COMPUTER SCIENCE PROJECT WORK FOR III UNIT TEST. 2 MADE BY: AMIT KUMAR BHIM KUMAR CHITRANJAN GUIDED BY: MR. LOKESH SAINI.

COMPUTER SCIENCE PROJECT WORK FOR III UNIT TEST

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MADE BY: AMIT KUMAR BHIM KUMAR CHITRANJANGUIDED BY: MR. LOKESH SAINI

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History Of Computing

Computer Hardware

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Computer Development

Computer architecture

Overview

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Introduction Computer is arguably the most important tool

in the areas of engineering, science, business etc. etc.

Data acquisition and analysis Simulation Embedded applications

Process control Condition monitoring and fault diagnosis systems Automatic testing equipment Robotics Telecommunications

Productivity software (word processing, spreadsheets, databases, presentation) etc……………

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Computer development The Abacus- Babylonia-4th century B.C.

The Difference Engine- Charles Babbage 1822 Vacuum tube - John Ambrose Fleming 1904

The ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer)-1945 Used 17,478 vacuum tubes Too late for WW-II, but was used in the cold war to perform

calculations to build a hydrogen bomb

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City of Philadelphia reportedly experienced brown-outs when ENIAC drew power at its home at the the University of Pennsylvania (http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/aso/databank/entries/dt45en.html)

Was not a general purpose computer: programming meant rewiring with punch cards and switches

One of ENIAC's greatest feats was in showing the potential of what could be accomplished in the future

Transistor - Nobel prize in physics in 1956

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Integrated Circuit (chip) - Jack Kilby 1958 (Nobel prize in physics in 2000)

First commercially available IC’s developed by Texas Instruments and Fairchild semiconductor corp.

Generations of IC’s: Small scale integration - 1965

Up to 100 devices on a chip Medium scale integration - to 1971

100-3,000 devices on a chip Large scale integration - 1971-1977

3,000 - 100,000 devices on a chip Very large scale integration - 1978 to date

100,000 - 100,000,000 devices on a chip

Ultra large scale integration Over 100,000,000 devices on a chip

Apple I computer (1976)

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Moore’s Law: Number of transistors on a chip will double every 18 months.

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Computer Architecture

Main Memory

InputOutput

SystemsInterconnection

CentralProcessing

Unit

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Components of a Computer System

central processing unit

Storage(External memory)

input/output Main Memory(RAM)

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Computer Components

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Component description

Central Processing Unit (CPU) or microprocessor, controls the operation of the computer and performs its data processing functions

Main memory - also called internal memory stores instructions and data. Memory is partitioned into separate instruction and data spaces

Input/output (I/O) – moves data between the computer and its external environment

System interconnection – some mechanism that provides for communications among the CPU, the main memory, and the I/O devices

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Structure of the CPU

control unit

registers

flagscachememory

ALUinput/output

storage

memory

registers

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Components of the CPU Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU): processes the

data in the registers according to instructions issued by the control unit. Performs arithmetic (addition, subtraction, etc..) and logical (comparison) operations

Registers: provides temporary storage for data and instructions. It handles instructions and data at 10 times the speed of cache memory. Registers facilitate the movement of data and instructions between RAM, the control unit and the ALU

Control unit registers: The instruction register contains the current instruction

being executed The program register (instruction pointer) contains the RAM

address of the next instruction to be executed ALU registers

The accumulator register stores the result of ALU operations

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Internal CPU interconnection: some mechanism that provides for communication among the control unit, ALU, and registers

Control Unit: controls the operation of the CPU and hence the computer. Interprets instructions, moves data to/from memory and registers, instructs ALU to perform certain operations, increments instruction pointer, etc. During program execution, instructions in a program are moved from the RAM into the control unit, where it is decoded and interpreted by the decoder

Flags: 1-bit memory, or 1-bit registers and hold information on what has recently happened in the CPU. These are set to 1 or 0 depending on the results of internal operations such as results of ALU operations (zero or negative result) or external operations such as interrupts (commands that tell the processor to stop execution and wait for further instruction)

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Cache Memory: Small fast memory that improves CPU’s efficiency. Increases computer throughput, and is a high-speed holding area for program instructions and data. It holds only instructions and data that are likely to be needed by the CPU. While programs are running on the computer, the same data or instructions might be needed frequently. In such cases, the processor first checks the cache memory for the data or instructions, thereby reducing the need for frequent access to the RAM and speeding up the processing

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Microprocessor System Buses

Microprocessor(CPU)

RAM ROM

Input/Output(I/O)

Control Bus

Data Bus

Address Bus

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System Buses

A BUS is an internal communications path consisting of a number of lines connecting the system components

Control bus –The control bus synchronizes system events like memory access, system interrupts, I/O, etc.

Address bus – Source and destination addresses are sent over the address bus to identify a particular location in memory or input/output port.

Data bus – two way path for transferring data and instructions in and out of the microprocessor

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Main Memory

A collection of cells Each cell has an address and a value Random Access Memory (RAM) Cells can be accessed randomly Ram is volatile All data stored in binary format Bit, byte and word are the unit of data

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Main Memory RAM – Random Access Memory. Temporary read/write

memory. Applications are typically loaded into RAM during computer use. Types of RAM include:

SRAM (static) , DRAM (dynamic ), EDO RAM (extended data out) , SDRAM (synchronous dynamic-most new PC’s are equipped with this RAM which is able to synchronize itself with the processor, enabling data transfer at more than twice the speed of previous RAM technologies)

SRAM is called static because the memory retains its contents as long as power is supplied-It does not have to be periodically refreshed as in DRAM. It is faster than DRAM (The contents of the memory can be read much faster), however is more expensive and is larger in size

DRAM is called Dynamic RAM because the memory content needs to be refreshed periodically (every few milliseconds) due to leakage of electrical charge. It is slower than SRAM, but cheaper and smaller in size

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CPU-Memory Interaction

0 LDA 14

1 ADD 15

2 STA 14

3 HLT

…. ……

14 10

15 7

14 17

15 7

Assume a is stored in 14and b is stored in 15

a= a + b

Result

Program

Fetch-execute cycle

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ROM – Read Only Memory. ROM can typically be written once, but read many times. It is used to store BIOS (Basic Input/Output System-helps to load and locate an operating system), external to microprocessor, and computer instruction sets, internal to microprocessor

The contents of the ROM are hard wired by the manufacturer in a typical ROM chip. When you turn the computer on, ROM automatically prepares the computer system and loads the initial display screen prompt

A variation of ROM is PROM (Programmable Read Only Memory), in which the user can load programs and data that are read only. This can be done with device called a PROM programmer. Writing to a PROM destroys the internal links, so a basic PROM can only be programmed once

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EPROMs (Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory) is a variation of PROM, and is rewritable. It can be erased by exposing the chip to ultraviolet light. It can then be programmed with an EPROM programmer

Flash memory is a type of PROM that can be easily altered by the user. They are also called EEPROMs (Electrically Erasable Read Only Memory) because they can be electrically erased then written on to (flashed) without having to take them out of the computer, and without using ultraviolet light.

Since RAM can be read faster than most ROMs, the frequently used content of the ROM is sometimes copied to RAM (shadowed)

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Secondary Storage

Magnetic disk Hard disk (File, Directory, Folder) Floppy disks Zip disks

Optical media CD (680 MB) DVD (4.7 GB) Magneto-optical disks (Pinnacle drives)

Magnetic tape (used primarily for long term archive)

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Hard Disk Drive Basics

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Input/Output

Some Input Devices Keyboard Keypad Mouse Voice activation Touch screen Digitizers and pen-based (stylus)

systems

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Some Output Devices

Monitor Printer Speakers Communication (comm) ports Modems (both input and output) Network interface cards (both input and

output)

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Input and Output Devices and Systems

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Storage System Issues Historical Context of Storage and I/O Secondary and Tertiary Storage Devices Storage I/O Performance Measures Queuing Theory Processor Interface Issues I/O Buses Redundant Arrays of Inexpensive Disks (RAID) File Systems I/O Benchmarks File System Performance

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Input device is a tool used to capture information and commands

Examples include: Keyboard Point-of-sale (POS) Microphone Mouse Pointing stick Touch pad Touch screen Bar code reader Optical mark recognition (OMR) Scanner

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Types of input Types of input

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Input DevicesInput Devices

Most obvious = human + KEYBOARD

Machines make better input devices….

DIRECT ENTRY, or SOURCE DATA AUTOMATION.

Need to be: Accurate, reliable and easy to

use, fast

Human and keyboard is the most used input device

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Examples of Direct Entry Input DevicesExamples of Direct Entry Input Devices

MICR : Used with cheques OMR : Tattslotto & TAB OCR : Scan type-written pages….

Scanners

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Examples of Direct Entry Input DevicesExamples of Direct Entry Input Devices

Barcode Readers:

Sit-in-the-Counter type - Reads standard or customised barcodes

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Input TypesInput Types

a.

Data Collection Devices:

Web Cams Video camera whose output displays on a web page

Digital Camera

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Other Input DevicesOther Input Devices

a.

Sensors

Pointing Devices

Mouse

measures x-y moveent plus whether button is pressed down…

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Other Input DevicesOther Input Devices

TouchPadPointing StickLight Pen

Trackball

- Similar to mouse

Joystick- games?- Difficult to pinpoint a position

Touch screensscreen 'divided' into areasarea selected by toucheasy to usecannot have areas too smallscreens get dirty (many uses)

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Voice InputVoice Input

Voice Input

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OutputOutput

Four common type of output are text, graphics, audio and video.

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OutputOutput

Output Devices

Digital signals from computer are converted into human readable form.

Hard Copy

Soft Copy

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OutputOutput

Printers

Impact printers

Dot Matrix:

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OutputOutput

Non-impact printers - no physical contact between paper and printing device- 3 technologies used:

ink jet -

thermal - special paper - expensive to run - up to photographic quality…

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OutputOutput

Laser

- need enough memory to hold an entire page - 600 to 2400 dpi and greater- operates similar to a photocopy machine…

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OutputOutput

CRT Monitors

•Raster scan technology

•An electron beam moves back and forward across the back of the screen

•This causes dots on the front of the screen to glow, producing an image

•Available in various sizes 15 – 22 inches

•Flat and curved screens

Resolution

•CRT monitors ( 1280 X 1024 pixels)

•High end CRT monitors (2048 X 1536 pixels)….

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OutputOutput

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OutputOutput

LCD Monitors

•An electric current passes through the crystals causing them to twist, block light waves and create an image.

Gas Plasma Monitors

Very high quality (1080p)….

•Larger screens

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Other Output DevicesOther Output Devices

Data Projectors

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Other Output DevicesOther Output Devices

Fax Machine

•Transmits and receives documents over the telephone line

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Other Output DevicesOther Output Devices

Multifunction devices

•Printer, scanner, copy machine and fax machine all in one

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SECONDARY STORAGESECONDARY STORAGE

Control Unit works on programs/data in RAMPOWER OFF ... RAM OFFBye Bye AssignmentHowever blocks of memory can be saved/read on secondary storage.

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Secondary Storage Media and DevicesFloppy DisksHard DisksTape and Tape driveCartridge tapeCD-ROM/DVD/BluRayMagnetic-Optical drivePC CardsSmart Cards USB Drives

SECONDARY STORAGESECONDARY STORAGE

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Size Type Tracks Sectors CapacityIBM:3½ DD 80 9 720KB3½ HD 80 18 1.44MB

Macintosh3½ HD 1.4MB

FLOPPY DISKS:FLOPPY DISKS:

eg. for a 3½ disk (high density):

• 3 1/2-inch diskette• Circular piece of plastic• Made up of tracks & sectors• 512 bytes in each sector

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• Made up of platters, cylinders and sectors• Rotation speed 7200 rpm• head 'floats' on surface• bad sectors & head crash

HARD DISKSHARD DISKS

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OPTICAL STORAGE TECHNOLOGY• CD-ROM (compact disk read-only memory)- 650 MB of information• DVD (digital video disk) - 4.7 gigabytes• CD-R (compact disk-recordable)• CD-RW (compact disk-rewritable)• Magneto-optical (MO) – combines magnetic/optical technology by changing polarity of spot (1 to 0 etc.)

Hard Disk Vs Floppy Disk

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•Compact Disk Read Only Memory

•high capacity is ideal for storage of the very large sound, graphics and video files

• when recording data, laser light burns pits on CD

• when reading data, pits will not reflect light (binary bit 0) but lands will reflect light (binary bit 1)

CDROM

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Other Storage Devices

TapeTape

•Thin ribbon of plastic• Sequential storage – mainly for backup•Used for longer term storage

USB Flash Drives

• plugs into a USB port•Small, lightweight•Storage 4 GB +•Great for mobile users

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OTHER TYPES OF STORAGE DEVICESOTHER TYPES OF STORAGE DEVICES

PC cardsPC cards• Small, credit card-sized cards that fit into PC Card expansion slots •Used for storage, communications and additional memory.• Most often used with portable computers• Can store more than 300 MB of data

Smart Cards• Credit card-sized devices that contain a microprocessor• Microprocessor can store up to 8,000 bytes of information.• Examples of uses - prepaid telephone card, employee time card