Louisiana Tech University Louisiana Tech Digital Commons Doctoral Dissertations Graduate School Winter 2001 Confirmatory factor analysis of the Coping Style Inventory in a college sample Christopher Garth Bellah Louisiana Tech University Follow this and additional works at: hps://digitalcommons.latech.edu/dissertations Part of the Counseling Psychology Commons is Dissertation is brought to you for free and open access by the Graduate School at Louisiana Tech Digital Commons. It has been accepted for inclusion in Doctoral Dissertations by an authorized administrator of Louisiana Tech Digital Commons. For more information, please contact [email protected]. Recommended Citation Bellah, Christopher Garth, "" (2001). Dissertation. 134. hps://digitalcommons.latech.edu/dissertations/134
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Louisiana Tech UniversityLouisiana Tech Digital Commons
Doctoral Dissertations Graduate School
Winter 2001
Confirmatory factor analysis of the Coping StyleInventory in a college sampleChristopher Garth BellahLouisiana Tech University
Follow this and additional works at: https://digitalcommons.latech.edu/dissertations
Part of the Counseling Psychology Commons
This Dissertation is brought to you for free and open access by the Graduate School at Louisiana Tech Digital Commons. It has been accepted forinclusion in Doctoral Dissertations by an authorized administrator of Louisiana Tech Digital Commons. For more information, please [email protected].
Recommended CitationBellah, Christopher Garth, "" (2001). Dissertation. 134.https://digitalcommons.latech.edu/dissertations/134
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CONFIRMATORY FACTOR ANALYSIS OF THE COPING STYLE INVENTORY
IN A COLLEGE SAMPLE
by
Christopher Garth Bellah, M.A.
A Dissertation Presented in Partial Fulfillment o f the Requirements for the Degree
Doctor o f Philosophy in Counseling Psychology
COLLEGE OF EDUCATION LOUISIANA TECH UNIVERSITY
February 2001
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LOUISIANA TECH UNIVERSITY
THE GRADUATE SCHOOL
September 8, 2000Date
W e hereby recommend that the dissertation prepared under our supervision
by Christopher Garth Bellah
Confirmatory Factor Analysis of the Coping Style Inventory in a
College Sample
b e a c c e p te d in partial fu lf i l lm e n t o f th e req u irem en ts fo r th e D eg r ee o f
Doctorate of Philosophy
Supervisoi Researcn(OM, jCEi
Head of(pepartmratPsychology and Behavioral SciencesDepartment
Recommendation concurred in:
Advisory Committee
Director o f Graduate Studies Director o f the Graduate School
( j VD affo fth e College u
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ABSTRACT
The present study conducted a confirmatory factor analysis o f the Coping Style
Inventory (CSI). A comprehensive review o f the history o f stress and coping research
was provided, along with a presentation o f suggestions for future research that have
indicated a need for a melding o f both theory-driven and empirically-driven
methodology in coping assessment. Pursuant to this need, a pilot study was conducted
to explore the factor structure and psychometric properties of the CSI (N = 560).
Results o f pilot work using a principle components extraction and a parallel analysis
criterion for factor retention indicated that six primary factors were appropriate to retain
for rotation to simple structure. Following factor extraction, an oblique rotation o f the
data matrix was performed. Results o f exploratory factor analysis yielded a single stable
solution, with each test item loading only on its intended factor. Additionally, a second-
order components analysis of pilot data revealed the presence o f a hierarchical structure
in the data corresponding to a two-dimensional pattern, with each dimension consisting
o f three primary factors. Overall, the results of pilot work indicate the factor solution
that emerged from the data was consistent with the theoretically derived scales o f the
CSI. The present study tested the assumptions o f the hierarchical structure o f the
theoretical model through confirmatory factor analysis (N = 420) using structural
equation modeling techniques. Results o f analyses indicate that indices o f model fit
reflect a high degree o f similarity between estimated and observed data matrices,
iii
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providing support for the rationally derived scales o f the CSI. Presentation of the results
of this study is followed by a general discussion of data analyses, implications o f
research findings, limitations of the study, and suggestions for future research.
iv
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
ABSTRACT....................................................................................................................... iii
TABLE OF CONTENTS..................................................................................................v
LIST OF TABLES.............................................................................................................vii
LIST OF FIGURES........................................................................................................... viii
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS................................................................................................ ix
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION...................................................................................1Statement o f the Problem.................................................................................... 5Justification for the Study....................................................................................6Literature Review................................................................................................. 12
Sources o f Stress........................................................................................12Conflict.......................................................................................... 13Tension...........................................................................................14Change........................................................................................... 15Hassles and Frustration................................................................16Trauma and Catastrophe.............................................................. 17Pressure..........................................................................................18
Epidemiology of Stress-Related Illness..................................................19Current State o f Stress and Coping Theory........................................... 23Current State o f Coping Assessment...................................................... 24Philosophical Underpinnings o f Stress and Coping..............................26Stress and Coping in the 19th Century....................................................29Stress and Coping in the Early 20th Century......................................... 31Stress and Coping in the 1950’s-1960’s................................................ 35Stress and Coping in the 1970’s and 1980’s......................................... 40Contemporary Research in Stress and Coping......................................49Conceptual Rationale o f the CSI.............................................................52Review o f Studies Conducted in Development of the CSI.................. 60
Pilot Study: Development o f the Coping Style Inventory (CSI)...................... 71Development o f the Item Sample............................................................ 72Participants................................................................................................. 75Materials and Procedure........................................................................... 76Pilot Results: First-Order Exploratory Factor Analysis........................80
v
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Pilot Results: Second-Order Factor Analysis....................................... 87Pilot Conclusion.......................................................................................88
CHAPTER 3 RESULTS..................................................................................................102Descriptive Statistics o f Sample..........................................................................102Structural Equation Modeling............................................................................. 106Specification o f the Measurement Model..........................................................108Identification o f the Measurement Model......................................................... 108Estimation o f the Measurement Model.............................................................. 109
Implications........................................................................................................... 117Implications for the Practice o f Counseling Psychology.......................119Implications for Theory and Research in Counseling Psychology....... 122
Limitations.............................................................................................................125Prescribed Areas for Future Research................................................................ 126
APPENDIX A: List o f CSI Items....................................................................................129
APPENDIX B: Human Use Consent Form....................................................................131
Furthermore, many o f the most frequently used coping measures also suffer from a
variety of weaknesses including: poor reliability, poor validity, misuse o f factor analytic
techniques, and a failure to distinguish between stylistic measures o f coping and
situation-specific coping measures (Endler & Parker, 1994). Therefore, like the
disjointed state o f research in the area o f stress and coping theory, the literature in stress
and coping assessment is rife with instruments that possess questionable validity and
inadequate psychometric properties, thereby limiting their utility in research and
practice.
Philosophical Underpinnings o f Stress and Coping
The literature contains a great number o f studies that profess to identify the
components o f coping strategies. In fact, the study o f stress and the processes by which
individuals cope with negative life events has been a classic issue in research that can
be found in the earliest of theoretical conceptions (Strachey, 1962). Theoretical
compositions o f stress and coping in the social sciences are as dated as fourth century
B.C.. In the Republic. Plato relates what is perhaps one o f the world’s first treatises on
stress and coping. Relating the governing o f oneself to the processes involved in
governing a republic o f people, Plato suggests that a successfully governed group o f
people is merely a composition o f successfully self-governed individuals, and that a
parallel exists between the health o f nations and the health o f the people who comprise
them (Plato, trans. 1993). Furthermore, Plato describes this health as the satisfaction o f
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27needs and the effective regulation o f resources available to meet those needs, and the
effectiveness o f this regulation is evidenced by the degree o f balance between the
demands o f the republic, or individual, and the supply o f resources that are needed
(Plato, trans. 1993). Successfully governing the principles o f supply and demand in the
achievement o f a balance between these forces was viewed by Plato to be the hallmark
o f not only the health o f nations, but the psychological health of individuals as well.
According to Plato, the principles that regulate this balance are threefold, each
contributing a different impact on the degree o f balance.
Plato described wisdom as being the first quality that enables the individual to
achieve balance between personal resources and the demands o f life. He defined
wisdom as "thinking knowledgeably and resourcefully about the whole, not just some
aspect o f it" (Plato, trans. 1993, p. 318). The second principle governing the balance
that Plato described is courage, which he defined as "the ability to retain under all
circumstances a true and lawful notion about what is and is not to be feared" (Plato,
trans. 1993, p. 318). Finally, Plato described self-discipline as a state o f being one's own
master, which is achieved when "the better, virtuous elements o f a person's mind are in
control o f the worse, or avaricious parts" (Plato, trans. 1993, p. 318). Throughout the
Republic. Plato treats each o f these traits o f humankind separately as the cornerstones o f
both personal well-being and societal prosperity. Characteristically, individuals who
possess these faculties and exercise them in the maintenance o f a balanced life are said
to be living a virtuous, moral lifestyle.
Moreover, this morality was espoused by Plato's student Aristotle, who wrote
extensively about the efforts o f individuals to manage or "cope" with the demands o f
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28life. In the Ethics (Aristotle, trans. 1971), Aristotle discusses what is popularly known
as the "golden mean," which refers to the virtuosity o f self-regulation and the
achievement o f balance in one's life. According to Aristotle, when the demands of life
are in excess o f one's personal resources, the resulting state o f affairs is perceived as
psychological distress. Likewise, when one's resources are in excess o f one's needs,
poor self-regulation results in gluttony, waste, and excessive indulgence that ultimately
lead to stressors o f their own. However, the wise, courageous, and disciplined
individual is one who lives a balanced lifestyle that leads to health and prosperity.
As influential as the works o f these founding fathers o f academia have been, the
virtues o f balance and the factors impacting this equilibrium were dated ideas even in
their day. In fact, it was in sixth century B.C. when Pythagoras first presented the notion
that health depends on the harmonious blending of bodily elements, and it was he who
first proposed that illness is the result o f a disruption in the body’s equilibrium
(Hergenhahn, 1997). A generation later, Empedocles, a disciple o f Pythagoras, further
espoused the teachings o f his mentor and suggested that the forces effecting the balance
o f the body’s elements are one o f attraction (love) and one of separation (strife)
(Hergenhahn, 1997). These two forces o f human nature were thought to govern the
degrees o f exigency and excess that affect the thoughts, feelings, and behaviors of the
human condition. Later, Hippocrates rounded out the fifth century B.C. by
reformulating Empedocles’ theory into a medical model for treating illness that is
heralded even today. As he became known as the “Father o f Medicine” (Hergenhahn,
1997, p. 33), Hippocrates was able to provide empirical evidence that physical and
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29psychological distress result from a teetering in the balance o f human functioning.
Speaking to this point, Hippocrates stated:
“Men ought to know that from the brain, and from the brain only arise our pleasures, joys, laughter and jests, as well as our sorrows, pains, griefs, and tears. Through it, in particular, we think, see, hear, and distinguish the ugly from the beautiful, the bad from the good, the pleasant from the unpleasant. It is the same thing which makes us mad or delirious, inspires us with dread and fear, whether by night or by day, brings sleeplessness, inopportune mistakes, aimless anxieties, absentmindedness, and acts that are contrary to habit. These things that we suffer all come from the brain, when it is not healthy, but becomes abnormally hot, cold, moist, or dry, or suffers any other unnatural affection to which it is not accustomed (Jones, 1923, pp. 319).”
This treatise on the intermingling o f psychological factors and both physical and mental
health spawned a number o f ancient scholars to embrace the burgeoning field o f study
that has become psychology. The legacy o f Pythagoras was immensely influential in the
formulation o f Platonic doctrine (Hergenhahn, 1997), and it was these historic
beginnings that sired many o f the basic assumptions o f modern-day theory in stress and
coping.
Stress and Cooing in the 19th Century
Throughout psychology's historical development from philosophy to science, the
basic principles noted above have been revisited a number o f times by prominent
theorists in their attempts to better understand the human condition and its aspects o f
psychological health. For centuries, theorists have examined the effects o f biological
and environmental stressors on psychological health, and ideas regarding the processes
of coping with these stressors are as dated as the world's first textbook. However, in
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30spite o f nearly 2,500 years o f study and research, the state of the human condition
remains very vulnerable to the stressors of life.
In the modem era, European theorists expanded upon the philosophy o f the
Grecian doctrine and reformulated the tripartite mind o f Plato in the conception of
psychoanalysis. Beginning with Sigmund Freud, psychological stress was conceived as
a state o f imbalance between the id, ego, and superego. According to Freud, the
imbalance, or intra-psychic conflict between these forces is experienced as
psychological distress, and the manifestation of defense mechanisms are described as
efforts to cope with the stress resulting from the tension o f imbalance.
As one looks closely at Freud’s operationalization o f his tripartite mind, striking
similarities can be found between these qualities o f mind and the features proposed by
Plato. In the Republic (Plato, trans. 1993), Plato cautions that courage taken to extreme
becomes hedonistic and avaricious, while its opposite becomes inhibitous and
deprecating to oneself. Likewise, self-discipline, or self-mastery, taken to extreme
becomes obsessively controlling and Spartan, while its opposite extreme becomes very
indulging and Epicurean. Lastly, it is the quality o f wisdom in Platonic view that
regulates a balance between the forces o f courage and discipline in the attainment o f an
equilibrium that is healthy and adaptive for the individual and society.
It can be seen from this lineage o f thought that the psychoanalytic reformulation
o f the tripartite mind offered psychology a developmental breakthrough in the
application o f ancient philosophical ideology regarding psychological stress and coping.
The corresponding likeness o f Plato's courage, self-discipline, and wisdom to Freud’s id,
ego, and superego is remarkable, and the substrata o f balance in the Platonic and
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31Aristotelian doctrines is revisited by Freudian psychoanalysis in the treatment of
coping mechanisms and their efforts to resolve the imbalance o f intra-psychic conflicts.
In each o f these cases, stress is conceptualized as a perceived imbalance between
demands and resources. Psychoanalytic theory gave a great contribution to our
understanding o f the stress that results from conflicting demands, in which the
satisfaction o f one need necessitates the deprivation o f another. Similarly, in his
discussion o f intra-psychic conflict, Plato writes, "It follows that when the whole mind
accepts leadership o f the philosophical (wise) part, and there’s no internal conflict, then
each part can do its own job and be moral" (Plato, trans. 1993, p. 336).
Stress and Coping in the Early 20th Century
After the founding o f psychoanalysis, many disciples o f Freud continued in the
European tradition and formulated a number of psychodynamic expositions o f neuroses.
At this point in history, the term "coping" was commonly used in reference to the
mechanisms o f defense against the imbalance o f intra-psychic conflict in Freudian
doctrine. However, the term "stress" has its etymology in use of the term "distress,"
which means anxiety or suffering, and was commonly used in the literature near the
turn of the 20th century in reference to various forms o f neuroses (American Heritage
Dictionary, 1985). During this time, several landmark works in the scientific literature
contributed to our understanding o f the human condition and its efforts to cope with
stress.
Perhaps the first o f these neo-Freudians was Sigmund Freud's daughter, Anna
Freud. She made a significant contribution to our understanding o f stress and coping
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32with the publication of The Ego and the Mechanisms o f Defense (1895). In this text,
Anna Freud (1895) discusses a distinction between personal and interpersonal stressors,
as well as nine methods o f coping that relieve the tension that results from the
imbalance these stressors impose upon the human condition. In the vernacular o f
everyday language, common phrases such as " rationalizing" and "being in denial"
largely stem from Anna Freud's exposition on the coping mechanisms people choose in
efforts to minimize the tension and frustration associated with a perceived inability to
satisfy competing demands. Further expansion of these concepts has led to an evolving
explication o f ego strength, which is essentially regarded as frustration tolerance and
one's degree o f sensitivity to the uncomfortable imbalance o f intra-psychic conflict.
Defense mechanisms are conceptualized as methods o f coping that enable the individual
to regain a sense of control over oneself and others in stressful situations. This sense o f
control, or "self-mastery" as Plato once called it, was a focal point in many of the early
psychodynamic formulations o f stress and coping.
In her exposition of the complimentary relationship between stress and coping,
Anna Freud cites her contemporary Wilhelm Reich in discussing what he referred to as
the economic function o f character armor. According to Reich (1933), individuals tend
to prefer certain coping mechanisms over others, and habitual use o f these become part
of one's character and manifest as dispositional, or characteristic approaches to stress
management. These characteristic approaches to stress management become part o f
one's personality and serve to shield the individual against stressors that he or she is
particularly vulnerable to. Therefore, this shielding or "armoring" aids the individual in
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33maintaining a balance between coping resources and the demands of personal and
interpersonal stressors (Reich, 1933).
In addition to Anna Freud and Wilhelm Reich, many other prominent neo-
Freudian theorists made significant contributions to the conceptual development o f
stress and coping. Two theorists in particular expanded the idea o f a dispositional
approach to stress. One of these theorists, Karen Homey (1937), wrote in The Neurotic
Personality o f Our Time of the characteristics that comprise ineffective coping and the
effects o f resulting stress. More specifically, Homey writes o f the efficacious function
that support serves in minimizing the impact of life's stressors. Keeping in line with
Anna Freud's observation that a distinction exists between personal and interpersonal
coping, Homey describes support o f both oneself and others in terms that parallel the
Platonic view o f wisdom and the role it plays in valuing the whole self, rather than
certain aspects o f the self. Taking this perspective, problems may be generally
perceived as small and insignificant relative to the grander scheme of life. Conversely,
valuing certain aspects of the self at the expense of others narrows one's perspective of
life, and problems in that area become that much more salient and distressing (Homey,
1937).
Another prominent neo-Freudian theorist that made significant contributions to
the early stress and coping literature is Eric Fromm. In his text The Anatomy o f Human
Destructiveness. Fromm (1973) writes extensively o f a disposition to be indulgent to
personal stressors and malevolent towards interpersonal stressors, which results in
boundaries between the self and others that protects the self against interpersonal
stressors. However, Fromm (1973) indicates that these same boundaries also serve as
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34barriers to gleaning the social support often needed when efforting to cope with
personal stressors. Thus, this dispositional or stylistic approach to stress management is
polarized towards the management o f interpersonal stressors and is consistent with
Plato's characterization of the person who has a positive imbalance of courage.
Furthermore, Reich (1933) referred to an "armoring" of this sort in his description o f the
phallic-narcissistic character and the penchant of this type towards taking an offensive
posture when pressured by troubling life circumstances.
The Platonic views of stress and coping have been revisited and reformulated
throughout antiquity. The negative effects o f stress on the human condition and the
dynamics o f stress reduction have been central figures throughout history. In fact, the
forces that govern the balance between the demands o f life stressors and the resources
for coping have been revisited in some aspect or another by nearly every major
influential work in the field o f psychology. However, as many influential European
theorists began to flee to America during WWII, the popularity o f psychology as a field
of study began to rise in the West, and a paradigm shift began to occur. During this
time, the development o f the field o f psychological study began to take on the
characteristics o f what was to become known as behaviorism. As the theory-driven
models o f psychological health gave way to more data-driven, empirically verifiable
models, a consonant shift occurred in the literature concerning stress and coping.
During this time, researchers began to focus on the influence that environmental factors
have on the onset and reduction o f stress. Likewise, abstract explanations o f intra
psychic dynamics were laid aside in favor o f more concrete explanations o f learned
coping behaviors in efforts to facilitate objectivity in empirical observation. Eventually,
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35traditional conceptualizations of dispositional coping styles were laid aside in favor of
a study that targeted more situation specific coping strategies. This shift from
unobservable to observable aspects of stress and coping, along with a burgeoning
Zeitgeist o f factor analysis, enabled research in stress and coping to become a more
mature and narrowed scope o f study.
Stress and Coping in the 1950's-1960's
During the I950’s and 1960’s, the nascent emphasis on observable aspects of
stress and coping led to the development o f two widely studied models o f adaptational
processes, the general adaptation syndrome (Selye, 1956, 1976) and the transactional
model o f stress and coping (Lazarus, 1966). Given the Zeitgeist of direct observation in
empirical research, these models each posit a premium on objectivity in measurement of
their theoretical assumptions. Thus, data collected by the United States military during
WWII and the Korean Conflict spawned a number o f studies on stress and coping
processes, and results o f these studies spurred a widespread interest in the development
o f stress models and assessments of coping (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984).
General Adaptation Syndrome. The first body of research that brought
stress theory into the modem era was begun by Hans Selye. Heavily influenced by
Cannon (1939), who propagated similarly as Plato (Plato, trans. 1993) the notion that
humans are motivated to maintain an internal homeostasis or psychological balance,
Selye devised a model that was to become known as the general adaptation syndrome
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36(GAS) (Brannon & Feist, 1992). In his pioneering work The Stress o f Life. Selye
(1956, 1976) outlined the classic three-stage model o f responses to environmental
stressors.
The first o f these stages, the alarm stage, is equivalent to the well-known "fight
or flight" response first coined by Canon (1920) and is thought to be triggered
involuntarily by the automatic nervous system in response to aversive perceptual stimuli
(Selye, 1956). The classic example o f the “fight or flight” response is the instinctual and
automatic startle response that may be observed when individuals are unexpectedly
presented with a loud noise (Selye, 1956). During this stage, the sympathetic nervous
system is activated, causing a release of adrenaline, corticosteroids, and endogenous
opiates into the bloodstream, along with an increase in heart rate, blood pressure, and
respiration. This alarm phase also signals an activation of the sweat glands, a decrease
in digestion, and blood is diverted away from internal organs and toward the skeletal
muscles. These processes prepare the mind and body for optimal performance in
response to environmental stressors.
If the perceived stressor is not resolved, humans and animals enter the resistance
stage, where levels o f the endocrine and sympathetic nervous systems are lower than in
the alarm reaction but still higher than normal. Chronic stressors can maintain this
heightened state o f arousal for extended periods o f time, ultimately suppressing the
body’s immune system and making the organism vulnerable to pathogens. Finally, if the
stressor has not been adequately resolved, individuals may pass into the exhaustion
stage, where the parasympathetic nervous system takes over and returns the circulatory,
nervous, and endocrine systems to normal levels. Continued stress in the exhaustion
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37stage can lead to what Selye (1956) referred to as diseases of adaptation, such as
allergies, ulcers, heart disease, and sometimes death. In Selye's (1976) view, like Plato
before him (Plato, trans. 1993), these three stages o f the GAS reflect the body's efforts
to maintain an equilibrium o f comfort and efficiency in daily functioning.
John Mason, a long-time critic of Selye, agreed with the Roman philosopher
Epictetus, who stated over 2,000 years ago that "men are disturbed not by things, but by
the views which they take o f things" (Hergenhahn, 1997). According to Mason (1975),
emotional stimuli are among the most potent and prevalent stimuli capable of increasing
pituitary-adrenal cortical activity. He believed that it is not the mere exposure of
environmental stimuli that cause the general adaptation syndrome, but the emotional
consequences o f this exposure. This theoretical reformulation of the GAS helped to
explain individual differences in the stress responses to the same stressor. For example,
it had been observed throughout history that while an entire platoon o f men may be
exposed to the same combat situation, some men falter under the pressure while some
rise to valor. Given the uniform, real-world stressors o f combat, variability in adaptation
has been thought to be caused by the emotional reactions to stress, rather that the
passive experience o f it. Combat studies, which provided directly observable stressors
and coping responses, facilitated hypothesis testing and were heralded by behaviorists
for their objectivity and focus on environmental stimuli and coping behaviors. Thus, the
notion o f cognitive appraisal and the role it plays in coping with stress became the
cornerstone o f developing ideas pioneered by Richard Lazarus that view stress and
coping processes as dependent upon the transaction between personal factors and
situational factors.
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38Transactional Model o f Stress and Coping. First conceived as the
transactional model, Lazarus (1966) ultimately supplanted his contemporaries' emphasis
on physiology, behavior, and emotion with a cognitive model o f stress and coping. The
transactional model purports that stress is not due to merely environmental stressors or
human susceptibility, but an interaction or transaction o f personal and environmental
Milford, Velarde, & Peevy, 1998a), as well as neuroticism and vulnerability to stress
(Bellah, Milford, Velarde, & Peevy (1998c). Furthermore, research has shown that
individuals whose coping styles are characterized as being high in PC and low in IC
have a tendency to make external causal attributions for self and internal causal
attributions for others when coping with a perceived negative event in affiliation with
others (Bellah & Milford, 1999). Conversely, research findings indicate that individuals
whose coping styles are low in PC and high in IC are more likely to exhibit social
desirability and seek social support in efforts to cope with the stress associated with
adjusting to a prison environment (Bellah, Buboltz, Milford, & Velarde, 2000). In
addition to these findings, individuals who score high in coping competence as
measured by the CSI have also been found to be high in hardiness, as well as forgiving
of both self and others (Bellah & Milford, 1998). Therefore, research findings suggest
that the scales o f the CSI may provide the first steps towards bridging the gap between
practice, research, and theory in counseling psychology and an indexing o f coping
ability that has been called for in recent literature (Lazarus, 2000).
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119Implications for the Practice o f Counseling Psychology
The findings o f this study lend credence to the supposition that the CSI may be a
practical tool for psychologists to use in applied settings, particularly in case
formulations and treatment planning. In these times o f ever-changing standards o f care
and interaction with third-party agencies such as health maintenance organizations,
psychologists are increasingly being required to substantiate diagnoses and quantify
treatment plans. Prognosticating outcome of prescribed treatment in efforts to secure
reimbursement for psychological services has become an intricate aspect o f applied
psychology in recent years, and yet there remains a dearth o f measures that enable the
clinician to objectify the prognostication of treatment.
A poignant example o f the need for making objective prognoses may be found
in the processes involved in certifying reimbursement for Medicaid clients. Medicaid
requires that psychotherapy follow a documented plan o f treatment that progresses
through sequential steps and leads to a predicted remission of psychopathology.
Moreover, the standardized format for treatment plans requires that psychologists
indicate the psychosocial stressors on Axis IV as problem areas, as well as the related
therapeutic interventions proposed for reimbursement. Finally, the Medicaid-approved
format for treatment plans requires psychologists to indicate the criteria for discharge of
services, typically a nominal increase in the Global Assessment o f Functioning index
reflected on Axis V. Thus, to secure monetary reimbursement for psychological
services, psychologists working in applied settings are required to formulate a treatment
plan that includes: I) a delineation o f the client’s presenting problems or psychosocial
stressors, 2) treatment interventions prescribed to facilitate coping with these stressors,
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120and 3) a prognostication o f the expected level of functioning prior to the termination of
psychological services. Consequently, the certification for reimbursement for
psychological services is, in effect, dependent upon the psychologist matching
identified stressors with the coping strategies prescribed to give the best prognosis for
functional psychosocial adaptation. Therefore, the dilemma for practitioners working in
applied settings is twofold: I) an inability to objectively substantiate the appropriateness
o f treatment modalities, and 2) an inability to objectively predict the efficacy of
prescribed treatments.
Contemporaneously, the field of psychological testing is rife with reliable and
valid assessments o f intelligence, personality, and psychopathology that aid in
formulating diagnoses o f mental illness. However, there exists a persisting disparity
between the availability o f these traditionally “clinical” tools of practice and those that
are designed for use in “counseling” and other treatment-oriented aspects o f
professional practice. Screening instruments (e.g. the Beck Depression Inventory) are
commonly used in both inpatient and outpatient settings as outcome measures, but
screening instruments have little value for use in predicting a priori what the
effectiveness o f treatment will likely be for any particular client. Likewise, while
clinical interviews are effective means for identifying specific psychosocial stressors
and clinical testing is effective for determining the type and degree o f stress-related
mental illness, there remains a distinct void in the field for determining the
appropriateness o f available treatments that improve coping with identified stressors
and improve psychosocial functioning. Thus, psychologists are often armed with an
abundance o f assessment data that may be used in conjunction with interview data when
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121formulating diagnoses and determining the current level o f functioning o f their clients.
However, psychologists all too often find themselves faced with recommending
modalities o f treatment and prognosticating the efficacy o f prescribed treatments
without the support o f objective and reliable assessment data. Consequently, agencies of
third-party payment for psychological services have begun to more closely scrutinize
certification requests for reimbursement and have increasingly begun to deny payment
for psychological services.
This phenomenon has resulted in a need for counseling psychologists to bridge
the gap between research and practice in the generation o f objective coping instruments
that facilitate the prescription and prognostication o f various treatment modalities.
Overall, the coping instruments that are presently available are inadequate for use in
clinical settings, as most have been criticized for use in research settings. Even so,
virtually all o f the coping assessments that have been developed are designed to indicate
the frequency and type o f coping behaviors thought to be elicited by the environmental
factors o f predictability and controllability o f specific stressful events. Given that the
conceptualizations o f these instruments are inherently dependent upon features o f the
environment, they provide little utility for use in applied settings that focus on the
diagnosis and treatment o f persons and the psychosocial adjustment to the environment.
Therefore, although contemporary designs o f coping assessment have led to a veritable
number o f scholastically appealing avenues for research, they have not made much
contribution to the field o f applied counseling psychology. The resulting gap between
research and practice has stagnated both the research o f applied psychology and the
application o f research.
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122Implications for Theory and Research in Counseling Psychology
A critical review of this disparity points to the need for a unifying theory that
might bridge the gap between research and practice. Although the transactional model
of stress and coping has been immensely popular in the literature for nearly forty years,
the instruments that have been designed to test its assumptions have failed to actually
measure the “transaction.” Given that coping processes have been theorized to be
dependent upon the transaction between person and environmental factors, the testing o f
these theoretical assumptions has been limited to measuring the predictability and
controllability o f events and their environmental circumstances. This resulting
omission o f the person in the advancement o f coping theory has left the field void o f
any unifying conceptualization o f the characteristics that lead to coping ability. The
provision o f such a theory might provide the connection needed for the advancement o f
both research and practice, as researchers would be able to add characteristics o f the
person to the study o f person-environment fit, and practitioners would be able to
prognosticate individual differences in coping competence. Given that the results o f this
study are in support o f the hierarchical structure o f the CSI, it may be suggested that the
CSI provides a first step towards the joining of research and practice by offering a
theoretically derived measure o f coping styles.
Although the field of stress and coping is currently in need o f a mechanism for
studying coping styles, it is perhaps ironic that the theoretical conceptualization o f
coping style is at the heart o f the field’s very inception. The ancient physician
Hippocrates noted that individual differences exist in the characteristic approaches
people take in efforts to cope with the stressors o f illness and injury, and he was perhaps
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123the first to note that these characteristic approaches impact the prognoses o f prescribed
treatments for the remission o f symptomology. It is striking that hundreds o f centuries
since the Hippocratic doctrine, practitioners in the helping profession are still struggling
with the issues of prognosticating the appropriateness and efficacy o f prescribed
treatments.
It is also striking that the field o f stress and coping is lagging behind many other
fields o f psychological study, despite its ancient beginnings and multiple theoretical
formulations throughout antiquity that stem from some o f psychology’s most famed
theorists (e.g. Galen, Immanuel Kant, Wilhelm Wundt, Hans Eysenck). For example,
developmental psychology has long studied the characteristics of various parenting
styles (e.g. authoritarian, authoritative, permissive). Likewise, social psychology can
boast o f an abundance o f research comparing and contrasting the features o f attribution
styles (e.g. optimistic vs. pessimistic) and communication styles (e.g. open vs. closed).
Additionally, career psychology has a long history o f research in leadership and
managerial styles (e.g. micro- vs. macro-management). Each of these fields o f study has
benefited from the unifying formulations o f their respective “styles,” as work in these
areas have led to a number o f important empirical findings.
For example, research in the area o f attribution styles has overwhelmingly
supported the postulate that “optimistic” explanatory styles lead to functional
psychosocial adaptation, while “pessimistic” explanatory styles lead to anxiety and
depression. Likewise, “open” communication styles have been shown to be more
effective than “closed” communication styles in the development and preservation o f
marital relationships. Furthermore, research in parenting styles has also been fruitful in
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124identifying the “authoritative” style as the most effective compromise between the
extremes o f the “authoritarian” and “permissive” styles in rearing children. Given these
examples, it stands to reason that combining the Galen-Kant-Wundt-Eysenck theoretical
model with contemporary factor analytic techniques in the derivation o f the CSI might
offer a mechanism for comparing the features of coping styles and determining which
are more efficacious for psychosocial adaptation. Therefore, providing a theoretically
driven assessment o f coping styles may prove to be a valuable companion to the
assessment o f coping strategies and provide a first step towards filling the gap between
theory and research o f coping processes.
Findings from studies o f coping styles may also facilitate the practice of
counseling psychology by enabling the practitioner to empirically support treatment
decisions. For example, prescribed treatments for mental illness are likely to have better
prognoses for clients who score high in coping competence than those who score low in
coping competence. Likewise, the prescription of group therapy may prove to be more
appropriate for individuals who score high in interpersonal coping competence than
those who score low in interpersonal coping competence. Moreover, individual
strengths and weaknesses among the features o f coping styles may enable the
practitioner to more readily point to coping resources and areas for needed intervention
when formulating treatment plans. Thus, the CSI may contribute to the field o f stress
and coping by: 1) providing theory with the operationalization o f coping styles that is a
needed companion to work in coping strategies, 2) providing research with a reliable
tool for comparing and contrasting the features o f coping styles, and 3) providing
practitioners with an objective index o f coping competence that may be used in
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125prognosticating the appropriateness and efficacy o f prescribed therapeutic treatments
for mental illness.
Limitations
Although results of data analyses may be interpreted as evidentiary to an
affirmation o f the proposed model’s fit to the data, these are only estimates and
imperfect representations of the data. While the parameter constraints placed on each o f
the factors indicate a proposed “perfect” relation between primary and second-order
factors (i.e., R = 1.0), the observed factor loadings o f each scale on their respective
endogenous domain only ranged from .34 to .61 for PC and .42 to .50 for IC, indicating
a much less than perfect relation between first-order and second-order factors.
Therefore, although the overall match between the predicted and observed data structure
is estimated to lie within an acceptable range of fit, the degree o f fit between predicted
and observed data matrices is not perfect and is susceptible to the influence o f error.
Given that the proposed model is recursive, evidence does not suggest the results o f
these analyses are affected by systematic error variance, as the error terms do not
covary. Nonetheless, error variance is an inevitable part o f any factor solution, as there
are no perfect measures of constructs that by definition are not directly observable
phenomena within the domain o f sample space (Nunnally & Bemstein, 1994).
Another limitation o f this study is its failure to replicate many o f the
psychometric properties that were found in the pilot study. For example, the overall
reliability o f the CSI as estimated by Cronbach’s alpha in the pilot study was m = .90,
while the sample used for confirmatory factor analysis observed an overall reliability
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126measure o f m = .86. Additionally, the internal consistency o f PC in the present sample
is estimated at ra = .80, compared to ra = .85 in the pilot study. Likewise, the reliability
estimate o f IC was also lower in the present sample (ra = .83) than in pilot work (ra =
.88). Moreover, with the exception the scale other-control, each o f the means and
standard deviations for the subscales is lower in the present sample than in the pilot
sample.
A related limitation to this study lies in a possible instability among subscales.
Although it has been suggested that a minimum of five items is typically needed to
achieve a stable subscale (Hair et. al., 1995; Nunnally & Bernstein, 1994), others have
prescribed that a minimum of seven items is needed for reliable estimates o f subscale
scores (Costa & McCrae, 1992). Therefore, it may be reasoned that the disparity of
measures between samples might be attributable to instability among subscales that may
be due to three o f the six scales containing fewer than seven items. As it is well
documented that the reliability o f a scale typically increases as the number o f items
increases (Nunnally & Bernstein, 1994), it is possible that lengthening the CSI would
produce an improvement in the reliability and stability o f scaled scores.
Prescribed Areas for Future Research
A number o f limitations o f this study incite a need for further development o f
the CSI. In particular, both the current study and pilot work made use o f a college
student sample, therefore results o f these analyses may only be generalizable to a single
population o f college undergraduates. Thus, a need exists for future research in
standardization o f the CSI in other settings such as community and psychiatric
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127populations. Additionally, there may be a regional bias inherent in the data, as both
factor analytic studies and every construct and criterion validity study of the CSI drew
sampling from the southern region of the United States. Therefore additional studies are
warranted that not only sample from different populations, but from different
geographical regions as well. Moreover, since a veritable percentage o f demographic
data was missing in both the present and pilot samples, additional studies may be
needed to compare factor solutions by sex and race in efforts to determine the impact
these variables have on the psychometric properties o f the CSI scales. Furthermore,
prescriptions for future research may include a series o f studies examining the use o f the
CSI in treatment planning and as an outcome measure for psychotherapy. As observed
by Vaillant (2000), the field o f psychology has no known method of indexing the ability
to cope with stress, and Lazarus (2000) indicates that this topic is perhaps one o f the
most vexing issues o f research and theory on coping. Therefore, use o f the CSI in
applied settings is a suggested area for future research as the field o f psychology
continues to move towards recognizing coping with the psychosocial stressors in
multiaxial diagnosis.
Conclusions that may be drawn from this study suggest that confidence, control,
and support are characteristics o f individuals that positively covary within personal and
interpersonal domains, and individual differences among these characteristics may
define the features o f stylistic approaches to coping with stress. Rather than asking
respondents to answer questions about specific stressors, the CSI requests that
respondents answer questions about themselves irrespective o f any specific problems or
life stressors. In so doing, the CSI purports to measure characteristics o f individuals,
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128rather than characteristics o f transient life circumstances. This approach may prove to
be more fruitful than the effortful task o f deciphering unconscious defense mechanisms
or asking people to rate their behaviors in response to past stressors, as both o f these
methods o f measuring coping processes are inherently fraught with confounds that
impinge upon the empirical work o f validating and generalizing results. Additionally,
combining a lineage o f theoretical formulation with modern-day structural equation
modeling techniques in the psychometric development o f the CSI may provide a first
step towards the integration o f theory, research, and practice that has been called for in
recent literature (Lazarus, 2000).
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APPENDIX A
LIST OF CSI ITEMS
129
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1301 .1 am a person who worries a lot2 .1 like to stay to myself rather than be around others3 .1 do see m yself as a likeable and capable person4 .1 know most people cannot be trusted5 .1 put off getting things done on time6 .1 feel bad if I hurt somebody’s feelings7 .1 worry about things that never happen8 .1 do most o f the talking in a group9 .1 will succeed in most things I do10.1 can trust most people I know11 .1 try hard to keep from making mistakes12.1 show others that I care for them13.1 think a lot about bad things in my past14.1 am a cautious and quiet person around others15.1 am as smart as most people I know16.1 fail to believe other’s promises to me17.1 fail to finish many hard jobs or tasks I start18.1 forgive others who hurt my feelings19.1 easily lose sleep over worry2 0 .1 am more o f a leader than a follower2 1 .1 am confident in most things I do2 2 .1 know most people will treat me fair2 3 .1 get things done right and on time2 4 .1 put other’s wants before my own2 5 .1 have a hard time making everyday decisions2 6 .1 control what happens in a group2 7 .1 am able to make many good things happen for me2 8 .1 refuse to believe a lot others tell me2 9 .1 do my best at most things I do3 0 .1 think about other’s needs and wants31.1 worry about my future3 2 .1 find most people are honest with me3 3 .1 work hard and try to do things right3 4 .1 am a very agreeable person35. If you treat me nice you want something3 6 .1 give up easily if a job or task takes a lot o f effort3 7 .1 praise and encourage others3 8 .1 refuse to trust others with a secret3 9 .1 please others and make them happy4 0 .1 say things to hurt other’s feelings
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APPENDIX B
HUMAN USE CONSENT FORM
131
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132HUMAN SUBJECTS CONSENT FORM
The following is a brief summary o f the project in which you are asked to participate. Please read this information before signing the statement below.___________________
TITLE OF PROJECT: Examining the psychometric properties o f the Coping Style Inventory.
PURPOSE OF STUDY/PROJECT: To determine the psychometric properties o f the Coping Style Inventory.
PROCEDURE: Upon signing the consent form, subjects will be given the Coping Style Inventory to complete. Data will be analyzed to determine the psychometric properties o f the instrument.
INSTRUMENTS: The instrument used to collect data for this study is the Coping Style Inventory. All information will be held confidential.
RISKS/ALTERNATIVE TREATMENTS: There are no risks associated with participation in this study; participation is voluntary.
BENEFITS/COMPENSATION: None
I , _________________________________ , attest with my signature that I have read and understood thefollowing description o f the study. “An examination o f the psychometric properties o f the Coping Style Inventory”, and its purposes and methods. I understand that my participation in this research is strictly voluntary and mv participation or refusal to participate in this study will not affect mv relationship with Louisiana Tech University or mv grades in any w av. I may withdraw from the study at any time or omit items. Further, I understand that the results will be freely available to me upon request. I understand that the results o f my survey will be anonymous and confidential, accessible only to the principal investigators, mvself. or a legally appointed representative. I have not been requested to waive nor do I waive any o f my rights related to participating in this study.
Signature o f Participant or Guardian Date
CONTACT INFORMATION: The principal experimenters listed below may be reached to answer questions about the research, subjects’ rights, or related matters:
The Human Subjects Committee o f Louisiana Tech University may also be contacted i f a problem cannot be discussed with the experimenters:
Dr. Mary Livingston (257-4315) Dr. Terry McConathy (257-2924)
Judy Johnson Walter Buboltz Garth Bellah
257-4315257-4315257-4315
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