CONFUCIUS VS. THE WOMEN OF CHINA: A FEMINIST STRUGGLE

Running Head: CONFUCIUS VS. THE WOMEN OF CHINA: A FEMINIST STRUGGLE
CONFUCIUS VS. THE WOMEN OF CHINA: A FEMINIST
STRUGGLE
California State University, Long Beach
In Partial Fulfillment
University Honors Program Certificate
CONFUCIUS VS. THE WOMEN OF CHINA: A FEMINIST STRUGGLE 2
Table of Contents
c. Confucianism and Feminism .................................................................................11
V. Thematic Sections ......................................................................................................17
ABSTRACT
This thesis analyzes to what extent Confucianism laid the foundation for a patriarchal
society in China, thus planting the seed for feminist movements to arise. From controversial
practices, such as foot binding, stipulating that women be subservient to the males in their lives
in the Analects, as well as subjecting women into a gendered social hierarchy since the 6th
Century BCE, it can be argued that Confucianism has provided a framework where women
should take a backseat in society. Confucianism has undoubtedly played a huge role in the
shaping of modern China, therefore making it essential in understanding Chinese culture and
society. Though it may not have much of a foothold in China currently, modern Chinese culture
will be searched for traces of Confucian ideology that has upheld any oppression of women.
There are some who believe Confucianism holds potential to be feminist, and this will equally be
explored. To counter claims of Confucius’ misogyny, historical accounts of Chinese women’s
issues will be delved into as well. Through the analysis of the Analects of Confucius as a primary
source, and with interpretations as secondary sources, whether Confucianism is solely
responsible for contemporary women’s issues such as the taboo of female activism for example,
will be presented, and to what extent Confucianism holds potential in being feminist.
Key words: Confucianism, Feminism, China, patriarchy, stereotypes
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
First and foremost, I thank God for blessing me with a wonderful mentor, a supportive
family, and amazing friends. Thanks to God I give additionally for blessing me with the strength
and knowledge to achieve this project.
I sincerely thank Professor Wu for her help in guiding me in this academic endeavor. My
study abroad experience in Shanghai with her and sitting in on her course in Chinese history
inspired me to conduct the following thesis on feminism in China. Thank you for your patience
and advice.
I thank my parents for always letting me pave my own path with their unconditional
support. I could not have completed this thesis without your love and unending iced coffees to
help me get through the sleepless nights. All that I do is to make you proud, and in
acknowledgement of the efforts you have made to allow me to prosper as a first-generation
college student, and much more a Latina; I owe all my success to your bravery.
I thank my friends for their emotional support and memes when I needed comedic relief
from the stress. The determination and academic success of each of you inspires me. Together,
we survived our undergrad and will continue to survive anything to come.
Lastly, I would like to thank all the women in my life. For you, I advocate for equality
and to give voice to those who lack it. Thank you for showing me the beauty in resistance.
INTRODUCTION
“Women have always been searching for a way out of Confucian shadows” -Xiao Ma
In the past few decades, China has risen in power. It has boomed economically and
politically, but marring its progress is its underlying issues of gender inequality. Chinese women
comprise less than 10% of corporate management positions, female empowerment groups are
silenced by the government, and the expectation to be subservient to the male persists. While
these issues exist globally, the focus of this paper is China, given that it is a developing country,
yet it suppresses more than half of its population. To understand where an issue on a scale like
this comes from, one should look to the foundation of said society. Confucianism has been an
integral part in Chinese society, helping shape its politics and culture. Confucius’ teachings have
been subject to scrutiny for advocating self-empowerment of the individual in terms of education,
family, and politics, but failing to include women in such actions. Therefore, my intention is to
see what impact Confucius’ teachings have had on society regarding patriarchal tendencies.
Currently, Confucianism has had a revival given political turmoil, thus making it more important
to analyze.
Literature Review
When Asian women are spoken of by non-Asians, there is a reoccurring theme in their
discourse: Asian women are docile and ideal housewives. This theme is problematic for several
reasons. It not only reinforces stereotypes, but also implies that they are inferior. In my research,
I chose to analyze women in China, but more specifically feminists in China. I questioned why
this stereotype exists and this led me to analyze Chinese culture and tradition. In my findings, I
found it striking that despite Confucian influence, which heavily emphasizes the “golden rule” to
not do unto others what we would not like done to ourselves, there persisted forms of female
oppression. This then led on the search to discover if Confucius was intentionally sexist, or if he
was a teacher tainted by misinterpretations of his teachings; much like the Bible and Jesus Christ.
Defining Confucianism.
Confucianism is a term used to refer to a guide to life compiled by Kong Qiu who lived in 551-
479 BC. The term itself has no equivalent in Chinese and was coined by the west, but it literally
means “family of scholars” (Slote 1998). Kong Qiu, otherwise known as Confucius, came from
humble beginnings and worked his way up the social ladder. Born in the Chou Dynasty, during
the warring-states period, his work was a means to unifying a broken nation. At this time, there
was a turn away from feudal society and an ideological crisis ensued, therefore the appeal of
such ideology was that it indicated structure and organization; if you knew your place in society,
life would be made easier for you. It has been said that most of his teachings, he did not himself
create, but rather he reiterated them. Confucius thought of himself to be a “transmitter” of old
ideas to gain something new (Slote 1998). He compiled his teachings onto scriptures, which were
later combined to form what is known as The Analects of Confucius. These scriptures assumed
the form of conversation between the master, Kongzi , and disciple, indicating that
educating and getting educated were essential and never-ending. His teachings emphasized the
importance of being morally pure, seeking an education, practicing rites, and filial piety:
1.6 The Master said: A young man should
be filial within his home and respectful of elders
when outside, should be careful and
trustworthy, broadly caring of people at large,
and should cleave to those who are ren. If he
has energy left over, he may study the refinements
of culture (wen). (Eno,1)
*Ren , refers to humaneness and innate good. Wen , refers to cultural norms.
Most of his work concerned itself with ethical virtues and self-cultivation in a spiritual and
scholarly manner. One of the most fundamental aspects of Confucianism is filial piety. Filial
piety regards taking care of your family, and encouraging strong personal connections to them.
He believed that caring for your elders not only benefited the family dynamic, but also society.
Confucius placed a high value on collectivism; cultivating the self to best benefit society. This
idea could and was applied to politics as well:
2.3 The Master said: Guide them with policies
and align them with punishments and
the people will evade them and have no
shame. Guide them with virtue and align
them with li and the people will have a sense
of shame and fulfill their roles. (Eno, 5)
According to Confucianism, as a leader they were expected to conduct themselves with virtue, de
, meaning that they could shift with context, willing to listen to the public’s needs and act
morally (Eno 2015). These quotes, among others, demonstrate Confucius’ desire for humans to
be mindful of others and of their selves. His “golden rule” is “Do not do unto other what you
would not want others to do unto you”, and this encapsulates that someone wishing to be good
must do good to others too which is largely what his teachings were about. When Confucius
passed away, his legacy was survived by his disciples. Of his over 3,000 students, there were
only 72 he claimed mastered his teachings. Each of them held their own interpretations. Mencius
was one of them. Mencius brought morality to Confucianism (Slote 2015). He believed that the
people were more important than the state, and the state more important than the king. As ruler,
one should not be affected by power nor by poverty, but maintain morality always. Confucius’
disciple Hsun Tzu, focused on the Confucian element of scholarship. He believed that if one
were to cultivate the self through education, there would be no limit to one’s passion because
humans are evil (Slote 2015). Reverence to societal norms, therefore function to keep humans in
balance, and only by being social could someone be cultured. These two disciples, along with
Confucius stressed the overall importance of being a better person to be able to better society as
a collective, but there was one thing lacking throughout each of their narratives: women.
Women in China throughout History
This section will provide a brief overview of women’s rights and struggles since the time
of Confucius. During the time of Confucius, women were expected to tend to duties at home.
They had little to no involvement in the public sphere regarding education, business, and
economy. However, during the Han Dynasty, there was the first recognized empress Lu, as well
as China’s first female historian, Ban Zhao. Ban Zhao also introduced Chinese women to
Lessons for Women, which entailed how a woman should behave according to Confucius. She
was one of the first revolutionary women prior to the Tang Dynasty where women’s rights
kickstarted. During the Tang Dynasty, there was an increase in liberal mindedness. Women were
not allowed to re-marry after the death of their partners, but this changed in the Tang Dynasty.
Additionally, women were encouraged to educate themselves and work. Two scholars from this
era are Song Ruohua and Song Ruozhao. These sisters compiled the Analects for Women. Like
the Lessons for Women, this text reinstated Confucian values such as filial piety for your in-laws;
“You must care for them as your own mother and father” (Ruozhao, 1). The latter however,
emphasized how to behave in public, whereas Ban Zhao’s work focused on the duties to be done
at home. Despite advising women to be submissive to a patriarchal society, this text encouraged
women to read. Both texts are an example that Confucian influence persisted through the
decades.
The Song Dynasty is marked by a controversial practice: foot-binding. Confucius spoke
of the self as pure and not to be transformed, therefore had he been alive he would have
condemned this practice because of the physical toll it had on females. From the young age of 3,
girls had their feet bound in cloth to form “lotus feet”. This practice was a sign of status, given
that it rendered girls unable to walk effectively. Those who had their feet bound indicated that
they could afford not to move because there those to look after them. Some claim this was a
perpetuation of the male fantasy as well as Confucian ideals, yet the practice was survived for
centuries by women. It was not until the Qing Dynasty that the practice was banned. The Qing
Dynasty rung in many new changes. The most significant among them being the emergence of
feminism. There are three main events that sparked the rise of women’s rights and feminism, but
these will be discussed in a later section.
Confucianism and Feminism.
Confucianism has undoubtedly oppressed women, not intentionally, but indirectly. His
teachings excluded women, but the bigger issue is that the current Confucian scholars are not
doing anything to change the ways of the past. Perhaps they think it is unmanly to discuss
women’s issues, which is therefore a “gender complex” as Chenyang Li refers to it. As
aforementioned, Confucianism promotes good human traits but to be better and more universally
applied it should include women; “We cannot expect a philosophy and religion to have a future if
it is prejudicial against half of the human race” (Li, 187). The article Confucianism and Feminist
concerns: Overcoming the Confucian “gender complex”, answered three vital questions to this
research:
1. Has Confucius oppressed women?
Confucius himself can arguably have not oppressed women. But in referring to Confucianism, as
a philosophy upheld by scholars, then yes, it has oppressed women. It is speculated that
Confucius excluded women from his work because of the social structure in place at the time he
was alive. However, with the revival of Confucianism in the Song Dynasty, Confucian scholars
can be scrutinized for still excluding women. Neo-Confucianism was significantly harsher on
women. It was during this revival that the 3 Bonds were established, foot-binding was introduced,
and women not allowed to remarry, thus rendering them many times to be poor. Chinese culture
promotes the Taoist Yin vs. Yang characteristics. Ideally these “light” and “dark” contrasts
should be complementary, but often, yang (male) is considered superior by nature. This belief
pits women against men in an unfair “natural” place. During the Song-Ming Dynasty, women
were oppressed by being subject to 3 relationships: The ruler over the ruled, the father over the
son, the husband over the wife. Meaning that the woman needs to be subservient to the emperor,
her father, her brother, and her husband. Women could not remarry because it was immoral.
Losing morals was viewed much worse than starving to death. Another more direct and brutal
form of oppression was the Foot binding practice mentioned earlier. But it should be noted that
this also provided the space for women to empower themselves.
Lin Yutang, a Chinese author and linguist, makes a claim that in saying women are oppressed is
a western notion that defies Chinese lifestyle and culture. He believes Chinese women have been
completely autonomous throughout history because of the power they hold within the household.
Though this is true, it should not deflect from the fact that women are limited in the public
sphere. Chinese women are lauded for having power within the household like that of an empress
on her throne. However, female domestic power is hardly comparable to its male counterpart.
The author draws parallels to western beauty where Chinese women’s domestic rule
“…functions within the patriarchal power structure which ultimately benefits men” (Li 3).
2. If he has oppressed women, how much?
This is difficult to answer because it must be kept in mind that though oppression occurred, that
does not mean it is the only thing that occurred. There were powerful empresses such as Ci Xi. It
can also not be generalized that all women were oppressed. Some women lived happily married.
Women could own land beneath the cultural revolution. Li Yuning believes that there’s pros and
cons to Confucianism, and I agree. Confucius himself was not sexist entirely and his ideas have
helped women to some extent. For example, in wanting everyone to be educated, this has
compelled women to study. In wanting people to have propriety, this allows women to better
themselves and for Chinese society to adjust and modernize. It can be argued that the awareness
of Chinese women’s oppression came from the spur in communism and western feminist
scholars. This isn’t to undermine that women beforehand weren’t oppressed. Simply that there
has been this universal victimization of Chinese women that is unfounded because not all of
them are. “While Confucianism’s oppression of women was quite severe-indeed undeniably
severe-it must have left some room for women’s moral cultivation and even social participation”
(Li, 5).
Therefore, the third question is: What can be done about it?
It can be inferred that Confucianism and feminism have some parallels. Therefore, to
change the oppression, Confucianism must be conceptualized into something tangible for
everybody. Confucius did not intend to be sexist, but rather his disciples changed his intentions.
They interpreted his Analects to fit their own agenda, much like several religious texts have been.
But there were women who also interpreted the Analects. Song Ruozhao, a daughter of an
official, wrote on the expectations of a woman within Confucian context. Her work stresses how
a woman should carry herself before her husband, her in-laws, in public, and before other women;
“Do not learn the ways of lazy women who from an early age are silly and shiftless...” (Ruozhao,
3). It highlights the immense pressure placed on females to uphold an image not expected of men.
Some women can be okay with this, while some are not, which is why feminism in China is
important. Like Confucianism, feminism promotes the self and respect of others. Can
Confucianism then hold potential for being feminist?
Government Oppression.
In “State Feminism? Gender and Socialist State Formation in Maoist China?” by Wang
Zheng, it helps to see the political barriers women face still in advocating for change through a
“top-down” approach. After the Mao era, where women were invited into the industrial sector
and later into the political party, they faced a freedom too short-lived. Female government
officials are still subject to the desires of the CPP. The women’s issues are not prioritized before
the CPP’s objectives. The All-China Women’s Federation. China, arose out of the growing
demand for women’s rights. The purpose was to address issues at the local level. China, as a
socialist state, engaged in “State feminism”, meaning that although women are in the political
sphere, they have no autonomy. The good that came with the Mao Era was a “Top-down”
approach, implying that it would be effective in resolving issues, but since the government
included women, not the women included themselves, this was problematic. It was lacking the
mobilization of women for change because “Women’s work was subordinate to the Party’s
“Central work”- never becoming a Party priority” (Zheng, 4). The ACWF acts as an umbrella
organization for all other grassroots organizations in China. SWF (Shanghai Women’s
Federation) , was utilized during the Maoist revolution. Women were called to the streets to
protest anti-imperialism. Thousands showed up, but it cannot go unsaid that this was not feminist
in any form, but rather the CCP strategically included the women in their propaganda to
purposely reinforce their own power. They really didn’t empower women, it was an illusion to
make them believe they did when they were being used as pawns to show the nation’s “unity”.
The SWF was also relied upon to do neighborhood work, such as ensuring welfare and
healthcare for women. However, in their attempts to do so, women workers found that their male
bosses would…

CONFUCIUS VS. THE WOMEN OF CHINA: A FEMINIST STRUGGLE

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