Concepts in Comparative Politics

Concepts in Comparative

Politics

Spring 2013 Review!

Power, Sovereignty, & Authority

Key Concepts

PowerThe ability to direct the

behavior of others through coercion, persuasion, or leadership

AuthorityLegal right to exercise power

on behalf of the society and/or government

SovereigntyIndependent legal authority

over a population in a particular place

The degree in which a state can control its own territory and independently make and carry out policy

Sovereignty (cont.)External sovereignty—means the

right to make binding agreements (treaties) with other states

Internal sovereignty—means the right to determine matters having to do with one’s own citizens

NationA group of people who identify themselves as belonging together because of cultural, geographic, or linguistic ties.

Nations need not, and often do not have, sovereignty in order to exist

StateA political system that has sovereignty (political power) exercised over a population in a defined geographic territory through a set of public institutions

Nation-StateAn independent state that exists for a single nation, it is the ultimate goal of most nationalists

The cases in which national identification and sovereign political authority largely coincide

RegimeA political system with a

specific pattern of relationship between the state, society, markets, and the world at large

A pattern of organization for a government (often described in a constitution or supreme law)

Types of Regimes

DemocracyA system of government by the whole

population or all the eligible members of a state, typically through elected representatives

Refers to a political system in which citizens enjoy basic rights and in which leaders are elected in free and fair elections and accountable under the rule of law

Substantive/Liberal Democracy

Competitive ElectionsCivil libertiesRule of lawNeutrality of the judiciaryOpen civil societyCivilian control of the military

Democratic DeficitA democratic deficit occurs when

ostensibly democratic organizations or institutions in fact fall short of fulfilling what are believed to be the principles of democracy

Illiberal DemocracyA procedural democratic regime

where the citizenry does not benefit from the full array of rights and freedoms that one would expect in a democracy

Example: competitive elections but lack of civil liberties and rights

Authoritarian Rule

A system of rule in which power depends not on popular legitimacy but on the coercive force of the political authorities

OligarchyA system of governance dominated by a small powerful and wealthy group in a state Rule by few Important political rights are withheld

from the majority of the population Example: South Africa during apartheid

Military RuleMilitary control of the government by armed forces

Totalitarian SystemsA political system in which the

state attempts to exercise total control over all aspects of public and private life, including, the economy, culture, education, and social organizations, through an integrated system of ideological, economic and political control

Usually rely on terror as a means to exercise power

Totalitarian Systems (cont.)

Government systems in which the government constricts rights and privacy of its citizens in a severe manner

Most authoritarian and totalitarian regimes have lost legitimacy today

TheocracyA state dominated by the clergy,

who rule on the grounds that they are the only interpreters of God’s will and law

GovernmentThe part of the state with

legitimate public authorityThe group of people and

organizations that hold political authority in a state at any one time

Legitimacy Defined as citizens belief in the government’s

right to rule IT IS THE VIEW OF THE GOVERNMENT FROM THE BOTTOM

UP!—THE PEOPLE’S VIEW OF THEIR GOVERNMENT

A belief that a regime is a proper one and that the government has the right to exercise power

In the contemporary world, a state is said to possess legitimacy when it enjoys consent of the governed, which usually involves democratic procedures and the attempt to evenly distribute resources Legitimacy of the political system also provides

foundation for a successful political process Legitimacy is based on different things in different

countries

Rational-LegalLegitimacy based on well-

established laws and procedures

Code Law: based on written rules/codes of law (China, Mexico, Russia)

Common Law: based on tradition, past practices, and legal precedents (Britain)

ConstitutionA supreme law that defines the

structure of a nation-state’s regime and the legal processes governments must follow

When followed, this establishes rule of law

Needn’t be one documentContains a set of decision rules

Rule of LawA governance system operating

predictably under a known and transparent set of procedural rules (laws)

Also know as, constitutionalismIn all disputes, no matter how

important or influential the person is, “the piece of paper wins!”

Charismatic Legitimacy

A form of authority based on the general population’s personal attachment to a particular leader

Political Structures

& Institutions

Key Concepts

Supranational Organizations

Organizations in which nations are not totally sovereign actors Examples: NATO European Union NAFTA OPEC United Nations

Three Basic Geographic

Distributions of Power 1.Unitary System2.Confederal System3.Federal System

The difference between the three has to do with how power is distributed over a geographic

area

Unitary StateConcentration of political power in a central government as opposed to federalism

EX: The United Kingdom, Iran, China

DevolutionA process in a unitary system of delegating

some decision making to local public bodiesThe UK is doing this with Scotland and

Wales.This is also a sign of fragmentationUsually done to reverse or quell separatist

movementsCould be described as moving from a

unitary system to a federal system

Confederal SystemA system of government that spreads power among many sub-units (such as states), and has a weak central government

Ex: European Union

Federal SystemA system of governance in which

political authority is shared between the national government and regional or state governments

EX: The United States, Mexico, Nigeria, Russia (Asymmetric)

How Devolution Differs From Federalism:

Power can be taken away in a unitary system (by the central government)

Subnational government’s powers are not constitutionally protected

In a unitary system decentralization is not necessarily symmetrical

Local legislature/government can be dissolved in unitary systems but not in federal systems

Three Basic Forms of Governments

1.Parliamentary System2.Presidential System3.Mixed Presidential-Parliamentary

System

The difference between the three has to do with the origins of power and the relationship between the

executive branch and the other branches of government

Parliamentary SystemA system of governance in which the head of

government is chosen by and serves at the pleasure of the legislature

The legislature rules over all! Prime Minister is NOT directly elected by people , but by the

legislature Because the prime minister and the cabinet are also leaders

of the majority party in the legislature, no separation of powers exists between executive and legislative branches—instead they are fused together

Fusion of Power! Executive power is separated between Head of Government

(PM) and the Head of State (royalty, president)

Parliamentary System

Characteristics:High Party DisciplineMajority party almost always gets

its policies implementedCabinet is VERY powerful—initiates

legislation and makes policyNo fixed terms of office—PM must

call for election or as the result of a vote of no confidence

Fusion of PowersA system of governance in which

authority of government is concentrated in one body

The executive branch is born of the legislative branch of government

In Britain, Parliament is the supreme legislative, executive, and judicial authority

Common pattern in parliamentary systems

Vote of ConfidenceA vote in parliament expressing

support for a governmentA government losing a vote of

confidence is often expected to resign

Presidential SystemAn electoral system where citizens vote for

legislative representatives as well as for executive branch leaders, and two branches function with separation of powers

The chief executive is elected in a national ballot and is independent of the legislative branch

The roles of the head of state and head of government are given to one person—the president

Three branches of government are therefore separate from one another and can check each other’s power

Presidential SystemCharacteristics:

Separation of PowerPower shared equally between

legislature and executiveLower party disciplineHave fixed termsSince power is diffused,

policymaking process is slowed because one branch may question decision made by other groups

Separation of PowerAn organization of political

institutions within the state in which the executive, legislature, and judiciary have autonomous powers and no branch dominates the others

Common pattern in presidential systems

Checks and Balances

A governmental system of divided authority in which coequal branches can restrain each other’s actions

ImpeachmentThe process provided

legislatures in most presidential systems that provides for the removal of presidents before their term is up, but typically only if they are guilty of serious criminal or other wrong doing

Mixed Presidential Parliamentary

SystemA democracy that has some characteristics

of a presidential system and some characteristics of a parliamentary system

Also referred to as semi-presidentialSystem where a prime minister coexists

with a president who is directly elected by the people and who holds a significant degree of powerRussia is perfect example of powerful

president

InstitutionsIn order to carry out public policies,

government structures such as parliaments, bureaucracies, and administrative agencies perform functions, which in turn enable the government to formulate, implement, and enforce policies

There are many types of institutions: parliaments, congresses, administrative agencies, political parties, interest groups, legislatures

Key Parts of All Governments

1.Executive2.Legislature3.Judiciary4.Bureaucracy

All of AP6 countries have these structures, how they function varies greatly

ExecutiveThe executive office carries out the laws

and policies of the stateThe chief executive is the most important

person in the policymaking process, initiating new policies and playing an important role in their adoption

Presidential system has veto power, in parliamentary system does not

Central authority on in foreign policy

Head of StateThe head of state is a role that symbolizes

the and represents the people, both nationally and internationally, and may or may not have any real policy making power

The chief public representative of a stateCommonly royalty or a presidentKEY POINT: In presidential systems the

president is both the head of government and the head of state

Head of GovernmentThe office and the person occupying the

office charged with leading the operation of a government

The head of government deals with the everyday tasks of running the state and usually directs the activities of other members of the executive branch

In Britain, the Queen is Head of State and the Prime Minister is the Head of Government

In the U.S., the president is both head of government an head of state

Cabinet Refers to the group of leaders (often called

“ministers” or “secretaries”) of all major departments (sometimes called “ministries”) into which the executive branch is divided

The cabinet is the most important decision-making body in most political systems

In parliamentary systems the cabinet is the key organization that forms policy proposals

The cabinet in parliamentary systems is typically selected by the head of government & can be dismissed when a government loses a vote of confidence

In presidential systems, the cabinet is selected by and can be dismissed by the president

LegislatureThe legislative is the branch

of government charged with making laws

Either bicameral or unicameral

Bicameral Legislature

A legislature with two houses with decision making power

Most common form of legislature Usually there is an “upper” and “lower” house Found almost always in federal systems EX: UK (House of Lords & House of Commons);

Russia (Federation Council & Duma); Mexico (Senate & Chamber of Deputies); Nigeria (Senate & House of Reps)

Unicameral Legislature

A legislature with only one house with decision making power

Examples: China (The National People’s Congress), Iran (Majles)

Judicial ReviewThe power of the judiciary to

rule on whether laws and government policies are consistent with the constitution or existing laws

BureaucracyBureaucracies consist of agencies that

generally implement government policyIn democracies provide continuity over

timeIn authoritarian regimes, head of gov’t

exercises control; patronage system Because of the complexity of legislation,

bureaucracies often play a quasi legislative role in making policy

Bureaucrats are the experts in their field

BureaucracyBasic characteristics of:

Non-elected positions—appointedImpersonal, efficient structures,

but become inefficient as they grow

Formal qualifications for jobs necessary

Hierarchical organization

Civil ServiceA system of carefully describing tasks

involved in performing government jobs, evaluating applicants for those jobs (civil service exams), and hiring people from among those applicants based on skills and experience rather than political factors

These are bureaucrats (internally) and diplomats (externally)

Electoral Systems &

Party Systems

Key Concepts

Electoral System

A legal system for making democratic choicesCreate two-party, three-party, multiparty systemsRules by which elections are conducted

Determine who can vote, how people vote, and how the votes get counted

Two Main Kinds of Systems1. Competitive

1. Single Member District Plurality (SMDP) and (First-Past-the-Post)2. Proportional Representation (PR)

2. Authoritarian

PluralityThe number of votes cast for a

candidate who receives more than any other candidate but does not receive an absolute majority

“More than anyone else, but under 50%.”

Single Member District Plurality

An electoral system in which candidates run for a single seat from a specific geographic districts

An electoral system in which voters chose an individual running for office in a single legislative district (also called “first past the post“) *Example: U.K. and United States

The winner is the person who receives the MOST votes, whether or NOT that is a majority

Increase the likelihood of a two-party state Common in the United States, rarely used in continental

Europe or in Latin America A variation on this is the majority runoff system (or double

ballot)

First-Past-the-PostAn electoral system in which

winners are determined by which candidate receives the largest number of votes (regardless of whether or not a majority is received)

SAME as Single Member District Plurality!

Two (Double) Ballot System

An electoral system where two rounds of voting may take places to ensure a majority winner

Several candidates my be on first ballot, if no majority is chose, second ballot is run-off of top two vote getters

Also called the majority runoff system

Proportional Representation (PR)

An electoral system in which voters select parties rather than individual candidates and parties are represented in legislatures in proportion to the shares of votes they win

Representatives are elected based on the proportion of the electorate that voted for them

Encourages a multi-party system Closed-list PR system: voters don’t know people

chosen by party Open-list PR System: voters chose from list of

candidates given by parties

Proportional Representation (PR)

How Proportional Representation system works: A country is divided into a few large

sections The competing parties offer lists of

candidates The number of legislative representatives a

party wins depends on the overall proportion of the votes it receives

Sometimes parties must meet a minimum threshold of votes in order to receive any seats at all (5% or 7%)

KEY POINT: PR system leads to multiparty legislatures

(Exception: Russia’s raising of threshold to 7% has resulted in less representation of regional parties)

Minimum Winning Threshold

The minimum percentage of votes a party must receive in order to be seated in a legislature

Sometimes parties must meet a minimum threshold of votes in order to receive any seats at all (5% or 7%)

Duverger’s Law

Maurice Duverger: French political scientistStates that there is a systematic

relationship between electoral systems and party systems, so that single-member district plurality (SMDP) election systems (“first past the post”) tend to create two-party systems in the legislature, while proportional representation (PR) electoral systems generate multiparty systems

SMDP (first past the post) = Two Party System

Proportional Representation = Multiparty System

Duverger’s Law

Mechanical Effect: In SMDP systems, second and third place finishers in each district get NO representation in legislature

Psychological Effect: In SMDP, people don’t want to vote for a known loser, so they chose their second or third choice, so as to block their worst case scenario

Strategic Voting: The act of voting for your second or third preference to avoid an even worse case scenario

Example: Voting Democrat instead of Green, so as to avoid Republicans gaining seats in legislature (Strategic voting)

Competitive Party Systems

Political systems in which parties can form and compete freely

The role of competitive parties in interest aggregation depends on the type of party system

Interest aggregation in a competitive party system occurs in several stages Parties develop positions that they believe are backed

by a large block of voters In a two party system, it is important for a party to win

the majority, so targeting the center of the electorate is often necessary to win enough votes.

In systems with many parties, each party seeks a distinctive and cohesive electoral base, meaning that party policies may reflect the preferences of specific groups

Multiparty SystemA party system with several

important political parties, none of which generally gains a majority of the seats in the national

Mexico, Nigeria

Two-Party SystemA party system in which two

main parties compete for majority control of the government

Small parties may exist but play no significant role in national electoral outcomes

UK

One-Party Dominant System

A party system in which one large party directs the political system, but small parties exist and may compete in elections

Russia (& Mexico in the past under the PRI)

One-Party SystemA party system in which one

political party controls the government and voters have no option to choose an opposition party (China)

Elite RecruitmentRefers to the selection of people for

political activity and government offices

In a democracy, competitive elections play a major role in political recruitment

In authoritarian systems, recruitment may be dominated by a single party, as in China, or unelected religious leaders, as in Iran

Referendum

A general vote by the electorate on a single political question that has been referred to them for a direct decision

Interest ArticulationThe methods by which citizens

and groups can express their desires and make demands upon government (political participation, lobbying, protests, etc.)Involves individuals and groups

expressing their needs and demands

Interest Aggregation

Ways in which demands of citizens and groups are combined into proposed policy packages (leadership, political parties, etc)

Interest Articulation

The most common form is voting in an election—found in democracies and totalitarian regimes

Other forms of interest articulation: community groups, political groups, protests, any from of group which articulates its opinion to the government

In large, established political systems, formal interest groups are a primary means of articulating political interests

As societies become more complex and scope of government grows, quantity and methods to articulate public interests have grown as well

Pluralist Interest Group Systems

Multiple groups may represent a single society interest.

There is a clear separation between interest groups and the government

Group membership is voluntary and limitedGroups often have a loose or decentralized

organizational structureUnited States is perfect example

CorporatismA state in which interest groups

become an institutional part of the political structure

HAS NOTHING TO DO WITH BUSINESS! ZERO! GET THAT OUT OF YOUR MIND!

Neo-Corporatist Interest Group Systems

A single peak association normally represents each societal interest

Membership in the peak association is often compulsory and nearly universal

Peak associations are centrally organized and direct the actions of their members

Interest groups are often systematically involved in making and implementing policy

Key Point: Interest group part of policy process!

Controlled Interest Group Systems

There is a single group for each social sector

Membership is often compulsoryEach group is normally hierarchically

organizedGroups are controlled by the

government or its agents in order to mobilize support for government policy (Communism!)

Key Point: Groups exist to facilitate government control of society!

Patron/Client Networks

A usually informal alliance between a person holding power and less powerful or lower status people

The powerful patron provides power, status, jobs, land, goods, and/or protection in exchange for loyalty and political support

Also: Clientelism, Prebendalism

Citizens,Society, & the State

Key Concepts

EthnicityRefers to a group who share a belief

in their common descent and common shared traditions

Ethnic groups have been the source of a large number of political conflicts around the world

Language can be a source of social division that may or may not be associated with ethnicity

Political Cleavages

Factors that separate groups within a society May be based on ethnicity, religion, social class,

region, etc The wider and deeper the cleavages, the less

unified the society Coinciding Cleavages: cleavages which

reinforce each other (pit the same people against each other on many different issues)

Cross-cutting Cleavages: when the groups that are divided share a common interest on one or more issues

Political CultureThe collection of history, values, beliefs,

assumptions, attitudes, traditions, and symbols that define and influence political behavior within a state

The more a political culture is shared, the easier it is to live in peaceful coexistence and engage in activities for mutual gain, such as commerce

Consensual Political Culture

Citizens tend to agree on the appropriate means of making political decisions and to agree on the major problems facing society and how to solve them

Conflictual Political Culture

The citizens are sharply divided, often on both the legitimacy of the regime and solutions to major problems

When a country is deeply divided in political attitudes, distinctive political subcultures may develop.

Political EfficacyPolitical efficacy is a citizen’s

belief that he or she can understand and influence government or political affairs

It indicates a citizens' faith and trust in government and their own belief that they can understand and influence political affairs

TransparencyTransparent government operates openly

More transparent, less corruption

Social CapitalRefers to skills, norms, and

networks that are a part of civil society and facilitate the ability to solve economic and political problems

Political Socialization

How citizens learn about politics in their country – it sticks!!

Involves schools, families, communications, media, religious organizations, and all the various political structures that develop, reinforce, and transform the political culture, the attitudes of political significance in the society

Political ProtestCan also focus political interests and

can have influence on public policyTend to be high-pressure activities

that can both mobilize the public and pressure political elites

Grassroots politics, or people working together to address a common problem, represents an other

Civil SocietyIs a society in which people are involved

in social and political interactions free of state control or regulation

Refers to the space occupied by voluntary associations outside of state control

THE GOVERNMENT DECIDES! NOT THE CITIZENS!

For example, professional associations, trade unions, student groups, women’s groups, religious bodies and other voluntary association groups

Civil SocietyAny type of citizen-organized group is

considered to be a part of civil societyThis includes community groups, voluntary

organizations, and religious groupsIt could also include a group that is not so

civil, like an anti-government group.Civil society is linked to globalization, as

groups connect to other groups in the global community, such as groups within the environmental movement

Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs)

Global civil societyExamples: Doctors Without

Borders, Amnesty International, Red Cross

Post Materialist Values

Beliefs in the importance of policy goals beyond one’s immediate self-interest, as well as one’s prosperity and security

Examples: Environmentalism and cultural diversity

Citizens in industrialized democracies are more likely to have “higher order” concerns, such as improving education and the environment

Another major trend in political culture

Political & Economic Change

Key Concepts

ReformMethod of changing some of the methods that political/economic leaders use to reach goals that society generally accepts

Does not advocate overthrowing basic institutions

RevolutionA process by which a political

regime is overthrown and replaced because of a broad popular support and participation in the process

A forcible overthrow of a government or social order for a new system

Coup D’etatA forceful replacement of a regime or a government by a small elite group or groups

Use of force, often by military

DemocratizationThe spread of representative governments to more countries and the process of making governments more representative

Political Liberalization

Process by which a state goes from procedural democracy to substantive democracy

Market EconomyEconomy in which laws of supply and demand determine allocation of resources

Private ownership of resources/property

Command Economy

Economy in which the state owns most economic resources and makes all major economic decisions

Economic Liberalization

Process of limiting the power of the state over private property and market forces

PrivatizationTransfer of state-owned property to private ownership

NeoliberalismTerm used to describe

government policies aiming to promote free competition among business firms within the market

Includes privatization, reducing trade barriers, balancing government budgets, and reducing social spending

Import Substitution Industrialization

Employs high tariffs to protect locally produced goods from foreign competition, govt ownership of key industries, govt subsidies to domestic industries

Structural Adjustment Programs

World Bank programs which offer financial and management aid to poor countries while demanding privatization, trade liberalization, and governmental fiscal restraint

GlobalizationThe increasing interconnectedness and interdependence of people, cultures, economies, and nation-states facilitated by technology, trade, and cultural diffusion

FragmentationThe process or state of breaking or being broken into small or separate parts

ModernizationThe major cultural trend that has

transformed the world is modernization

World wide more people are moving to cities and are exposed to modern political cultures, which have an impact on citizens’ attitudes

Modernization Theory

The view that a country’s move from underdevelopment to modernization can be understood from and modeled after development in the West

Public Policy

Key Concepts

PolicymakingPolicymaking is the conversion

of social interest and demands into authoritative public decisions

Rules usually set by constitution

Policy Implementation

The carrying out and enforcement of public policies

Rentier State

A country that obtains much of its revenue from the export of oil or other natural resources

Impact: Government doesn’t have to be accountable to citizens for income

Rent-seekingThe practice of political leaders who, for the purposes of remaining in a position of power, “rent” public access (resources or tax support services) to patrons who profit from those public assets

Economic Indicators

GDPGross Domestic Product

All the goods and services produced by a country’s economy in a given year, excluding income earned outside country

GNPGross National ProductGNP is the total economic output

of a country per personLike GDP, but also includes

income citizens earned outside the country

Used to compare the economic status of a country

Purchasing Power Parity (PPP)

A different measure of the economic status of a country, and it takes into account differences in price levels from one country to another

GINI IndexMeasures the amount of economic inequality in a society

Human Development Index (HDI)

Measures the well-being of a country’s people by factoring in adult literacy, life expectancy, educational enrollment and GDP

Welfare StateA state which provides a wide array of social services to its members

Freedom HouseMeasures political rights & civil liberties

Free, Partly Free, Not Free