Conducting Polymers and their Applications

224 Current Physical Chemistry, 2012, 2, 224-240

Conducting Polymers and their Applications

Murat Atesa,*, Tolga Karazehir

a and A. Sezai Saracb

aDepartment of Chemistry, Faculty of Arts and Sciences, Namik Kemal University, Degirmenalti Campus, 59030, Tekirdag, Turkey; bDepartment of Chemistry, Istanbul Technical University, Polymer Science and Technology, Maslak, 34469, Istanbul, Turkey

Abstract: This review article focuses on conducting polymers and their applications. Conducting polymers (CPs) are an exciting new class of electronic materials, which have attracted an increasing interest since their discovery in 1977. They have many advantages, as compared to the non-conducting polymers, which is primarily due to their electronic and optic properties. Also, they have been used in artificial muscles, fabrication of electronic device, solar energy conversion, rechargeable batteries, and sensors. This study comprises two main parts of investigation. The first focuses conducting polymers (polythiophene, polyparaphenylene vinylene, polycarbazole, polyaniline, and polypyrrole). The second regards their applications, such as Supercapacitors, Light emitting diodes (LEDs), Solar cells, Field effect transistor (FET), and Biosensors. Both parts have been concluded and summarized with recent reviewed 233 references.

Keywords: Biosensor, Conducting polymer, Field Effect Transistor, Light Emitting Diode, Solar Cell, Supercapacitor.

1. CONDUCTING POLYMERS

Since the discovery of the conducting polymers in the late 1970s, many scientists have been working on finding applications for the newly discovered conducting polymers, such as thin film transistors [1], polymer light emitting diodes (LEDs) [2], corrosion resistance [3], electromagnetic shielding [4], sensor technology [5], molecular electronics [6], supercapacitors [7], and electrochromic devices [8]. By judiciously choising the molecule combinations, it is possible to prepare multifunctional molecular structures that open possibilities for almost any desired applications.

1.1. Poly(thiophene)

Polythiophene has received great scientific attention in the last twenty years. This fact has been made possible by its interesting properties, such as good environmental and thermal stability, as well as by its wide application perspectives [9]. Numerous polyalkyl derivatives of thiophene have been synthesized so far by chemical and electrochemical approaches, resulting in conducting polymers with better solubility and higher capacitor behaviors [10]. Conducting polymers have attracted attention to be used as electrochromic materials due to their inexpensive and potentially processable nature [11-13]. Thiophene-based polymers have received significant interest for their electrical properties, environmental stabilities, and a number of practical applications. For instance, these materials have been used as charge dissipation coatings in electron-beam lithography [14] and as an active semiconducting material in organic thin-film transistors [15]. Recently, Shi and co-workers reported the preparation of polythiophene films

*Address correspondence to this author at the Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Arts and Sciences, Namik Kemal University, Degirmenalti Campus, 59030, Tekirdag, Turkey; Tel: +90 282 2933866 (236); Fax: +90 282 2934149; E-mail: [email protected]

from a boron trifluoride-diethyl ether solution with thiophene monomer by electrochemical means so that the films possess tensile strength, are tougher and mechanically more durable than aluminum [16]. Thiophene based polymers can also be used as potential materials for electrochromic devices [17]. An electrochromic material possesses ability to reversibly change color by altering its redox state. For instance, poly(3-methylthiophene) (poly(3MTh)) is known to be blue in the oxidized state and red in the reduced state. Panero et al. have investigated the electrochromic devices by using poly(3MTh) coated indium tin oxide (ITO) glass electrodes, and thus have obtained an optical contrast between the reduced and oxidized states of about 30 % [18].

1.2. Poly(para-phenylene Vinylene)

Poly(para-phenylene vinylene) (PPV) is a conducting polymer of the rigid-rod polymer family with high levels of crystallinity. PPV is an important polymer in many electronic applications, such as LEDs and photovoltaic devices [19], which is due to the small optical band gap and its bright yellow fluorescence. In addition, it can be easily doped to form electrically conductive materials. Therefore, its electronic and physical properties can be changed by the inclusion of functional groups. It is mostly synthesized via chemical routes, where a precursor is converted to PPV by thermal elimination of leaving group. The deposition of PPV onto or inside polysilicon (PSi) could lead to the development of new functional hybrid devices. In literature, PPV and poly(2,5-dimethyl-para-phenylene vinylene) were prepared via the formation of a double bond by thermal elimination of an octylsulfinyl side group at 200 0C under vacuum [20]. Alves et al. have studied theoretical approaches of PPV and poly(p-phenylene) (PPP) [21]. PPV-based devices have drawbacks due to photodegradation. However, PPV and its derivatives find frequent application in research cells [22].

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1.3. Poly(Carbazole)

Carbazole is a heterocyclic organic compound with active sides at 3 and 6 positions. The anodic polymerization of carbazole [23], especially N-vinylcarbazole [24, 25], has been considered in relation to the polymer film electrodes. The interest in polycarbazoles is also stimulated by their possible applications in electrochromic display devices [26] and batteries [27]. Sarac et al. have synthesized and polymerized some ter-arenes based on N-ethylcarbazole and thiophene [28]. Polyvinylcarbazole (PVCz) electroluminescence (EL) devices with better performance and modified configuration were also reported [29, 30]. Electrocopolymerization of carbazole (Cz) with p-Tolylsulfonyl pyrrole (pTsp) was studied concerning two different types of electrodes, namely CFMEs and platinum (Pt) button electrodes. Modified electrodes on the CFMEs are more suitable to decrease the electrochemical potential values than the Pt button electrodes [31].

1.4. Polyaniline

The oxidized and reduced states of PANI films, including the effects of the dopants and electrolytes, have been extensively studied [32]. Sarac et al. [33] have studied aniline (ANI), which has been electropolymerised by the CV method on three different electrodes: Pt, glassy carbon (GC), and CFME in acid aqueous solution (0.5 M H2SO4). Bhattachrya et al. [34] have investigated PANI using gas sensors and corrosion protective coatings. The applicability of PANI as an ion-exchange resin and conducting polymer has attracted considerable scientific interest in recent decades due to its good combination of properties, such as diverse structure, thermal and radiation stability, low cost, ease of synthesis, and conducting properties. This resulted in its application to different fields, such as micro-electronics, corrosion protection, sensors and electrodes for batteries [35].

1.5. Polypyrrole

Among the numerous conducting polymers, polypyrrole (PPy) is by far the most extensively studied, which is due to its ease of synthesis, good redox properties [36], stability in the oxidized form, ability to give high electrical conductivity [37, 38], water solubility, commercial availability, and useful electrical and optical properties [39, 40]. As a result of its good intrinsic properties, polypyrrole has proven to be promising for several applications, such as batteries, supercapacitors, electrochemical biosensors, conductive textiles and fabrics, mechanical actuators, EMI shielding, antistatic coatings and drug delivery systems [41]. The intrinsic properties of PPy are highly dependent on electropolymerization conditions. High surface area electrodes with small dimensions has been realized in several applications, such as higher performance and miniaturization of electrochemical devices [42]. Brajter-Toth and co-workers have proposed over-oxidized polypyrrole films as a substitute for Nafion films [43-45]. In its oxidized form, polypyrrole is a positively charged conducting polymer [46]. Upon over-oxidation, it loses its conductivity and charge [47]. The characterization

of these films by X-Ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) [48, 49] and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR) [50] reveals the over-oxidation results in addition of carbonyl and carboxylic groups.

2. APPLICATIONS

2.1. Supercapacitors

Supercapacitors have been focused on the development of new modified electrode materials with improved performance. The electrode materials for supercapacitors have been classified into three categories: transition metal oxides, high-surface carbons, and conducting polymers [51, 52]. The development of hybrid electric vehicles and the fast-growing market of the portable electronic devices have prompted an increasing and urgent demand for environment friendly high-power energy resources. Supercapacitors are also called electrochemical capacitors or ultracapacitors. Because of their pulse power supply, long cycle life, simple principle, and high dynamic of charge propagation, they have attracted much interest [53, 54]. In order to form fast charging energy-storage devices of intermediate specific energy, they are designed to fill the gap between batteries and capacitors. They have a high market potential regarding both the hybrid electric vehicles and the pure electric vehicles as to improve the regenerative braking and provide larger acceleration. The capacitances are delivered in mF and µF quantities [55]. Capacitors have been developed to give hundreds to thousands of Farads. These are usually known as supercapacitors, or ultracapacitors, and are initially constructed from carbons of high surface area [56, 57]. Supercapacitor device derives its performance from the so-called double-layer capacitance and is therefore often referred to as an electrochemical double-layer capacitor (EDLC). The capacitance in these devices is stored as a build up of charge in the EDLC in the solution interface close to the surface of the carbon to balance the charge in the carbon material [58]. Another type of supercapacitor (pseudocapacitor) derives its capacitance from the storage of charge in the bulk of a redox material in response to a redox reaction. This fast redox reaction [59, 60] acts like capacitance (pseudocapacitance). A pseudo-capacitor typically stores a greater amount of capacitance per gram than an EDLC, as the bulk of the material reacts. An example of a pseudo-capacitive material is a conducting polymer (CP). Carbon-based materials, such as activated carbons (ACs), and carbon nanotubes (CNTs), are the most widely used electrodes, due to desirable physical and chemical properties. These properties include low cost, variety of form (powders, fibers, aerogels, composites, sheets, monoliths, tubes, etc.), ease of processability, relatively inert electrochemistry, controllable porosity and electrocatalytic active sites for a variety of redox reactions [61]. The development of the carbon based materials aimed to reach desired energy target implies further surface functionalization. It is claimed that carbon composites are potentially of interest to combine a battery with a supercapacitor in one carbon-based system, or to blend

226 Current Physical Chemistry, 2012, Vol. 2, No. 3 Ates et al.

hydrogen storage with fuel-cell functions in one integrated system. Indeed, carbon materials are also extensively studied in the domains regarding negative electrode materials in lithium ion batteries, supercapacitors, fuel cells, sensors, etc. However, in order to meet the demand in many modern-day applications, new synthetic approaches are investigated to produce porous carbon materials with suitable properties [62]. Porous carbon materials can be obtained in two different ways. Both of them are based on template synthesis, using either a hard template or a soft template. The carbonization defined as the “thermal conversion” of organic materials to carbon occurs in a confined space, usually after the removal of silica scaffolding [63]. Because of the fast sorption and desorption of ions, the carbon based supercapacitors have high power capabilities, but a low specific energy. Conducting polymers should improve the device. They undergo a redox reaction to store charge in the bulk of the material and thereby increase the energy stored while reducing self-discharge. One significant drawback of these materials is the relatively low power or lower rate of charge-discharge, due to the slow diffusion of ions within the bulk of the electrode. Nevertheless, it is still proposed that CPs can fill the gap between batteries and double-layer supercapacitors, since these electrodes have better kinetics than nearly all inorganic battery electrode materials which are pseudo-capacitive materials [64]. The conductive polymer, used as modified membrane, is coated to the well conductive material (such as active carbon) to reduce resistance, combined as inorganic-organic hybrid electrode material, which fully utilizes its respective advantages [65, 66]. Scientists have studied PPy/AC composite electrodes [67]. Using AC as a substrate material is being expected to the instabilities, since adhesions and charge transfer conductivities between the PPy and substrate can be improved. In addition, an enhancement of the specific capacitance of PPy is being expected due to an enlarged active surface area of PPy layer deposited on the surface of AC in the composite electrode. Kim et al. [68] synthesized via an in situ chemical polymerization the PPy/vapor grown carbon fibers/AC composites with thickness of 5 - 10 nm. Lota et al. [69] report a composite material prepared from a homogenous mixture of polymer poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene; PEDOT) and CNTs, or by using chemical or electrochemical polymerization of EDOT directly on CNTs. The optimal proportions of the composite are CNTs and PEDOT. The electrochemical method gives better capacitance results, and such a material has a good cycling performance with a high stability in all the electrolytes. Another important advantage of this composite is the high density of PEDOT, its significant volumetric energy. Due to the open mesoporous network of nanotubes, the easily accessible electrode/electrolyte interface allows quick charge propagation in the composite material and an efficient reversible storage of energy in PEDOT during subsequent charging/discharging cycles [70]. Polyaniline (PANI) is the most attractive p-dopable polymer due to its stability, controllable electrical conductivity, and easy processability. PANI prepared by electrochemical methods has been used as an electrode material for redox supercapacitors [71-73]. Ryu et al. [74]

produced two types of supercapacitor has been redox type (symmetric type), based on two LiPF6

doped polyaniline (PANI-LiPF6) electrodes, and hybrid type (asymmetric type), based on PANI-LiPF6 and active carbon electrodes. The hybrid type of supercapacitor was shown to have better electrochemical performance than that the redox type in both 0-1 and 0-3 V ranges (Fig. 1). The specific capacitance of the hybrid type is also larger than that of the redox type in both ranges. The active carbon electrode functions to increase the voltage of the supercapacitor, and the polymer electrode maintains the redox reaction for a relatively long time.

Fig. (1). Schematic structure of hybrid-type supercapacitor. Reprinted with permission from Ref (74). Ryu K.S., Lee Y., Han K-S., Park Y.J., Kang M.G., Park N-G., Chang S.H., Solid State Ionics, 2004, 175, 765–768. Copyrigth@Elsevier. Baibarac et al. [75] have studied electrochemical polymerization of N-vinyl carbazole (N-VCz) on carbon nanotube (CN) films via cyclic voltammetry. Cyclic voltammograms recorded on a blank Pt electrode have been compared to those obtained when single or multi-walled CN films are deposited on the Pt electrode. Graphene sheet (GS), one-atom-thick two-dimensional graphite of sp2-bonded carbon, exhibits good conductivity, mechanical stiffness, good flexibility, and high surface area (2630 m2g-1) [76, 77]. At present, GS based materials have attracted increasing attention due to their potential applications in many technological fields, such as liquid crystal devices, nanoelectronics, supercapacitors and field emitters, and others etc. [78, 79]. Especially, graphene-based supercapacitors or ultracapacitors have been shown to deliver higher specific capacitance than other carbon materials. Wu and co-workers have fabricated a multilayered graphene as supercapacitor material in aqueous and organic electrolytes [80]. Rao et al. reported similar results of the graphene material as the electrochemical supercapacitors [81]. Graphene-based high supercapacitor performance depends on its intrinsic structure. In other words, single or few layered GS with less agglomeration can provide higher effective surface area. It is necessary to enhance the capacitance of the graphene-based electrode material and to explore the exploitation of GS-based composites with various materials such as conducting polymers or metal oxides. Liu et al. prepared flexible graphene sheet (GS)/polyaniline (PANI) nanofibers composite paper via a


facile and fast two-step route composed of electrostatic adsorption between negatively-charged poly(sodium 4-styrenesulfonate) (PSS) mediated GS (coded as PSS-GS) and positively-charged PANi nanofibers. The follow-up vacuum filtration of the as-prepared PSS-GS / PANi nanofibers suspension is given in Fig. (2) [82].

2.2. Ligth Emitting Diodes (LED)

Burroughes et al. studied the polymer light-emitting diodes (PLEDs), which have been become the topic of intense academic and industrial research. PLEDs based on PPV are now coming out as commercial products. When compared to inorganic or organic materials for LEDs, the main advantages of the polymer electroluminescence (EL) devices are their fast response times, process ability, the possibility of uniformly covering large areas, low operating voltages, and the many methods were applied to fine-tune their optical and electrical properties by varying the structure. At present, only green and orange LEDs meet the requirements of commercial use, even though all three primary colors (red, green and blue) have been exhibited in LEDs, [83-85]. Polymers in the electronics industry overtake their long established passive roles as insulating and encapsulating materials to more active new applications [86-88]. They can be also designed for microlitographic applications [89, 90]. π-conjugated polymers reported in literature, poly(p-phenylenevinylenes) (PPVs), [91, 92] poly(dialkylfluorenes) (PFs), [93] polythiophenes (PThs), [94] and their derivatives exhibit the most promising potential for PLED applications and have been used extensively. Many techniques have been proposed to improve the performance of PLEDs by modifying the chemical structure of the polymer with bulky phenyl side groups, or PPV-based alternating copolymers [95, 96]. Veinot et al. produced ITO / TPD-Si2 / PFO / Ca / Al PLED devices and the response to PLEDs with ITO and ITO / PEDOT – PSS anodes. They have investigated polymer LEDs, charge injection and continuitiy at the anode-hole transport layer interface. The basic multilayer structure of a prototypical LED is shown in Fig. (3A). Each layer plays a specific role in producing organic electroluminescence. The functions of the ETL and EML are fulfilled by an aluminum

quinoxalate (Alq) or poly(9,9-dioctylfluorene) (PFO) layer. The HTL is oxidized as holes which are injected from the anode into its highest occupied molecular orbital (HOMO), and the ETL is reduced as electrons are injected from the cathode into its lowest unoccupied molecular orbital (LUMO). Charge carriers migrate under the applied electric field and recombine to form singlet and triplet excitons within the EML. By means of both radiative and nonradiative decay pathways, these excited-state species can return to the ground state. Energy level offsets of the anode and cathode functions from the HTL HOMO and ETL LUMO energies, respectively [97-100].

The poly(2-methoxy-5-(2 ethyl-hexoxy)-1,4-phenylenevinylene) (MEH-PPV) is widely used in red-orange PLEDs [101]. Because of their application on flat-panel display, Kijima and co-workers have studied the radiative and carrier injection layers of PLEDs [102]. Based thin-film transistors (TFTs), hydrogenated amorphous silicon (a-Si:H) would be one of the dominant devices to drive PLEDs. Yet, the process integration of TFT and PLEDs is not simple. Concerning the electron injection layer/hole injection layer (EIL/HIL), instead of organic EIL/HIL the inorganic n-a-SiCGe/p-a-SiH has been operated, and the process integration of TFT and PLED could be further simplified. Lo et al. [103] reported that the optoelectronic characteristics of poly(2-methoxy-5-(2 ethyl-hexoxy)-1,4-phenylene-vinylene) (MEH-PPV) polymer LEDs (PLEDs) have been enhanced by operating thin doped composition-graded (CG) hydrogenated amorphous silicon–carbide (a-SiC:H) films as carrier injection layers and O2-plasma treatment on indium–tin-oxide (ITO) transparent electrode.

Among all the conjugated polymers developed in the past years for device application, polythiophene (PT) has been selected because of its high chemical stability and structural tailorability. PT can be usefully exploited to design proper structures for the targeted aims (color emission, physical properties, such as glass transition temperatures, etc.) [104]. Substantial performance enhancement may be obtained directly by modifying the properties of the active organic material. For instance, adding a functional group to the main polymer chain, or using polymer blends, have resulted in highly efficient devices [105]. Cheylan, in a previous work,

Fig. (2). Left: Digital camera images (left) of PANi nanofibers colloid solution, PSS-GS dispersion and PSS-GS/PANi dispersion at different reaction time. Middle: the free-standing PSS-GS paper (a) and (d), PSS-GS/PANi paper (b: 5%, c and e: 10%); right: illustration of electrostatic adsorption between negatively-charged PSS-GS and positively-charged PANi molecules. Reprinted with permission from Ref (82). Liu, S.; Liu, X.; Li, Z., Yang, S.; Wang, J. New J. Chem. 2011, 35, 369–374.Copyrigth@ www.rsc.org/njc.


[106] synthesized thiophene based polymer by adding a functional cyano group to its side-chain and investigated its potential use in LEDs. The cyano group (CN) allows the use of more stable metal electrodes (e.g. aluminium) for electron injection, as it has provided high electron affinity [107]. Cheylan and co-worker [108] reported that on the overall improvement of a single layer organic light-emitting diode device is based on poly{[3-hexylthiophene]-co-3-[2-(p-cyano-phenoxy) ethyl] thiophene} (PTOPhCN), which is built by adding cyano group as a side-chain substituent of the thiophenic backbone onto the main polymer chain and showing promising results for light-emitting diode devices. Polyfluorene (PF) and its derivative poly(9, 9-di-n-hexylfluorene) (PDHF), has been reported as blue light-emitting polymer. Since PF and its derivatives show high

photoluminescence (PL) quantum yields, excellent chemical and thermal stability, as well as photo stability, good solubility, film-forming properties, the interest in these polymers appeared [109-112]. One promising way to display application is to use the white PLED combined with color filters. For this purpose, highly efficient blue PLED is critical to achieve white PLED through energy transfer by using the blue emitters as the host and red/green emitter as the dopants [113-117]. Poly(9,9-dioctylfluorene) (PFO), a PF derivative, would greatly reduce the barriers to make high-performance blue PLED. The optical and morphological properties of PFO depending on the molecular weight have been shown by Hosoi et al. [118]. In general, a higher molecular weight implies better stability, and purity of the material. The low molecular weight polymers are also known to have poor color stability owing to easier chain motions under device operation. Elimination of the low molecular weight components is known to improve the performance [119].

Tseng et al. [120] produced three types of device, including the doped host–guest emission layer (EML) in single layer structure (type I), HTL/EML bilayer device (type II), and HTL/host–guest EML bilayer device (type III). Schematic energy profile for type I device is shown in Fig. (4A) and for type II in Fig. (4B). They reveal a highly efficient deep blue polymer light-emitting diode based on poly(9,9-dioctylfluorene). The performance found is that it increases significantly with the molecular weight. Two different molecular weights have been compared, namely 71.000 and 365.000. The electroluminescent efficiency and color stability have been improved by slightly doping hole traps into the emission layer and bilayer structure.

Fig. (4). Schematic electronic energy profile for the (A) type I (PFO: 1 wt % TFB) device structure (B) type II (TFB/ PFO) device structure. The numbers are in eV. Reprinted with permission from Ref (120). Tseng, S.T.; Li, S.Y.; Meng, H.F.; Yu, Y.H.; Yang, C.M.; Liao, H.H.; Horng, S.F.; Hsu, C.S. Organic Electronics 2008, 9, 279–284. Copyrigth@Elsevier.

Fig. (3). (A) (I) Schematic of a typical OLED heterostructure. (II) Energy level diagram of a typical multilayer OLED. LWE ) low work function electrode, ETL/EL ) electron transport/emissive layer, and HTL ) hole transport layer. A and B indicate the cathode-ETL and anode-HTL interface, respectively. (B) Approximate energy diagram for electrodes and organic layers in the present OLEDs. Arrows denote the barriers to electron (blue) and hole (red) injection. (C) Approximate energy diagram for electrodes and organic layers in a typical PFO-based PLED. Arrows denote the barriers to electron (black) and hole (red) injection. Reprinted with permission from Ref (100). Veinot, J.G.C.; Marks, T.J. Acc. Chem. Res. 2005, 38, 632-643. Copyrigth@American Chemical Society.


2.3. Solar Cell

Fossil energy usage causes serious environmental problems. It is necessary to look for clean and renewable energy resource, such as solar energy, which is called the really green energy, having nearly unlimited supply capability and being widely distributed all over the earth. In spite of the fact that the direct photovoltaic energy conversion in matters of magnitude is more energy efficient than any of those indirect sources, the global use of photovoltaic (PV) is only emerging at a slow pace. The issue behind is that the cost of PV modules based on traditional PV technology is still too high to be afforded by common energy consumption [121]. The use of polymeric materials in the design and fabrication of low cost organic electronic devices, photovoltaic devices, or plastic electronics, has received much attention. When comparing the organic technology to the silicon-based photovoltaics (PV), the two very different technologies are complementary in many ways. Organic photovoltaics (OPVs) offer low cost solution processing, flexible substrates, low thermal budget and a very high speed of processing [122]. When organic solar cells are compared to the established inorganic solar cell techniques, a significant disadvantage of the organic solar cells is the low overall power conversion efficiency. There are several factors influencing the efficiency of OPVs, [123, 124], such as the structure of the polymer, the morphology of the film, the interfaces between the layers (organic/metal, organic/organic), and the choice of electron acceptor [125]. To realize exciton dissociation in organic PV cell, the electron donor/acceptor approach is an effective way. The photoactive layer in a polymer solar cell should at least consist of two constituents, which are electron donor (donor or D) and electron acceptor (acceptor or A), respectively. The widely used donor constituents are mainly the conjugated polymers, such as polyphenylene vinylene (PPV), polythiophene (PT), polyfluorene (PF) or their derivatives. However, other donor materials with much lower bandgap are present; for example, the copolymers consisting of the segments of thiophene, fluorene, pyrizine, and so on. The electron acceptor materials heavily used are usually C60 or its derivatives, the inorganic nanoparticle

acceptor, such as ZnO and CdSe, and the conjugated polymers with cyano group having strong electron affinity. In order to ensure an efficient exciton dissociation process, the lowest unoccupied molecular orbital (LUMO) level of donor material should be a little higher than that of the acceptor. Acceptor paves the way for the electron transfer from donor to acceptor (Figs. 5-6). This energy transfer has already been conducted successfully, provided that the LUMO level of donor is 0.3-0.4 eV higher than that of the acceptor [126].

Fig. (6). Schematic illustration of a typical polymer solar cell based on bulk-heterojunction structure. Reprinted with permission from Ref (126). Gui, L.L.; GuangHao, L.; XiaoNiu, Y.; EnLe, Z. Chinese Science Bulletin 2007, 52 (2) ,145-158. Copyrigth@Springer. The process of conversion of light into electricity by polymer solar cells is illustrated in Fig. (7). There are three operational mechanisms determining that the polymer solar cells have capability to generate electricity. Electricity absorption of a photon either by electron donor or by electron acceptor leads to the formation of an excited state [127]. In polymer solar cells, poly(3-hexylthiophene) (P3HT) is a prominent semiconducting polymer. The self-assemble is the advantage of P3HT [128]. The enhancement is probably easyness of due to the better organization of P3HT molecules [129]. X-ray diffraction demonstrates that a part of P3HT molecules is oriented with their main chain in parallel and with side chains perpendicular to the substrate [130]. Fig. (8) illustrates the molecular structure to be near the interface before and after thermal annealing treatment [131].

Fig. (5). Schematic of photovoltaic effect in an organic solar cell via donor/acceptor approach.(PCBM: ([6,6]-phenyl-C61-butyric acid methylester; MEH-PPV: Poly[2-methoxy-5-(2'-ethylhexyloxy)-1,4-phenylenevinylene]). Reprinted with permission from Ref (126). Gui, L.L.; GuangHao, L.; XiaoNiu, Y.; EnLe, Z. Chinese Science Bulletin 2007, 52 (2) ,145-158. Copyrigth@Springer.


The combination of poly(3-hexylthiophene) (P3HT) and the C60 derivative, ([6, 6]-phenyl-C61-butyric acid methyl ester) PCBM, shows good PV properties with efficiencies beyond 5 % [132-134]. Nevertheless, it is also found that the performance of P3HT:PCBM solar cells is affected by molecular weights, polydispersity [135], regiochemistry [136], mixed solvents without heat treatment [137], applying external electric field [138], proper solvent [139], solvent vapor treatment [140], and added additives such as oleic acid [141, 142].

Regarding the conjugated polymers applied in solar cell as electron donors, the broad absorption and high charge mobility are crucial for highly efficient photovoltaic devices. In order to broaden the absorption spectrum and enhance the mobility of charge carriers, many attempts have been made to modify the chemical structures of π conjugated polymers [143] and to optimize device architectures of the solar cells [144]. The attachment of the non-conjugated side chains to the polymer backbones is a common strategy to tune the optical and electronic properties of π-conjugated polymers

[145-147]. Li and co-workers have shown the conjugated side chain [148, 149], which broadens the absorption spectra and enhances the hole mobility of PTs and PPVs effectively. Studies also demonstrate that the hole mobility [150] of PPV neat film and the electrons mobility [151] of PCBM are low and unbalanced. Mikroyannidis and co-workers have reported that an alternating PPV copolymer, including thiophene with cyanovinylene 4-nitrophenyl side segments, shows better power conversion efficiency (PCE) of 3.7 % [152]. The absorption spectra and the charge transporting properties of PPVs could be improved by introduction triphenylamine or bithiophene segments to PPV backbones, since the conjugated side chains are also proved by Shen and in previous works [153, 154]. Shen et al. [155] synthesized three PPV derivatives (Fig. 9) with different thiophene segments as the conjugated side chains. The polymers exhibit good thermal stability and film-forming ability. The absorption spectra indicate the short conjugated side chains having slight influence on the UV-region spectra of PPVs. By increasing the length of conjugated side

Fig. (7). Schematic illustration of operational mechanisms in polymer solar cells. a) Absorption of light, b) change separation and c) change collection. Reprinted with permission from Ref (131). Cai, W.; Gong, X.; Cao, Y. Solar Energy Materials & Solar Cells 2010, 94, 114-127. Copyrigth@Elsevier”.

Fig. (8). Illustrations of the molecular structure near the interface before (a-c) and after (d-f) annealing. Reprinted with permission from Ref (131). Cai, W.; Gong, X.; Cao, Y. Solar Energy Materials & Solar Cells 2010, 94,114-127. Copyrigth@Elsevier.


chains, the absorption of the UV-region red-shifts. The photoluminescence spectra reveal complete exciton energy transfer occurring from the conjugated side chains to the main chains of the polymers. The polymers emit yellow-orange light with the emission maximum peaks in the region of 525 – 550 nm in chloroform solution and 611 – 616 nm in thin films.

As seen in Fig. (10), both the EHOMO and ELUMO of the polymers are close to the ideal range. The EHOMO and ELUMO of the donor polymers are very important for the efficient photovoltaic cell. The EHOMO of an ideal donor polymer should be lower than the air oxidation threshold (ca. −5.2 eV) in order to ensure the good air stability (that is, to be resistant to oxidation) [156]. Moreover, the relatively low EHOMO of the polymers may lead to a high open-circuit potential (Voc) value for the photovoltaic cell [157]. However, a donor polymer intended for use with a soluble fullerene acceptor (i.e., PCBM) should have an ELUMO offset of approximately 0.3-0.4 eV relative to PCBM (- 4.2 eV) for

the effective charge transfer. A complete picture of the band structure of the three polymers and PCBM is shown in Fig. (10). The first dashed line indicates the threshold for air stability (- 5.2 eV) and the second dashed line represents the threshold value for an effective charge transfer from the polymers to PCBM (- 3.8 eV). The potential of conducting polymers resides in their low cost, not because of the low price of the materials applied, but due to the printing techniques applied for their fabrication [158]. Among the challenges to be overcome for this technology, are the improvement of solar cell efficiency and the lifetime [159, 160]. Therefore, encapsulation of these devices is a stringent need [161]. Various attempts have been made to find better electron transport materials with better transport properties and higher stability towards oxygen. So, semiconductor oxides emerged as an attracting alternative to replace PCBM in PVs owing to their interesting properties. In addition, lower cost these oxides are wide bandgap materials able to accept electrons effectively [162]. Antonio et al. [163]

Fig. (9). Chemical structures of three PPV derivatives with the different thiophene segments as the conjugated side chains were synthesized by Shen and coworker. Reprinted with permission from Ref (155). Shen, P.; Ding, T.; Huang, H.; Zhao, B.; Tan, S. Synt. Met. 2010, 160, 1291-1298. Copyrigth@Elsevier.

Fig. (10). Band diagram for the donor polymers P1, P2, P3 and the acceptor PCBM. Dashed lines indicate the thresholds for air stability (−5.2 eV) and effective charge transfer to PCBM (−3.8 eV). Reprinted with permission from Ref (155). Shen, P.; Ding, T.; Huang, H.; Zhao, B.; Tan, S. Synt. Met. 2010, 160, 1291-1298. Copyrigth@Elsevier.


studied with application of thin films of SnO2 as electron acceptor in Hybrid solar cell (HSC). SnO2 thin films, obtained from sol-gel solutions, have been applied in HSC in a configuration ITO/SnO2 thin film/MEH-PPV/Ag [164, 165]. Other studies have reported that the electron transfer from MEH-PPV to SnO2 is energetically favorable and can be photoinduced. Even though these processes are known to be slower than those for TiO2, the electron transfer rate from the polymer MEH-PPV and the SnO2 is in matters of microseconds, yielding a possible candidate to construct HSCs [166].

2.4. Field Effect Transistors (FET)

Conducting polymers’ advantages over conventional materials, such as silicon and germanium, include low cost and ease of processing. Organic or polymer-based semiconductors have been applied to fabricate field-effect transistors (FETs) since 1983 [167]. There have been many on going efforts to form organic or polymer-based FETs [168-171]. Organic or polymer based transistors have already found their application, such as in smart pixels [172] and sensors [173]. Various approaches involve several techniques, including solution processed deposition, spin coating and printing, electro-polymerization, vacuum evaporation, etc. Other techniques (soft lithography, self assembly, and Langmuir-Blodgett) have been also applied to the fabrication of polymer based FETs and have been used to deposit conducting polymer or organic semiconductors [174-177]. Li et al. [178] produced FET device poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene) working as the source/drain/gate electrode material and polypyrrole acting as the semiconducting layer. Poly(vinyl pyrrolidone) K60 (PVP-K60), an insulating polymer, operates as the dielectric layer. The construction of the device follows a number of steps. First, a layer of aluminum 2 000 Ǻ thick is deposited on the silicon dioxide wafer and patterned with UV lithography to form the contact pads. Next, PEDOT/PSS is printed on the Al gate pad at a substrate to form the gate electrode. Then, the PVP-K60 dispersion in water is dispensed onto the gate. The third printing step was to dispense PPy onto the PVP-K60 to form the active layer. Finally, the top source and drain electrodes made of PEDOT/PSS are printed onto the top of the PPy active layer and also extended to the Al source/drain contact pads under the same conditions which are used for printing the gate electrode. Due to the high solubility and the high carrier mobility up to ~ 0.5 cm2/V s among conducting polymers, the regioregular poly(3-alkylthiophene) attracts great attention as a promising material for the growing area of molecular electronics. The self-organization of the alkyl-side chains in thin films facilitates the formation of a lamella structure with π–π stacking between adjacent polymer chains favorable for the high carrier mobility [179]. The high field-effect mobility, stability and solution processability of regioregular poly(3-alkylthiophene)s (P3ATs) result in a growing interest in the utilization of these polymers as active materials in organic field-effect transistors (OFETs) [180, 181]. In particular, supramolecular two-dimensional ordering of the P3AT chains with high regioregularity enhances high field-effect

mobility, as it is shown in previous studies [182]. Many factors affect the structures of P3AT films and the electric properties of FETs which are based on these films. The molecular parameters are regioregularity [183], molecular weight [184] and side chain length [185]. The processing conditions, are solvent power [186], film thickness [187], doping level [188] and the method used to form the film affect [189]. One of the key factors is the alkyl side chain length greatly affecting the solubility of these polymers in organic solvents for P3ATs. P3ATs, which are long alkyl side chains, are highly soluble. They facilitate the fabrication of transistor devices by solution processing. On the other hand, for linear alkyl chains, the field-effect mobility is expected to reduce the increasing chain length due to the isolated nature of the alkyl substituents [190]. Park et al. [191] reported the effect of alkyl side chain length on the molecular ordering and electrical properties of regioregular poly(3-alkylthiophene) (P3AT)-based field-effect transistors (FETs). They used P3ATs with various alkyl side chain lengths (alkyl = butyl [P3BT], hexyl [P3HT], octyl [P3OT]) as active materials. The structure and alkyl chain length of the P3ATs have been correlated with the electrical properties of FETs based on these films. The FET based on poly(3-butylthiophene) were compared to the other P3ATs thin films in a few nanometers of the semiconductor near the interface between the semiconductor and insulator. Thus, the P3BT thin film has more opportunities to transport the charge carrier at the interface between the semiconductor and insulator. Because the forming from molecules with short side chains has a higher density of p-stacked ordered structures in the charge transport region, the film shows the highest field-effect mobility [191]. Polypyrrole (PPy) is a multi-purpose organic semiconductor with a high technological potential. Compared to other semiconducting polymers, it has two main advantages, namely a low electropolymerization potential allowing film formation in water and the stability under ambient conditions [192]. Because the film grows only on the conductive parts of the substrate, electropolymerization is not particularly well suited to prepare transistor structures. In order to investigate PPy films in a multi-terminal geometry, they are increased to a sufficiently large thickness of at least 50 µm. This allows their mechanical transfer from the polymerization electrode onto a suitable electrode geometry [193]. In other words, they are synthesized on electrically isolated electrodes being bridged by lateral PPy growth [194, 195]. Moreover, chemical synthesis of PPy films from pyrrole vapor [196, 197] on a patterned Fe (III) / Fe (II) oxidant film enables the operation of transistors [198, 199]. However, the Fe (III) / Fe(II) patterning technique suffers from residues of both Fe (II) and Fe (III) in the PPy film [200]. Bufon and Heinzel [201] reported that PPy films can be used as active layers in transistors. By chemical polymerization of pyrrole, homogeneous and smooth PPy films have been defined on a doped and oxidized Si substrate. The device preparation is shown in Fig. (11). Pt contacts are patterned by optical lithography on a thermally oxidized As-doped Si wafer Fig. (11a). The oxide has a thickness of 100 nm. The separation between the Pt electrodes is 2 µm Fig. (11b). Prior to the polymerization step, conventional


photolithography is used to define a photoresist pattern acting as a deposition mask [201].

Fig. (11). (a) Cross sectional schemes illustrating the sample preparation. (b) Top view of the sample as seen in an optical microscope. The type B PPy film (horizontal stripe) runs across the two Pt electrodes on top of silicon oxide. (c) AFM image of the type B PPy film morphology in the active region over an area of 1 µm2. The gray scale represents the height. Reprinted with permission from Ref (201). Bufon, C.C.; Heinzel T. Applied Physics Letters, 2006, 89(1), 012104. Copyrigth@ American Institute of Physics.

2.5. Biosensors

Biosensor is a device which has a biological sensing element either connected to or integrated within a transducer. The purpose is to produce a digital electronic signal, proportional to the concentration of a specific chemical or set of chemicals [202]. The biochemical transducer or biocomponent imparts to the biosensor, selectivity or specificity. A transducer tranforms the biochemical signal into an electronic signal. Suitable transducing system can be fitted in a sensor assembly depending on the nature of the biochemical interaction with the species of interest [203, 204]. Biocomponents that can function as biochemical transducers are tissues, yeast, bacteria, antibodies/antigens, liposomes, organelles, enzymes, etc. [205, 206]. Within a biosensor, the recognition of biomolecule incorporated possesses a level of selectivity, but it can be affected by extreme conditions, such as temperature, and pH and ionic strength [207]. Most of the biological molecules, such as enzymes, receptors, antibodies, cells, etc., have very short lifetime in solution phase. However, they can be fixed in a

suitable matrix. The immobilization of the biological component against the environmental conditions results in decreased enzyme activity [208, 209]. The activity of immobilized molecules depends on the surface area, porosity, and the hydrophillic character of immobilizing matrix. These are the bound reaction conditions and the methodology chosen for immobilization process. Conducting polymers have attracted much interest as suitable matrices of biomolecules that can be used to enhance stability, speed, and sensitivity and thus as being useful in medical diagnostics [210-211]. In order to obtain a long operational life of the biomolecules, or enzyme in an analytic device, the technique of the enzyme-immobilization onto the transducer is a key process to develop a good biosensor. Enzymes can be immobilized on transducer by using such methods as adsorption, covalent attachment, cross-linking and entrapment. As for the adsorption method, it utilizes the hydrophilic or hydrophobic properties of the material, such as ion exchange resin [212] and nylon [213], to construct the enzyme electrode. The method of covalent attachment uses the functional group in the biomolecules, such as -NH2, -COOH, and-SH, for binding with transducer chemically [214]. Covalent attachment, based on ethyl-dimethylaminopropylcarbodiimide (EDC) and N-hydroxy-succinimide (NHS) coupling chemistry, has been used to improve the stability of the desired biomolecules onto conducting polymers [215]. Cosnier et al. reported the electropolymerization of a dicarbazole monomer functionalised with a N-hydroxysuccinimide group. The immobilisation of both polyphenol oxidase (PPO) and thionine, which is a redox dye, has been carried out [216]. p-Aminophenol (p-AP) has been widely used as a raw chemical material and an important intermediate in various fields, such as medicine, sulfur and azo dyes, rubber, feeding-stuff, petroleum, photography, and others. As a result, large amounts of p-AP may enter the environment as a pollutant [217]. Sarac et al. have demonstrated that by using thin film, electro-coated poly[N-vinylcarbazole-co-vinyl- benzene sulfonic acid] (p[NVCzVBSA]), poly[carbazole-co-methylthiophene] (p[CzMeTh]) and polycarbazole (PCz) carbon fibre microelectrodes, can be used for the detection of some biologically important species, such as p-aminophenol. These modified carbon fibre electrodes are found to be effective systems to determine p-AP. Thin film coated p[NVCzVBSA] is the most suitable modified electrode for the detection of p-AP [218]. Dopamine (DA) is a monoamine neurotransmitter of both the central and peripheral nervous systems. It plays an important role in neural immune communication [219]. In order to achieve simultaneous voltammetric measurement of DA and ascorbic acid (AA), Ciszewski et al. have investigated different polymer coatings [220] and introduced new carbon electrode materials [221]. The voltammetric resolution obtained is good, but some of the approaches either show a less favorable detection capability with the conventionally sized electrodes, used in all of these studies [222], or require a nonphysiological pH of the medium [223]. Despite these great achievements, it seems that further efforts are necessary in order to introduce a suitable voltammetric microprobe for simple, selective and reliable


simultaneous measurement of DA and AA at their physiological concentrations. Modified polycarbazole/carbon fiber microelectrode (CFME) is studied for biosensor applications to detect DA concentration by Sarac and co-worker. Results show that the electrodes have a reversible and stable behaviour over the sixty eight days of testing for dopamine (100 µM) in buffer solution. A detection limit for polycarbazole (PCz) thin films is obtained as low as 0.1 µM using CV. Hence, this sensor can be considered to be a promising sensor for dopamine detection [224]. Polymer films of N-vinylcarbazole (N-VCz) have been electrocoated on CFME. Its response to dopamine have been studied in different solution [225].

Organophosphates (OPs) have been used as pesticides in modern agriculture given their low tenacity and high insecticidal activity [226]. Yet, due to their long-term accumulation in environment, OPs pollutions have caused serious public concern regarding the food safety and human health [227, 228]. Many analytic methods, containing gas chromatography [229], liquid chromatography [230], ultraviolet spectroscopy [231], and others, have been grown to assess OPs disclosures. Although these methods could quantitatively provide an accurate evaluation of the health risk of integrated OPs disclosures, they still suffer from some intrinsic disadvantages of either low detection specificity and sensitivity or of expensive analysis settings entailing well trained personnel and inconvenience for field applications. Hence, simple, sensitive, selective, and field deployable tools are still highly desired for biomonitoring and diagnostic evaluation of OP disclosures. Amperometric acetylcholinesterase (AChE) biosensors demonstrate a promising alternative to the traditional methods owing to their good selectivity, sensitivity, rapid response, and miniature size. AChE biosensors have shown satisfactory results for pesticides analysis [232], where the enzymatic activity is employed as an indicator of quantitative measurement of insecticides [232]. Du et al. reported immobilized acetylcholinesterase (AChE) on polypyrrole (PPy) and polyaniline (PANI) copolymer doped with multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs). The synthesized PANI-PPy-MWCNTs copolymer presentes a porous and homogeneous morphology which provides an ideal size to entrap enzyme molecules. Because of the biocompatible microenvironment which is offered by the copolymer network, the obtained composite is designed for AChE attachment, arising from a stable AChE biosensor for screening of organophosphates (OPs) disclosure [233].

CONCLUDING REMARKS

Conducting polymers, such as polythiophene, polyparaphenylene vinylene, polycarbazole, polyaniline and polypyrrole, represent new advanced materials as a key issue for the development of new devices and structures offering the association of the various properties required in advanced applications. Supercapacitors, due to their capability to deliver during high momentary periods, are presently using as the electrical energy storage devices. They have technical and economic advantages in electrical appliances, such as power supplies, protection of computer memory, microchip, fuel cells and batteries. Supercapacitors are unique devices

exhibiting 20-200 times greater capacitance than batteries and conventional capacitor. Light emitting diodes (LEDs) are used in applications as diverse as replacements for automative lighting, such as brake lamps, turn signals and automative traffic signals. LEDs are also used in remote control units of many commercial products including DVD players, televisions and other domestic appliances. A solar cell is an electric device that converts the energy of sunlight directly into electricity by the photovoltaic effect. In stand-alone systems, batteries are used to store the energy that is not needed immediately. Solar panels can be used to power or recharge portable devices. The field effect transistor (FET) uses in electric field to control the shape and thus the conductivity of a channel of one type of charge carrier in a semiconductor material. FET technology is the basis for modern digital integrated circuits. A biosensor is an analytical device which converts a biological response into an electrical signal. The response of the biosensor is determined by the biocatalytic membrane which accomplishes the conversion of reactant product. As a result, conducting polymers have been considered for important materials in microelectronics applications, electrocatalysis, fuel cell electrodes, light emitting diodes, biosensor microelectrodes, reinforced composites, biomedical applications and etc. The synthesis and the characterization of the high surface area nanomaterials (such as nanotubes, nanowires, etc.) have also been mentioned in the text.

CONFLICTS OF INTEREST

Declared none.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Declared none.

ABBREVIATIONS

ACN = Acetonitrile AA = Ascorbic acid AChE = Acetylcholineestarase Alq = Aluminum quinoxalate ACs = Activated carbons Ani = Aniline CFME = Carbon fiber microelectrode CN = Cyano group CG = Composition graded CNTs = Carbon nanotubes CPs = Conducting polymer D = Donor DA = Dopamine EML = Emissive layer EIL/HIL = Electron injected layer/hole

injection layer ETL = Electron transport layer EL = Electroluminescence


EDLC = Electrochemical double layer capacitor

EDC = Ethyl-dimethyl(aminopropylcarbo- dimide)

FET = Field effect transistors FT-IR = Fourier transform infrared spectro-

scopy GS = Graphane sheet a-Si:H = Hydrogenated amorphous silicon HTL = Hole transport layer a-SiC:H = Hydrogenetad amorphous silicon-

carbide HOMO = Highest occupied molecular orbital IJP = Inkjet printing ITO = Indium tin oxide LWE = Low work function electrode LUMO = Lowest unoccupied molecular

orbital LEDs = Light emitting diodes MWCNTs = Multi-walled carbon nanotubes NHS = N-hydroxy-succinimide N-VCz = N-Vinylcarbazole OPVS = Organic photovoltaics OFETs = Organic field effect-transistors OPs = Organophosphates P3HT = Poly(3-hexylthiophene) P(3MT) = Poly(3-methylthiophe) PFO = Poly(9,9-diocylfluorene) PPy = Polypyrrole PSS = Poly(sodium 4-styrenesulfonate) PLEDs = Polymer light emitting diodes PPV = Poly(p-pheneylene-vinylene) PCz = Polycarbazole PDHF = Poly(9,9-di-n-hexylfluorene) PL = Photoluminescence PTHs = Poly(dialkylthiophenes) PVP-K-60 = Polyvinylpyrrolidone K60 MEH-PPV = Poly(2-methoxy-5-(2 ethyl-hexaxy)-

1,4-phenylene vinylene PSi = Polysilicon PPP = Poly(p-pheneylene) PEDOT = Poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene) P3AT = Poly(3-alkylthiophene) PANI = Polyaniline

PVCz = Polyvinylcarbazole P[N-VCzVBSA] = Poly(N-vinylcarbazole-co-vinylben-

zene sulfonic acid) P[CzMeTh] = Poly[Carbazole-co-methylthiophene] p-AP = Para-aminophenol TFTs = Thin film transistors TCO = Transparent conducting oxide XPS = X-Ray photoelectron spectroscopy

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Received: March 06, 2011 Revised: May 13, 2011 Accepted: May 15, 2011

Conducting Polymers and their Applications

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