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Conceptualising Spirituality in the Context of Tourism.
Greg Willson
University of Waikato, New Zealand
Abstract
Arguably, growing numbers of travellers are looking for more
spiritually stimulating and fulfilling travel, and to address
elements of their spirituality through tourism. Despite this, there
remains a paucity of research that explores the relationship
between tourism and spirituality. There is a particular lack of
understanding as to what leads people to seek spiritual enrichment
through tourism, and whether tourism indeed fulfils any spiritual
needs of tourists. If tourism is to be an avenue in which one can
address their spiritual side, this paper purports that there needs
to be an ontological shift in how tourism is viewed by many
scholars. Specifically, this paper argues that tourism needs to be
seen as more than a temporary hedonistic escape from everyday life,
and as an integral part of many peoples lives. This conceptual
paper explores the conceptual essences of spirituality by reviewing
the meaning of spirituality across diverse disciplines. Given this
review, it is a premise of this current paper that many previous
studies have explored the relationship between tourism and
spirituality in a reductionist manner. In particular, a number of
studies have seemingly used the terms spiritual and religious
interchangeably, and have explored the relationship between tourism
and spirituality in touristic situations that are commonly regarded
as being spiritual in nature, such as yoga tours and meditation
retreats, or that occur in areas that are deemed to be sacred. This
current paper proffers that spirituality is the essence of being,
and concerns every humans search for meaning, purpose, and
connectedness in life. Thus, this paper argues that spiritual is a
different concept to religious, and that as tourism is another way
we do life, people may gain experiences that have spiritual
dimensions across a wider range of touristic situations than those
previously cited.
Introduction.
The concept of spirituality is presently experiencing burgeoning
interest from
academics and consumers alike, particularly so in the Western
World (for example,
Bridger 2001; Lynch and Veal 1996; Miner-Williams 2006;
Zinnbauer et al. 1997).
Indeed, it is argued that to speak about spirituality in the
twenty-first century is to
ride the latest cultural wave (Bridger 2001, p. 7). There are
said to be an enormous
number of contributing reasons for the increased attention in
spirituality (Elgin and
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Mitchell 2003), although a number of tourism scholars have
suggested that the
resurgence of interest in the spiritual is fuelled by feelings
of emptiness with a modern
life that is characterised by high stress, a lack of personal
time, isolation and feelings
of depression caused by rapidly advancing technology and
civilisation growth (for
example, Lengfelder and Timothy 2000; Sharpley and Sundaram
2005; Timothy and
Conover 2006). It is also widely purported that many people in
the Western World are
increasingly seeking to address their spiritual sides in a
backlash to a society that they
view as overly materialistic (Belk 1985; Csikszentmihalyi and
Rochberg-Halton
1978; Holt 1995; Singh 2006), and secularised (Barnwell and
Iggulden 2007;
Bradshaw 1994; Elias 1991; Zinnbauer et al. 1997). As a result,
increasing numbers
of people are arguably seeking to engage their spiritual sides
(Brown and Morrison
2003; Cushman 1990; Guo 2006; Harrison 2003; Hartmann 1999).
People choose to
engage their spiritual side through many means, including
religious practise, leisure,
work, and sport (for example, Ashmos and Duchon 2000; Beck 2003;
Schmidt 2005;
Tilson 2005; Van Ness 1996b; Vukoni 1996; Zinnbauer et al.
1997). Many people
also view tourism as an ideal outlet in which to address their
spirituality (for example,
Brown and Morrison 2003; McIntosh and Mansfeld 2006; Timothy and
Conover
2006; Vukoni 1996). Indeed, tourism is argued to share close
parallels with religion,
and to be functionally and symbolically equivalent to religion
with regards to
engaging the spiritual side of people (for example, Cohen 1979;
Dann and Cohen
1996; Graburn 1989a; MacCannell 1973; Sharpley and Sundaram
2005; Vukoni
1996). Like religion, it is argued that tourism provides people
with non-ordinary or
sacred free time which allows them to reflect, think, and
contemplate their lives.
Tourism is also argued to be a symbolic and social ritual that
people take to mark
periods in their lives, or to achieve a regular spiritual
tune-up (Cohen 1979; Graburn
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1989a; MacCannell 1973; Sharpley and Sundaram 2005; Vukoni
1996). In part for
these reasons, modern tourism is conceptually argued by some
scholars as being the
contemporary expression of the traditional religious pilgrimage,
(Graburn 1989b;
MacCannell 1973; Sharpley and Sundaram 2005). Despite this,
there remains debate
as to the nature of the relationship between tourism and
spirituality, and arguably,
research on the spiritual dimension of tourism is at best in its
infancy (Chesworth
2006, p.1). Certainly, a number of authors have purported that
tourism and spirituality
are inextricably linked (for example, Cohen 1996; Harrison 2003;
Smith and Kelly
2006b; Timothy and Conover 2006). However, a number of questions
concerning the
possible relationship between tourism and spirituality remain.
For example, there is a
paucity of research concerning the factors that lead people to
seek spiritual
enrichment through tourism. Further, Sharpley and Sundaram
(2005) proffered that
there remains little evidence to suggest that tourism fulfils
any sort of spiritual need
within tourists. Bruner (1991) also purported that tourism may
not be as central and
important to ones life as certain authors contend. Bruner (1991)
purported this based
on the arguments made in the literature that tourists generally
only spend a small
amount of time in a destination, experience minimal interaction
with locals, do not
speak the language of their locals, stay in the protection of
the tourism industry, and
spend most of their time in the company of other tourists.
Traditionally, tourism has
also been viewed as devoid of deeper meaning, of peripheral
significance to ones life
plan, a quest for the superficial and unchallenging, and an idle
pleasure (Boorstin
1964; Cohen 1979; Horne 1992). Cohen (1979) in particular wrote
extensively on the
significance of tourism to ones life, and concluded that the
significance of tourism in
a modern persons life is derived from their total world view,
and depends on whether
they adhere to a centre, and the location of this centre. To
illustrate, Cohen (1979,
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p.183) developed five modes of tourism experience representing
the spectrum
between the experience of the tourist as the traveller in
pursuit of mere pleasure in
the strange and the novel, to that of the modern pilgrim in
quest of meaning at
somebody elses centre. He labelled these the recreational mode,
diversionary mode,
experiential mode, experimental mode, and existential mode.
Cohen purported that
even recreational travel is sacred in that the tourist can
restore their mental and
physical powers, and enhance their well-being; however, this
form of travel loses its
deeper spiritual content. At the other end of the spectrum,
however, Cohen proffered
that existential tourists are deeply committed to finding a new
spiritual centre, and
the visit to his centre of the tourist travelling in the
existential mode is
phenomenologically analogous to a pilgrimage (p.190). Thus, it
could be concluded
from Cohens work that people generally find tourism significant
to their lives; the
nature of this significance however depends on the type of
touristic experience they
seek.
It is purported that spirituality has not received sufficient
academic attention because
spirituality itself is a conceptually confusing concept (Emmons
2000; Miner-Williams
2006), that defies easy explanation or measure (Emmons 2000;
Martsolf and Mickley
1998; Meraviglia 1999). Thus, Mitroff and Denton (1999)
suggested that scholars in
general have tended to avoid studying spirituality because it is
believed to be a
phenomenon that is too soft, nebulous and ill informed for
critical study. Chesworth
(2006) also suggested that tourism scholars have largely
neglected studying
spirituality because ones spiritual beliefs are highly personal,
and spiritual tourism
in general is not regarded as being particularly glamorous. As a
consequence of the
confusion over the term spiritual, a number of tourism scholars
have taken a wholly
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religious approach to the study of spirituality, synonymously
using the terms
religious and spiritual, and exploring the spiritual solely in
situations that are
heralded as being spiritual in nature, such as during yoga
tours, wilderness retreats,
and visits to shrines (Chesworth 2006; Jackowiski 1987; McIntosh
and Mansfeld
2006; Zahra 2006). It is a premise of this paper that this
represents a reductionist
approach to the study of spirituality in tourism, because as
will be discussed later, this
paper proffers that one could potentially engage their spiritual
side through nearly
every touristic situation. Importantly, and what has arguably
contributed to the
reductionist approach to spirituality in tourism, is that there
is a paucity of research
exploring the conceptual constructs of spirituality (Zinnbauer
et al. 1997). It is
important to explore the conceptual constructs of spirituality,
because as nursing
scholar Meraviglia (1999) explained, the study of spirituality
is like looking at a
diamond; one can see the beauty of a diamond by looking at its
entire stone but to
truly appreciate it one needs to look at each component more
closely. Certainly, while
a number of researchers have revealed pieces of the spirituality
puzzle, most have
failed to put all these pieces together (Miner-Williams, 2006).
While different
disciplines and worldviews view spirituality in a different
light, each description
contains similarities (Meraviglia 1999). The primary aim of this
paper then is to
present a thorough review of the conceptual elements of
spirituality that are
consistently cited across a variety of worldviews and
disciplines. To achieve this, the
author adopted a phenomenological approach to exploring the
conceptual constructs
of spirituality. Phenomenology arose out of a growing
disenchantment with scientific
philosophy, and is based on the assumption that all knowledge is
subjective and
related to the person viewing the world (Bahdra 1990; Hammond et
al. 1991; Moran
2000; Moustakas 1994; Willis 2001). Thus, this current paper
concurs that a
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universally understood and accepted definition of spirituality
is largely impossible to
achieve (Maher and Hunt 1993; Yinger 1967). However, from an
extensive, multi-
disciplinary literature review, this paper argues that there are
core conceptual
components of spirituality that are consistently discussed.
Thus, for the purpose of
this paper, spirituality can be conceptualised as the essence of
being human that
involves a personal and often-transcendent quest for meaning,
purpose, and
connectedness (with self/others and/or God). Ones spirituality
is manifested through
ones values, morals, ethics and actions, and is at the core of
ones well-being. This
conceptualisation contributes to wider scholarly knowledge
because the core
conceptual constructs of spirituality have not been reviewed
before within a tourism
context. As a result, this paper potentially lays a platform on
which future studies into
tourism and spirituality may be based.
Spirituality as the Essence of Being.
Many philosophers from a variety of backgrounds and worldviews,
including
renowned philosophers Aristotle, Plato, Descartes, St.
Augustine, and St. Thomas
Aquinas, have argued that spirituality is the essence of life,
and is at the very core of
what makes one human (Braine 1992; Gaarder 1999; Kretzmann 1993;
Meraviglia
1999). That spirituality is the essence of being human has also
been argued by a
number of theorists from the disciplines of health (for example,
Meraviglia 1999;
Miner-Williams 2006; Taylor 2001), management (for example,
Ashmos and Duchon
2000; McCormick 1994; Tischler 1999), theology (for example,
Bridger 2001;
Zinnbauer et al. 1997), and psychology (for example, Piedmont
2001; Vaughan 1991)
amongst others. Historically, it is argued that the word spirit
is derived from the
Latin word spiritus, relating to human breath, courage, vigour
and life (Kretzmann
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1993; Marra 2000; Zinnbauer et al. 1999). Further, the Hebrew
word for spirit (ruach)
means wind and breath (Delbane and Montgomery 1981; Goldberg
1998), and the
Greek word for spirit (pneuma), also means breath (Roth 1990).
Kretzmann (1993)
suggested that breathing is the essence of life, and thus,
according to Marra (2000),
the modern day translation of spiritus concerns the life-giving
force or animating
principle; it is what makes one human. Thus, it is widely argued
that every person,
regardless of age, culture, gender, religion etc. is a spiritual
being (for example,
Gaarder 1999; Hardy 1979; Kretzmann 1993; Meraviglia 1999;
Zinnbauer et al.
1997).
Spirit is also argued to be the differentiating factor between
humans and animals.
Certainly, all animals are living, breathing entities, but most
philosophers, including
Aristotle, Aquinas, Kant, Descartes and Plato, did not see
animals as being spiritual.
Plato, for instance viewed every living thing as having a soul,
but only humans as
having a spirit (Field 1969). Further, St. Thomas Aquinas, a
metaphysicist, and
arguably one of the greatest medieval philosophers (Gaarder
1999; Kretzmann 1993),
saw some things such as trees, cats and stars as being
exclusively corporeal
(consisting of matter), and some as being exclusively
incorporeal (consisting of
spirit), such as angels. Aquinas believed that both humans and
animals have souls,
which he considered to be the life-giving principle. However, he
did not see animals
as being spiritual. He thus saw the human soul as unique because
it contained both
corporeal and incorporeal elements. Aquinas took his
philosophical thoughts further
by purporting that the soul of a plant is nutritive (it sustains
the life of the plant), the
soul of the animal has nutritive and sensory principles (e.g.
sight, hearing, cognition),
while the soul of the human has nutritive, sensory, and rational
principles (intellect).
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Thus, Aquinas saw the human soul as being the rational soul, and
human beings
souls as being different from other animals because of the
intellect associated with it
(Kretzmann 1993). Plato, Aristotle, Descartes, the
Aristotelians, and Eastern
philosophers such as Aurobindo also viewed intellect as being
the distinguishing
characteristic of human beings (Bourgeois 1995; Miovic 2004).
Famously, Ren
Descartes was believed to have doubted and been sceptical about
nearly everything
except that human beings were rational, intellectual, thinking
creatures (for example,
Gaarder, 1999). Descartes knew that because he doubted things,
he was thinking, and
because he was thinking, he knew he had to be a thinking,
rational being; hence the
famous phrase, Cogito ergo sum, or I think therefore I am
(Gaarder, 1999).
Conversely, certain Christian theorists, such as Beck (2003,
p.27), expressed deep
reservations about the philosophies of the spirit made by Greek
philosophers such as
Aristotle because they arose from a pagan, non-Christian, system
that knew
nothing of the God who would reveal Himself by sending his only
son to the world.
Further, other cultures, or certain people with New Age or
pantheistic beliefs believe
that animals too have a spiritual side, and humans are thus no
greater or different than
them (Furbish and Reid 2003; Gaarder 1999; Hartmann 1999;
Raschke 1996). For
example, many New Zealand Maori believe that everyone and
everything has a
wairua: a physical body and a spirit (Furbish and Reid 2003).
There are also people
who wholly discount the existence of a spirit, or are sceptical
as to the existence of the
human spirit. Indeed, at times, both large numbers of Western
and Eastern thinkers
have remained silent on the subject of the spirit, or higher
realities (Miovic 2004).
Revered spiritual leaders have also at times struggled with the
nature or existence of
the human spirit; Buddha, for example, was arguably silent on
the subject of the
ultimate reality (Miovic 2004), and in more recent times, it was
revealed that Catholic
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nun Mother Teresa felt spiritually bereft and unsure of the
immortality of the spirit
(Bindra 2001). Thus, the existence of the spirit is, for some, a
contentious issue.
Indeed, writing from a psychiatric worldview, Miovic (2004,
p.105) argued that thus
far neither science nor philosophy has proved or disproved the
existence of soul and
spirit. Other materialists wholly discount the existence of a
spirit, and argue that
the only ultimate or fundamental laws of the universe are
physical (Braine 1992,
p.1).
Most authors that view human beings as spiritual have also noted
the personal and
subjective nature of ones spiritual side. They argue that each
person has a unique
spiritual makeup, and a range of factors such as ones culture,
religion, lifestyle, age,
and gender will influence how one views and seeks to engage
their spiritual side (for
example, Clark 1996; Hardy 1979; Levitt 1996; Marra 2000; Van
Ness 1996b;
Vaughan 1991). For example, Clark (1996, p.340) purported that
many homosexual
people feel excluded by institutional religion, and thus, for
Clark, gay spirituality is
concerned far less about religiosity and far more about
connecting spirituality with
the real-life existence of gay men and lesbians in a homophobic
society. Further,
people will differ in what they view as spiritual. For example,
people are said to
have experienced the spiritual through, amongst other
activities, sex (Van Ness
1996b), arts (Happel 1996), sports (Thomas 1996), video games,
music, scientific
inquiry (Van Ness 1996a), and a large variety of other
non-material things (Hardy
1979). Essentially though, because ones spirituality is argued
to be subjective and
personal, potentially anything can be imbued with personal and
spiritual meaning, and
what may be considered mundane to someone may be highly
spiritual and meaningful
to another. For example, a number of Kenyan village elders talk
of fishing as being a
particularly spiritual and personally meaningful experience
(Peake 1989). Conversely,
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there will be many people who will find no spiritual dimensions
or personal meaning
in fishing.
The Personal and Often Transcendent Quest for Meaning and
Purpose.
A number of philosophers have argued that as spirituality is the
essence of being
human, and ones spiritual side is incorporeal, essentially
spirituality concerns a
human beings individual search for meaning in life, which
inevitably will be
undertaken by all humans (for example, Bahm 1974; Hardy 1979;
Tanyi 2002;
Torrance 1994). Bahm (1974, p.3), a metaphysicist, purported
that all humans will at
some stage consider the most fundamental questions of human
life:
Every thinking person, sooner or later, asks himself the
questions: What am I? Why am I here? How did I get here? What is my
future? These questions inevitably give rise to other questions
about the nature of existence, of both self and the world.
Human beings have thus been described as the questing animal, as
the search for
meaning in ones life, or the spiritual quest, is arguably rooted
in humans
biological, psychological, linguistic and social nature
(Torrance, 1994). Once more,
because of the subjective and personal nature of spirituality,
people will find meaning
through different sources, and will be asking themselves
different questions
concerning their quest to understand their self. For example, a
number of people with
serious health concerns will grapple with specific spiritual
questions such as why
me?, why am I ill?, and what is the purpose of my illness?
(Meraviglia 1999; Spaniol
2001).
The quest for meaning is further argued to differentiate human
beings from animals.
It is argued that although human beings realise their
limitations and imperfections,
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they still strive for self-improvement, and in essence, try to
self-transcend; it is the
spirit in man which takes him, in contrast to the plant and
animal, beyond the
threshold of independence properly so called, and of inferiority
to oneself (Maritain
1947, p.41). Thus, to achieve meaning or purpose in one life,
human beings may
have to experience spiritual transcendence. Transcendence is
therefore seen by many
scholars from a wide range of disciplines, as being an integral
part of any conceptual
discussion of spirituality (for example, Butts 1999; Emmons
2000; Freeman 1998;
McCormick 1994; Miner-Williams 2006; Piedmont 2001; Tanyi 2002).
From a
psychological viewpoint, transcendence involves going past the
ordinary confines of
the body (Emmons 2000; Piedmont 2001). Thus, the transcendent
dimension of
people can be seen through a focus on growth, such as Abraham
Maslows (1964)
self-actualising person, who seeks to improve themselves and
increase their
knowledge of themselves and people around them (Piedmont, 1999).
Indeed,
Maslows work has been cited by a number of authors, particularly
from the
management and psychology disciplines, as sharing close
parallels with the study of
spirituality. For example, management scholars Ashmos and Duchon
(2000), Burack
(1999), Butts (1999), and Mitroff and Denton (1999) argued that
spirituality concerns
the higher levels of Maslows Hierachy of needs; thus,
self-actualisation and being
are regarded as being the levels at which one seeks for meaning
and purpose in life.
Other psychologists and counsellors have purported that
spirituality is the personal
expression of ultimate concern, which is described as the
highest meaning in life, and
is closely paralleled to Maslows work (for example, Emmons 2000;
Marra 2000).
Marra (2000), writing from a counsellors perspective explained
that people move
through the ultimate concerns of food, sex, water, shelter, and
will find them
temporarily satisfying; however they are not able to quench the
desire of human
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beings to determine who they are, and their purpose and ultimate
meaning in life.
Marra (2000) therefore suggested that as one moves higher up the
scale of ultimate
concerns, they are moving from matter, to body, to mind, to
soul, to spirit. As with
Maslows Hierachy of needs, one will still concern themselves
with needs such as
eating and sleeping, but when people are concentrating on
spiritual concerns, these
basic needs are no longer their ultimate concern (Marra, 2000).
Spiritual experiences
have also been similarly compared with the work of psychologist
Mihaly
Csikszentmihalyi, who described optimal human experiences as
flow, whereby
people are challenged, experience a loss of self-consciousness
and time (Van Ness
1996b).
Connectedness
A significant proportion of literature across a wide range of
disciplines acknowledges
connectedness as being an integral part of any conceptualisation
of spirituality.
Connectedness has been widely cited in, amongst others, the
nursing (for example,
Meraviglia 1999; Miner-Williams 2006) theology (for example,
Bridger 2001;
Zinnbauer et al. 1997), psychology (for example, Piedmont 1999;
Vaughan 1991) and
management literature (Ashmos and Duchon 2000; Burack 1999;
McCormick 1994).
Indeed, some scholars contend that connectedness represents the
very core of
spirituality. For example, management scholars Mitroff and
Denton (1999) argued
that if one word represented the meaning of spirituality, and
its importance to ones
life, it is interconnectedness. Connectedness can be
conceptualised as a harmonious
relationship or oneness with self and/or others and/or
God/Higher Power (Dyson et
al. 1997; Meraviglia 1999; Piedmont 1999; Zinnbauer et al.
1997). Different
disciplines and worldviews concentrate on specific types of
connectedness. For
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instance, the theological literature concentrates on
connectedness with God,
encompassing both the relationship of the divine to the world
and the human
response to God (Meraviglia, 1999, p.19). Conversely, the
psychology literature
focuses on internal motivations and desires associated with the
self rather than God
(Pargament et al. 1999), and the sociology literature generally
discusses spirituality,
and connectedness in the context of groups of people (Meraviglia
1999). However,
connectedness is subjective and highly personal, and the type of
connection one feels
or seeks will be influenced by a number of factors. Thus, some
people may view
spirituality as involving connections with self, others, and
God/Higher Power and
some will see it as involving exclusive connection with
God/Higher Power, or self, or
other (Schultz 2005). Certainly, a devout Christian for example,
is highly likely to
view their relationship with God as being an integral part of
their spirituality.
Connection may be physical or mental (Goldberg 1998), and thus,
people can feel
connected through many diverse means. For instance, people may
hold a strong
connection to themselves, and largely concentrate on optimising
the self by
participating in activities that improve performance or sense of
well-being (perhaps
through, for example, meditation, or engaging in physical
challenges). Others may
feel a strong connection to, for example, the land, their
ancestors, their planet,
community, church, social group, family, friends, work, sport,
or pets.
Spirituality, Well-being, Morals, Values, and Ethics.
It is widely acknowledged that achieving and maintaining a high
level of well-being
involves high levels of spirituality (Brown 1994; Freeman 1998;
Steiner and
Reisinger 2006; Tanyi 2002; Vaughan 1991). Notably, spirituality
is sometimes seen
today as being the sole or primary determinant of ones health
(Meraviglia 1999). The
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centrality of spirituality to ones well-being was illustrated by
psychological scholars
Sweeney and Witmer (1991), who developed a wheel of wellness,
which revealed
that while ones wellness is influenced by a myriad of factors,
such as nutrition,
physical fitness, and sense of self-worth, it is spirituality
that is central to every
human beings wellness. This is perhaps not surprising, as one
could not imagine
someone with any meaning, purpose, and connection in their life
as being well. Thus,
the relationship between spirituality and ones well-being/health
has been heavily
explored in, amongst others, the nursing (for example, Goldberg
1998; Meraviglia
1999; Miner-Williams 2006), psychology (for example, Emmons
2000; Pargament et
al. 1999), counselling (for example, Chandler et al. 1992; Marra
2000), drug and
alcohol rehabilitation (for example, Brown 1994), and management
literature (for
example, Butts 1999; McCormick 1994). The nursing literature in
particular has
recognised the central role of spirituality to ones well-being
for many years. Indeed,
Florence Nightingale saw spirituality as being an integral part
of nursing practise
(Meraviglia 1999), and now spirituality is viewed as an
essential part of holistic
patient care (Martsolf and Mickley 1998), because when one
provides care spiritually,
they are argued to be providing care for the person as well as
the patient (Meraviglia
1999). People who are engaging with their spiritual side are
also said to be actively
interested and committed to life (Goldberg 1998), and to
experience a number of
positive affective states, including feeling contented, less
stressed, a sense of inner
peace, love, hope, joy, compassion, forgiveness, and a zest for
life (Chapman 1987;
Delgado 2005; Dyson et al. 1997; Kinjerski and Skrypnek 2004;
Malinski 2002;
Merton 1967; Mitroff and Denton 1999; Spaniol 2001; Zohar and
Marshall 2004).
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A person who is in touch with their spiritual side is also said
to hold and act upon
very strong values, morals, ethics, and have a strong desire to
do the right thing and
care for other people, animals, and nature (Butts 1999; Daly
1996; Dorn 2001; Field
1969; Kinjerski and Skrypnek 2004; Marra 2000; Mitroff and
Denton 1999). They are
also said to exercise truth, love, peace, harmony, optimism,
compassion, forgiveness,
and to strive for purity in their lives (Freeman 1998; Kinjerski
and Skrypnek 2004;
Mitroff and Denton 1999; Sweeney and Witmer 1991; Zohar and
Marshall 2004).
Further, it is argued that people who strongly engage with their
spiritual sides are
concerned with accruing spiritual capital, which is earned from
serving a deep
sense of purpose and from serving fundamental human values
(Zohar and Marshall,
2004, p.24). The spirit is regarded as inherently good because
it is purported that
ones spirit calls upon them to act with their morals and in some
cases, in the opposite
fashion to what the body wishes (Field 1969). For this reason,
it is argued that the
spirit can only be infected with evil by its association with
the body (Field, 1969, p.
88). Thus, it could be argued that a person who is engaging
wholly with the
material is likely to seek to fulfil their bodily needs and
desires with little or no
consequence for others around them. The management literature in
particular has
explored the close relationship between spirituality and ones
ethics, morals and
values. Spiritual workers are argued to be trustworthy, honest,
not greedy, ethical, to
have a strong conscience, and to care deeply about future
generations (Butts 1999;
Kinjerski and Skrypnek 2004; McCormick 1994; Mitroff and Denton
1999). They
thus wish to produce products and services that will benefit
mankind, and partaking in
voluntary activities are often regarded as important to them
(Mitroff and Denton
1999).
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Towards a Platform for Understanding the Relationship between
Spirituality
and Tourism.
This paper has sought to address the lack of attention, and
confusion over the concept
of spirituality within the tourism literature. This paper
therefore sought to present a
thorough review of the conceptual elements of spirituality that
are consistently cited
across a variety of worldviews and disciplines. Exploring the
conceptual elements of
spirituality is important to minimise confusion over the term
spirituality, to improve
communication across disciplines, and to build a platform on
which future studies
exploring the relationship between tourism and spirituality may
be based. Based on
the literature review, this paper has conceptualised
spirituality as the essence of being
human that involves a personal and often-transcendent quest for
meaning, purpose,
and connectedness (with self/others and/or God). This paper has
also purported that
ones spirituality is manifested through their values, morals,
ethics and actions, and is
at the core of ones well-being.
If one concurs with the key concepts of spirituality discussed
above, this current
paper argues that the current approach taken by certain authors
to studying the
relationship between tourism and spirituality is reductionist,
for three main reasons.
Firstly, this paper agrees with other authors who have purported
that a number of
previous tourism scholars have seemingly used the terms
religion, and spirituality
synonymously (Chesworth 2006; Jackowiski 1987; Zahra 2006).
Indeed, McIntosh
and Mansfeld (2005) proffered that current discourses on tourism
and spirituality
have focused exclusively on the religious motivations of
pilgrims. As previously
discussed, while ones religion can form an important part of
their spiritual makeup,
this paper further agrees with a number of other authors that
spirituality is a different,
-
and ultimately much broader concept than religion (Benjamin and
Looby 1998;
Hardy 1979; Marra 2000; Oldnall 1996; Timothy and Conover 2006;
Zinnbauer et al.
1997; Zinnbauer et al. 1999). If spirituality represents the
essence of being human,
then every human, regardless of cast, creed or religion is a
spiritual being (Benjamin
and Looby 1998; Hardy 1979; Marra 2000). Certainly not all human
beings are
religious, but even non-believers or atheists can experience
something outside
themselves that whispers acknowledgment of something beyond
(Timothy and
Conover 2006, p.270). Thus, Oldnall (1996) proffered that every
person has spiritual
needs regardless of whether they are religious or not, and Van
Ness (1996b) observed
that people will often describe themselves as spiritual even if
they have no religious
beliefs. Moreover, as previously noted, when people search for
the spiritual, they may
not be looking for God or a higher power. Durkheim (1915, p.52),
for instance,
suggested: by sacred things one must not understand simply those
personal beings
which are called Gods or spirits; a rock, a tree, a spring, a
pebble, a piece of wood, a
house, in a word, anything can be sacred. Certainly, there are
close parallels between
religion and spirituality; Zinnbauer et al. (1997) for instance,
argued that the essential
conceptual constructs of spirituality are also essential to
religion. Further, all major
religious institutions are inherently concerned with spiritual
matters (Zinnbauer et al.
1999), and it could be argued that because spirituality is
concerned with the search for
the sacred (Vaughan 1991), it is the heart and soul of religion,
and religions most
central function (Zinnbauer et al. 1999, p.909). Similarly,
Elias (1991), a religious
scholar, suggested that by focusing on the spiritual, people are
turning to what is most
essential in religion, namely, the experiential dimension. Elias
(1991, p.457) also
noted that both spiritual and religious journeys help people in
their needs for
community, identity, order, meaning, direction, hope, as well as
a sense for
-
wholeness and a desire for clear moral standards. However, the
notion that
spirituality is a broader concept than religion is perhaps best
summed up by
counselling scholars Benjamin and Looby (1998, p.93), who
suggested that Religion
takes a slant, a different shade of color for each culture and
for each tradition.
Spirituality surpasses them all. This understanding allows for
the experience of a
relationship with a higher power, independent of religion.
Secondly, this paper purports that a number of tourism scholars
have been hesitant to
concur with the view that tourism has moved to the centre of
many peoples lives
(Crouch 2007; Larsen et al. 2007; Munt 1994). Indeed, Larsen,
Urry and Axhausen
(2007, p.245) purported that Mainstream research still treats
tourism as a
predominantly exotic set of specialized consumer products that
occur at specific
places and times. If one views tourism as being an integral part
of many peoples
lives, and views spirituality as being the essence of being,
then one could conclude
that spirituality and tourism are inter-connected. However, as
previously mentioned
there is still debate as to the nature of the relationship
between tourism and
spirituality. This paper purports that given the
conceptualisation of spirituality
presented above, a number of touristic situations could be
considered to have spiritual
dimensions. Indeed, there are numerous accounts evidenced in the
tourism literature
of people using tourism to find meaning (for example, Beeho and
Prentice 1997;
Cohen 1979; Graburn 1989a; Noy 2004), experience transcendence
(for example, De
Botton 2002; Fredrickson and Anderson 1999; McIntosh and
Bonnemann 2006;
Smith and Kelly 2006b), and find connectedness (Harrison 2003;
McIntosh and
Mansfeld 2006; Schanzel and McIntosh 2000; Trauer and Ryan 2005;
Zahra 2006).
Tourism is also argued to be a perfect vehicle for promoting
wellness (Finnicum
-
and Zeiger, 1996, p.85), and many authors have explored the
relationship between
tourism and ones well-being (for example, Finnicum and Zeiger
1996; Lehto et al.
2006; Steiner and Reisinger 2006; White 1993). Certain touristic
situations also allow
people to exercise, strengthen, or change their values. For
example, niche forms of
tourism, such as appropriate tourism, responsible tourism,
social tourism and
eco-tourism are seen to improve society, and appeal to tourists
who hold strong
social values (Yamashita 2004). Tourism has also been a vehicle
for changing
peoples attitudes towards other cultures, religions, countries,
heritage, and in some
cases, increased peoples awareness towards key world issues such
as climate change,
poverty, and the need for sustainability (Brown and Morrison
2003; McIntosh and
Bonnemann 2006; Schanzel and McIntosh 2000; Wearing and Wearing
1996; Willson
2006).
Thirdly, tourism scholars have largely explored the relationship
between tourism and
spirituality within commonly regarded spiritual settings, such
as on yoga tours,
wilderness experiences, or visits to shrines (Fredrickson and
Anderson 1999;
Jackowiski 1987; Lehto et al. 2006; Sharpley and Sundaram 2005;
Stringer and
McAvoy 1992; Tilson 2005). While a number of people are likely
to strongly engage
their spiritual side within these settings, if one views
spirituality as the essence of
being, that involves an often transcendent quest for meaning,
purpose, and
connectedness, then perhaps one could engage their spiritual
side in nearly every
touristic situation. Indeed, as previously discussed, one can
consider something that
others consider mundane, as highly spiritual. For example,
Willson (2006), discussed
how for one tourist, sitting on the grass eating asparagus
sandwiches while viewing
the Art Deco buildings of Napier, New Zealand was highly
meaningful. This was
-
because it allowed him to take time for reflecting on his past,
to yearn for a time that
he viewed as being superior to modern times, and to remember a
meaningful period
of his childhood. As the tourist found personal meaning, and
could reflect upon their
life, this touristic situation could potentially be deemed
spiritual. Thus, Sharpley and
Sundaram (2005) suggested that momentary experiences within
mundane journeys
may be as equally uplifting as spiritual journeys.
Thus, in conclusion, this paper has reviewed the core components
of spirituality that
are evidenced across a wide variety of disciplines and
worldviews. It is a premise of
this paper that to move forward in scholarly understanding of
the relationship between
tourism and spirituality, future scholars could seek to expand
the scope of their studies
to acknowledge the subjective and personal nature of ones
spirituality. Doing this
places the tourist at the forefront of future research, and will
help to ensure that future
descriptions of spirituality are grounded in the realities
tourists themselves describe
(Prentice et al. 1998). This paper also calls for an increased
research agenda into
exploring the relationship between spirituality and tourism.
Certainly, spirituality is a
confusing, complex topic, but it is a topic of immense
importance. Nursing scholar
Miner-Williams (2006, p.813) perhaps best summed up the
importance of
understanding spirituality by arguing that spiritualitys depth
and profoundness may
make it beyond the human capacity to adequately understand. Yet,
since it rests at the
core of essence, we continue to strive to do so.
-
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Introduction.