Computer Applications for Authentic Vocabulary Instruction

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El-Dakhs, D. & Attia, H. (2008). Computer applications for authentic vocabulary instruction. In

the Proceedings of the 28th CDELT Conference, Ain Shams University, Cairo, Egypt.

Computer Applications for Authentic Vocabulary Instruction

Dina El-Dakhs

Institute for Language Studies, The Arab Academy for Science, Technology and

Maritime Transport

Hossam El-Din Attiah

English Language Institute, The American University in Cairo

Abstract

The present paper highlights the importance of using computer applications to bring authenticity

to second language (L2) vocabulary instruction. Various techniques are suggested for the

effective use of different applications, such as concordancers and online resources, in vocabulary

teaching. Real-life examples from TEFL/ESP classrooms are provided to link theory to practice.

Introduction

For decades, vocabulary instruction suffered from negligence in L2 teaching and research. This

was partly due to a general lack of awareness of the importance of vocabulary acquisition for

better linguistic competence and fluency. The dominant teaching approaches gave vocabulary

instruction a peripheral status (Decarrico, 2001; Tozcu & Coady, 2004). For years the principles

of structural and then generative linguistics dominated the field of L2 instruction, postulating that

focus must be placed on direct instruction of grammar due to its generative power. No focus was

placed on the direct instruction of vocabulary since words were merely seen as simple fillers

within generative language frameworks. Thus, mastering grammar rules was considered the right

way to produce correct utterances without a need for long investment in learning lexis.

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Vocabulary was still granted a low status in more recent approaches of L2 teaching, such as the

famous communicative approach (Decarrico, 2001). The communicative approach is

characterized by an emphasis on communicative competence at the expense of grammatical

knowledge. This shift of focus was reflected in language classrooms by highlighting the

importance of teaching discourse-level functions (e.g., requests, apologies, greetings, etc.) rather

than sentence-level forms. The ability to communicate one's ideas and getting the message across

to other interlocutors was considered more valuable than the application of grammar rules. This

paradigm shift did not, however, help improve the low status of vocabulary, which was again

granted a secondary status. The proponents of the communicative approach viewed vocabulary

as a complementary means for communication, disregarding its centrality to discourse-level

functions.

In addition to the role of L2 teaching approaches in undermining the importance of vocabulary, a

misunderstanding of the complex nature of lexical items further lowered the status of vocabulary

instruction. Vocabulary was long seen as a collection of isolated words, which learners could

acquire incidentally through their regular encounter with words during other language learning

tasks, such as reading or learning grammar rules. The widespread occurrence and complexity of

lexical patterns, such as collocations, idioms and expressions, was largely underestimated as

these patterns were seen as an exception not worthy of any special attention. As a result, L2

learners‟ vocabulary stock was estimated based on vocabulary tests that mainly measure

knowledge of individual words.

Another contributing factor to the neglect of vocabulary instruction is the overemphasis on

training learners to guess the meaning of words through context (Tozcu & Coady, 2004). For

years, the role of the L2 teacher in vocabulary development was limited to familiarizing learners

with a variety of guessing strategies to work out the meaning of newly encountered words based

on context. Repercussions of this misconception were far-reaching. On the one hand, many

learners were unable to perform as required due to their poor vocabulary knowledge and limited

non-linguistic background that is deemed necessary for guessing. On the other hand, learners'

vocabulary repertoire was not enriched. Even when learners managed to guess the meaning of

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target words successfully, it was extremely difficult for them to recognize their meaning in later

encounters, let alone to use them in language production.

More recently, a growing awareness of the importance of direct vocabulary instruction has

become central to contemporary pedagogical practices (Lewis, 1993; Shostak, 2002). The

dramatic change of attitude has resulted from a number of variables. First and foremost, modern

L2 teaching philosophies have placed a major focus on learners' needs. Language teaching

should cater for the needs of the learners who are willing to invest their time, effort and money

into learning a new language. It is thus necessary to meet the learners' constant need and

eagerness to learn new words. L2 learners usually realize that without words they cannot express

their ideas. They also aspire to achieve high levels of comprehension and fluency which require a

rich vocabulary inventory (Bromley, 2007). Besides, L2 learners often need to prove their

linguistic competence with standardized measures, which usually allocate a major section to

vocabulary.

A second important factor contributing to the new paradigm shift is related to recent

developments in computer technology. Modern computer applications have allowed the

collection, storage, and processing of large corpora including huge databases of language as used

in real life, not prescriptively composed for teaching purposes. Examination of these databases

has clearly revealed that native speakers do not produce language as 'creatively' as it was

generally thought (Decarrico, 2001). Fixed language patterns, including collocations and

expressions, are constantly reoccurring in native speakers' discourse (Nesselhauf & Tschichold,

2002). Lack of exposure to these recurrent patterns puts non-native speakers at a great

disadvantage as it weakens their ability for speed comprehension or near native-like production

(Kavaliauskiene & Janulevieiene, 2003; Lewis, 1993; Porto, 1998). It has thus become clear that

learning grammar rules or acquiring individual words incidentally are not enough for achieving a

high level of proficiency. Lexical competence now comes at the heart of L2 teaching and

learning.

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Authentic vocabulary instruction

In common teaching practices, authenticity is frequently used in communicative language

teaching to refer to the creation of real-life situations and simulative contexts within classroom

boundaries. The term incorporates authenticity of language, tasks and situations (Taylor, 1994).

For example, a business English teacher can create a classroom simulation of a corporate

meeting. Learners are assigned different roles, such as those of a chairperson, an HR manager

and a purchasing manager, and are required to engage in a relevant task like reviewing the

annual budget plan. In such a situation, learners will be performing job-like tasks. A learner

playing the role of a secretary will be taking notes to prepare the meeting minutes while other

meeting members will be engaged in negotiations for the inclusion/exclusion of certain

budgeting items. The language teacher will also be monitoring the learners' use of appropriate

language to the context of use.

The term „authentic vocabulary instruction‟ reflects an awareness that authenticity does not

necessarily only apply to language production. It could also be of extreme relevance to pre-

communicative (= skill-getting) activities that enhance learners‟ language inventory (Taylor,

1994). The vocabulary items presented and practiced in class must be similar as much as possible

to that used by native speakers, provided that learners‟ language proficiency level and needs are

taken into account. This means that taught lexical items should be extracted from real-life

contemporary sources, such as newspapers, TV programs and radio news items. Different

vocabulary patterns or chunks, such as collocations, idioms and expressions, must also become

part and parcel of classroom vocabulary teaching to reflect the actual language production of

native speakers. Lexical items should be presented and recycled within contexts that reveal their

meaningful use. For instance, lexical items related to weather forecasts can be presented by

analyzing the vocabulary used by a TV announcer reading the weather forecast. Learners can

then complete further weather forecasts for other parts of the country to recycle the taught items.

Authentic vocabulary instruction also requires adherence to the principles that improve

vocabulary retention. One important factor in this respect is multiple exposure (Decarrico, 2001;

Shostak, 2002). A child learning his/her first language can only master the use of words which

repeatedly occur in the surrounding. It would be practically unfeasible to expect a child to name

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an object which was named only once before him/her. Likewise, a L2 learner should be engaged

in different activities where the target lexical items are frequently presented and recycled. A

maritime English learner, for instance, cannot be required to recognize the terms describing

different parts of a vessel through a single encounter of the words in a reading text.

Another important factor is the creation of mental links between the lexical items that are

linguistically associated (Decarrico, 2001). One important category in this respect is semantic

domains. The lexical items that belong to one semantic field, such as family members, clothing

items and job titles, could be presented within a word net showing the meaning connections

among such terms. A second relevant category is sense relations, including synonymy,

homonymy and polysemy. The development of such relations helps learners better retain lexical

items. It is worth mentioning, however, that in real language use native speakers are quite aware

of the slight distinctive differences between closely related items. Thus, direct instruction of

items that exhibit sense relations must minimize the fuzziness of word meanings. Regarding

synonymy, for example, learners must realize that synonyms cannot be used interchangeably. In

accordance with the principle of economy, synonyms differ either regarding meaning distinctions

or their use in language production. Finally, learners must also be carefully trained to identify

important paradigmatic lexical relations. Teaching individual words in isolation violates the

principle of authenticity. Identifying a word without knowing its possible collocates, for instance,

could lead to communication breakdowns and fluency hindrance (Lewis, 1993).

A last important factor is learner autonomy. In real life, children learn their first language

through discovery and experimentation. Children tend to analyze the production of adult

speakers with reference to the items used to indicate certain referents, describe given contexts

and co-occur with other known items. Such analysis is the main driving force for the recognition

of new lexical items. It is through experimentation that these items are later acquired. As a result,

L2 learners must be systematically trained to analyze the production of native speakers to

enhance their vocabulary stock. Training can be initiated in the language classroom, but should

empower learners to discover and experiment with other lexical patterns outside the classroom.

Lack of proper training on such analysis skills could greatly slow down the vocabulary

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acquisition process. Language teaching contact hours can never suffice for learning the

thousands of words a L2 learner needs to know to demonstrate appropriate language competence.

Importance of computer use for authentic vocabulary instruction

Computer assisted language learning (CALL) has become a common term to a great deal of

language teachers. Computers are now used widely in language learning environments for the

integration of different language skills, the enhancement of grammar knowledge and the practice

of new lexical items. Various commercial software packages have been tailored for the

improvement of general and specialized language use. In addition, a wide variety of other

computer applications have been manipulated by language teachers and learners to aid the

learning process. Unlike commercially produced packages, the latter, including word processing

applications and Internet browsers, are free of charge and can be found in almost every machine.

Computer applications have proved of most relevance to authentic vocabulary instruction for the

following reasons:

1. L2 learners usually show willingness to take up computers as a learning tool due to the fact

that computers are used on a large scale in daily and business interactions. The use of

computers in the classroom is consequently both interesting and motivating for learners.

2. Vocabulary is one language area that particularly lends itself to computer use. It can easily be

practiced outside the classroom without the intervention of an expert. Other areas, such as

writing, may require much more elaborate human feedback that essentially requires

synchronous communication with an instructor (Nesselhauf & Tschichold, 2002).

3. Computers, with their diverse multimedia applications, stimulate students‟ use of both their

auditory and visual channels while learning new vocabulary. Learners interact with sounds,

pictures and video, which enhances their long-term retention of newly learned vocabulary

(Hai-peng & Li-jing, 2007).

4. Learners get engaged in student-centered activities. Computers allow the instructor to play

the role of a facilitator of learning, rather than being the only dispenser of knowledge.

5. Learner independence is greatly highlighted. Students are stimulated to develop increasing

autonomy in language learning with the use of computers. They can be trained to handle new

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items and discover/ experiment with language patterns on their own in preparation for their

independent long-life learning experience.

6. Unlike traditional classroom teaching contexts, computers can help cater for differences in

learners' levels and needs through allowing them to self pace their learning process. This can

accelerate the progress of high achievers and tap their full potential, while allowing learners

of less language ability to develop their language skills at a more suitable pace.

7. Computers allow access to enormous collections of authentic texts from a variety of sources,

which provides rich language input. Instead of relying on composed texts specifically

prepared for teaching purposes, computers can expand the possibility of exploiting texts

produced by native speakers for different purposes and contexts.

8. The use of computers can facilitate L2 learners' interaction with the culture of the target

language. L2 learners cannot really demonstrate good command of the language without

getting familiar with the culture of the L2 community. The fact that most L2 teachers are

non-native speakers and that most L2 learners do not have the opportunity to travel to foreign

countries makes online communication an indispensable tool for cultural awareness. Internet

browsers create a golden opportunity for learners‟ interaction with native speakers and

getting acquainted with the culture without the necessity of face-to-face contact with

speakers of the L2.

Computer applications

In this section, we recommend the use of three computer applications for authentic vocabulary

instruction:

1. Online dictionaries

A number of online dictionaries are currently available free of charge. These learning tools can

be extremely useful for structured activities enhancing learners‟ vocabulary acquisition. This is

especially true when these dictionaries are corpus-based; i.e., word definitions, senses and

examples are generated from corpora based on authentic texts. Plenty of examples are available

for corpus-based online dictionaries, such as Oxford, Longman, MacMillan and Merriam

Webster.

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Suggestions for the use of online dictionaries can include:

Investigation of word meaning while using the computer for other language learning activities.

Examining the different senses of a word to identify the right sense for a word in context.

Analyzing the corpus-based generated examples for the word under investigation to identify

highly co-occurring collocates and expressions.

Appendix A includes a sample exercise for the use of online dictionaries for the examination of

different word senses.

2. Concordancers

Concordancers are computer applications used to manipulate large bodies of texts for the

purpose of examining the occurrences of given words or language patterns. Concordancers are a

dream come true for language teachers and learners as they provide numerous instances for the

use of certain words from a large variety of texts (Cobb, 1997). Examining the concordancing

lines rendered by the application can provide invaluable insight for both teachers and learners

about the meaning and use of lexical items. A certain lexical item can be queried (=searched for)

by simply typing it into the search pane of the concordancer. Below is an example query result.

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

Figure 1.1. Screenshot showing results rendered by the search term “plan”.

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The following are some suggestions for the use of concordancers:

Encouraging learners to investigate meanings of lexical items through observing

concordancing lines that include occurrences of the same items. Guessing skills here will be

facilitated through examining the same item in different sentences/utterances.

Stimulating learners to examine the different senses of a lexical item within varying

linguistic contexts. The concordancing lines show the different meanings of words due to the

variety of texts on which the corpus is built.

Asking learners to examine aligned concordancing lines resulting from a certain query to

notice frequent content and function collocates.

Appendix B shows how concordancers can be used for noticing and practicing lexical patterns.

3. Search engines

The term 'search engines' is used in this article to refer to a specific class of programs, such as

“google”, “yahoo” and “alltheweb” that enable users to search for documents available on the

World Wide Web. Search engines are becoming increasingly popular for entertainment, business

and educational purposes. People worldwide use search engines everyday to locate information

about their daily life, special interests and future plans. Their use in the language classroom has

thus become a must to reflect the realities of our modern information age.

Here are some suggestions for the use of search engines in vocabulary instruction:

Learners can analyze selected texts from the Web to identify the lexical items that fall

under relevant semantic fields to their area of specialization. For instance, reading a

number of extracts on the operation of different engine types can stimulate engineering

students to identify the main terms used for describing different engine parts and their

mode of operation.

Learners could investigate the use of certain words or expressions by including them as

search threads in search engines. The search results could show the frequency and context

of use. For instance, using the phrase „compensation for‟ in a search engine would render

results including useful collocates and co-occurring expressions such as „occupational

injuries‟, „legally required benefits‟, „nuclear damage‟, „global warming‟, etc.

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Learners could be asked to search for texts pertinent to their areas of interest and analyze

relevant lexical patterns. This could greatly enrich their lexical inventory and encourage

their learning autonomy.

Appendix C shows a sample exercise for the use of search engines for vocabulary instruction.

Pedagogical suggestions

Through the previous discussion it becomes apparent that computers have great potential to aid

authentic vocabulary instruction. However, an unplanned rush into the use of computers could

have detrimental consequences. Instructors could be so overwhelmed by the novelty of the

learning tool that their focus shifts away from the main instructional value of the computer.

Instructors may also be too tempted to expose learners to a great deal of texts without

consideration of learners' actual needs or proficiency level. Likewise, learners may be distracted

from learning the target lexis by a fascination with multimedia options. Another possibility is

that learners may focus on the content of texts due to their high level of interest and authenticity

and disregard the vocabulary items that need to be learned. Therefore, the integration of

computers into vocabulary instruction must be carefully planned prior to implementation. The

following is a list of some useful guidelines in this respect:

1. Online dictionaries used for vocabulary instruction should be corpus-based. This will

guarantee the authenticity of definitions and examples. Besides, reliance on updated corpora

for dictionary compilation caters for the changing nature of language. Recently, major

publishing houses have realized the advantage of using real corpora to produce their

dictionaries, which is reflected in the number of online corpus-based dictionaries that are

now available free of charge. See Appendix D for a list of useful relevant sites.

2. Instructional texts selected from online sources should reflect learners‟ needs regarding both

content and vocabulary. It is unfair to spend long hours of class time reading texts of a

general nature, for example, while teaching business English students who could make better

investment of their time learning about the stock exchange or the banking system. As for

vocabulary, students studying English for tourism can benefit a lot from analyzing the

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recurrent expressions used by guides during online virtual tours for museums or other

historical sites. Such choices of texts reflect an educated understanding of learners‟ needs and

instructional aims. See Appendix E for a list of useful sites for selecting texts categorized by

topic.

3. Some language instructors can become intimidated to use concordancers due to the high cost

of both corpora and concordancing applications. Nevertheless, a range of free, user-friendly

concordancing applications are available for download through the World Wide Web. As for

corpora, articles available on the Internet could be compiled and uploaded to the

concordancing applications. See Appendix F for a list of suggested online concordancers.

4. Full dependency on technology could sometimes lead to frustrating learning and teaching

experiences. The fact that Internet connections sometimes fail during class time might lead to

the distortion of a very well planned online lesson. Instructors should be thus prepared with

back-up off-line solutions to implement their lesson plans.

5. Instructors should be critical of the content they choose to include in the curriculum to avoid

unreliable sources. A great deal of online English publications is written by non-native

speakers, which could lead to erroneous use of language. In addition, native speakers may

upload texts that follow a certain writing style that does not adhere to the norms of Standard

English.

6. Vocabulary tasks should promote the learners‟ ability to notice how lexis operates in context

and develop the skill of discovering a variety of lexical patterns, such as collocations and

expressions. This skill can be enhanced by extensive analysis of authentic texts.

7. Language teachers must be trained on the use of computers for instructional purposes prior to

the actual use of the computer for classroom teaching. A feeling of comfort and ease with the

new learning tool will help instructors achieve their aims with confidence and transfer this

confidence to learners.

Conclusion

Computer use has become a fact of our modern age. In all walks of life, whether business,

engineering, education, research, etc., computers are an indispensable tool, widely used for a

variety of purposes. Modern language teaching methods are quickly catching up with the

enormous advantages of computer applications. Language instructors are gradually encouraged

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to make use of computers to minimize teaching load, help enhance learners' skills and meet

learners' need for autonomy. Different commercial and free-of-charge applications have been

developed to train learners on reading, grammar, editing, etc.

Vocabulary instruction has proved to be an area that easily lends itself to computer use. Unlike

some other language skills, many exercises can be practiced outside class since they do not

require face-to-face contact with a language instructor. Computer applications can also largely

enhance the authenticity of language input for vocabulary training due to the incredible number

of authentic texts that computers make available. In this paper, three computer applications have

been recommended for vocabulary instruction. Suggested techniques have been put forward for

the integration of online dictionaries, concordancers and Internet search engines in vocabulary

learning sessions. Some guidelines have also been presented for making the best use of these

applications to achieve instructional aims. Empirical research is, however, needed to test the

influence of computer use on improving the quality of vocabulary instruction.

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References

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Theory and Practice in Education, 2 (2), 97 – 112.

Bromley, K. (2007). Nine things every teacher should know about words and vocabulary

instruction. Journal of Adolescent & Adult Literacy, 50 (7), 528 - 537.

Cobb, T. (1997). Is there any measurable learning from hands-on concordancing? System, 25 (3),

301 – 315.

Decarrico, J. (2001). Vocabulary and language teaching. In Celece-Murcia, M. (Ed.). Teaching

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Salaberry, M. (2001). The use of technology for second language learning and teaching: A

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Appendix A

Suggested exercise for the use of corpus-based dictionaries in vocabulary instruction

The following is a corpus-based online dictionary entry for the word “case”. Read the

definition and the examples on every sense to fill the sentences below with the correct sense

of the word.

1. They weren't sure if this applied in my case but they were investigating the matter.

2. In any case, where's the money to come from?

3. A large crocodile-skin cigar case was usually close at hand.

4. The Cehave case involved a sale of citrus pulp pellets where it was a term in the contract

that the goods be shipped 'in good condition'.

5. Bill's only action was to produce a bottle of brandy from his wooden case, open one of

his gift books, roll himself a cigarette with gift tobacco, lean back and stare covertly at

his son.

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Appendix B

Suggested exercises for the use of concordancers in vocabulary instruction

1. Examine these concordance lines to notice the adjectives that collocate with the following

nouns.

1. risk

Answer:

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

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2. expense

Answer:

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

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3. plan

Answer:

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

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4. industry

Answer:

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

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2. Underline the appropriate adjectives to complete the sentences. You can refer back to

the lists you have created by examining the concordance lines:

a. For those who participate in relatively (significant - super - high) risk sports such as diving, a

good first aid kit should be essential.

b. The journey is especially difficult for those without their own transport and would impose

(extra - increased - more) expense on those least able to afford it.

c. Until that budget is actually settled, it's difficult to be definitive about the actual amount of

money that's available for the (purchasing - buying - selling) plan for ninety four, ninety

five.

d. Through (large – mass – growth) production, he steadily lowered the price of his famous

Model T ($1500 in 1913, $760 in 1929, $600 in 1929), while a larger volume of sales kept

his profit high.

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Appendix C

Suggested exercise for the use of search engines in vocabulary instruction

Read the following online text and look for collocates. Some collocates have been

underlined:

http://www.forbes.com/technology/2008/02/27/china-mobile-tv-tech-wireless-

cx_ew_0227chinawire.html

Crank It Up

Tuning In Mobile TV--Chinese Style Elizabeth Woyke 02.27.08, 6:00 PM ET

Less than a generation ago, Chinese villagers crowded around newspapers pasted to walls in the

center of town to read the latest news. But by this August, millions of Chinese will watch up-to-

the-minute Olympic contests on their own handheld mobile TVs.

Many Chinese can already catch analog television signals on some handheld devices. The

Chinese government, however, intends to use the Olympics to showcase the next wave of digital

mobile TV, based on standards developed in China.

Huaqi, a Beijing manufacturer of handheld devices, is planning to build inexpensive, user-

friendly portable media players and navigation devices. Four different models, priced around

$300 apiece, will debut in June, says Guo Hongzhi, Huaqi's general manager of resource

management. Outfitted with 4.3-inch screens, they will also be able to play music and video and

will eventually incorporate global positioning satellite data and wi-fi.

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Appendix D

A list of URLs to free online corpus-based dictionaries

http://www.dictionary.cambridge.org/

http://www.merriam-webster.com/

http://dictionary.oed.com/

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Appendix E

A list of URLs for selection of texts based on topic

http://www.freearticletext.com/

http://www.articlesbase.com/

http://www.articles-hub.com/

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Appendix F

A list of URLs for online concordancers

http://www.corpora4learning.net/resources/materials.html

http://www.edict.com.hk/PUB/concapp

http://www.edict.com.hk/pub/