others: especially parents - nature andand nurture nurture

• Fixation can occur at any stageFixation can occur at any stage

EvaluationEvaluation Importance of childhood in moral developmentImportance of childhood in moral developmentRole of parentsRole of parentsXX Ignores later life experiences Ignores later life experiencesXX Is conscience/ Morality unconscious – what about Is conscience/ Morality unconscious – what about

freewill – do we not have more control over it? freewill – do we not have more control over it? XX People will find this development of conscience People will find this development of conscience

hard to believe as it does not fit with our hard to believe as it does not fit with our experience of conscience?experience of conscience?

XX Poor methodology Poor methodologyXX No proof of Oedipus/ Electra complexes No proof of Oedipus/ Electra complexesXX No reference to God… No reference to God…

Unfalsifiable?Unfalsifiable?

Jean PiagetJean Piaget• Most comprehensive theory of intellectual (cognitive) Most comprehensive theory of intellectual (cognitive)

developmental psychologydevelopmental psychology• Child developmentChild development• Proposed a universal series of stages throughout childhoodProposed a universal series of stages throughout childhood• Moral sense develops alongside other cognitive abilitiesMoral sense develops alongside other cognitive abilities• Marbles gameMarbles game

• Heteronomous moralityHeteronomous morality- (5-9) child looks beyond self for - (5-9) child looks beyond self for moral authority/ rules must be obeyed/ rules set down by moral authority/ rules must be obeyed/ rules set down by higher authority/ immoral acts punishedhigher authority/ immoral acts punished

• Autonomous moralityAutonomous morality (10+) personal code of conduct (10+) personal code of conduct develops based on social perceptions/ motive more develops based on social perceptions/ motive more important and punishments in proportion with actionsimportant and punishments in proportion with actions

• Most adults use mixture of two- moving more to Most adults use mixture of two- moving more to autonomous level when less dependent on views of othersautonomous level when less dependent on views of others

EvaluationEvaluation Supported by Kohlberg: 6 stages of moral Supported by Kohlberg: 6 stages of moral

development. From behaving in a socially development. From behaving in a socially acceptable way (told to do so by authority/ want acceptable way (told to do so by authority/ want approval) to keeping the law, to caring for others approval) to keeping the law, to caring for others and finally to respect for universal principles.and finally to respect for universal principles.

• Kohlberg felt most adults don't move past Kohlberg felt most adults don't move past keeping the lawkeeping the law

• Piaget and Kohlberg believe conscience is Piaget and Kohlberg believe conscience is developed through social interaction.developed through social interaction.

Easy to understand and observe through Easy to understand and observe through universally applied stagesuniversally applied stages

Allows for development of moral conscience from Allows for development of moral conscience from following authority to becoming in control of own following authority to becoming in control of own morality.morality.

FrommFromm• Influenced by external authority: parents, Influenced by external authority: parents,

teachers, church leadersteachers, church leaders• Apply rules and punishments for breaking themApply rules and punishments for breaking them• These rules internalised by personThese rules internalised by person• Disobedience causes guilt = weakens our power Disobedience causes guilt = weakens our power

= makes us submissive to authority.= makes us submissive to authority.• E.G Nazi GovernmentE.G Nazi Government• This is called Authoritarian Conscience.This is called Authoritarian Conscience.

• The Humanistic Approach: healthier approach = The Humanistic Approach: healthier approach = assesses and evaluates our behaviourassesses and evaluates our behaviour

• Its our real selfIts our real self• Lead to reach our full potentialLead to reach our full potential

EvaluationEvaluation• Many would support that conscience is Many would support that conscience is

developed by authority figuresdeveloped by authority figures• Looks at humans reaching their full Looks at humans reaching their full

potential – positive applicationpotential – positive applicationX Scary thought that our conscience can X Scary thought that our conscience can

be manipulated in order to do wrong be manipulated in order to do wrong actsacts

X What about freewill – are we all X What about freewill – are we all brainwashed by authority?brainwashed by authority?

Modern viewsModern views• Vincent MacNamaraVincent MacNamara: misleading to call conscience a : misleading to call conscience a

voice much better to see it as an attitude/ awareness.voice much better to see it as an attitude/ awareness.

• Richard GulaRichard Gula: conscience as a series of laws is : conscience as a series of laws is misleading. Conscience is about : vision and choice. misleading. Conscience is about : vision and choice. Conscience is seeing then responding through the Conscience is seeing then responding through the choices we make.choices we make.

• Timothy O’ ConnellTimothy O’ Connell: 3 parts of conscience: 3 parts of conscience1.1. Personal responsibilityPersonal responsibility2.2. Obligation to search out goodObligation to search out good3.3. Judgment to follow what is good.Judgment to follow what is good.

• Daniel Maguire:Daniel Maguire: agrees with O’ Connell also need agrees with O’ Connell also need imagination, humour and tragedy to consider what is the imagination, humour and tragedy to consider what is the correct moral choice. More than human reason, its correct moral choice. More than human reason, its shared experience of past, culture and personal shared experience of past, culture and personal experienceexperience