Composting of Sugar Mill Wastes: A Review - idosi.org

World Applied Sciences Journal 31 (12): 2029-2044, 2014ISSN 1818-4952© IDOSI Publications, 2014DOI: 10.5829/idosi.wasj.2014.31.12.546

Corresponding Author: P. Saranraj, Department of Microbiology, Annamalai University, Annamalai Nagar, Chidambaram - 608 002, Tamil Nadu, India.

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Composting of Sugar Mill Wastes: A Review

P. Saranraj and D. Stella

Department of Microbiology, Annamalai University, Annamalai Nagar, Chidambaram - 608 002, Tamil Nadu, India

Abstract: India is one of the largest growers of sugarcane with an estimated produced of around 300 milliontons in the marketing year 2009-2019. Sugar-distillery complexes, integrating the production of cane sugar andethanol, constitute one of the key agro-based industries. There are presently nearly 500 sugar factories in thecountry along with around 300 molasses based alcohol distilleries. These include sugarcane trash, bagasse,pressmud and bagasse fly ash. Composting is an efficient method of waste disposal, enabling recycling oforganic matter. Composting is one of the most promising technologies for solid waste treatment. The organicsubstrates in solid waste can be biodegraded and stabilized by composting and the final compost productscould be applied to land as the fertilizer or soil conditioner. The present review paper deals with the followingtopics: Composting, Composting of pollutants and various industrial wastes, Physical and chemical nature ofraw pressmud, Biochemical changes during composting, Microbial enzymes and composting, Factorscontrolling composting and Characteristics of the compost and its application in agriculture.

Key words: Composting Pressmud Bagasse Bacteria and Fungi

INTRODUCTON biodegradable organic matter, c) sewage treatment a

India produces on average of 270 million tons of liquid effluent which is discharged to rivers or sea and asugar-cane per year [1]. During the production process semi-solid sludge, which is used as a soil amendment onconsiderable amounts of by-products such as pressmud, land, incinerated or disposed in a landfill d) incineration abagasse and sugar –cane residue are produced part of process of combustion designed to recover energy andthese by-products can be utilized for the production of reduce the volume of waste going to disposal and e)molasses and alcohol; however, there still remains a landfill the decomposition of waste in a speciallyconsiderable amount of waste to be disposed. Therefore, designated area, which in modern sites consist of athere is considerable economic interest in the technology pre-constructed ‘cell’ lined with an impermeable layerand development processes for effective utilization of (mam-made or natural) and with controls to minimizethese wastes [2]. As a result emphasis is now on aerobic emissions [5].composting, that converts wastes into organic manure The composting process always occurs in nature,rich in plant nutrients and humus [3] biodegradation of however, many artificial measures have been developedlingo -cellulosic waste through an integrated system of to improve composting efficiency. Over the past decades,composting with bio-inoculants and vermicomposting effective inoculation has been reported by severalhave been studied [4]. researchers. Various specialized inocula have been

Currently, the major methods of waste management applied in practice. For example, Hatakka [6] studied theare; a) recycling the recovery of materials from products lignin-modifying enzymes from selected white-rot fungiafter they have been used by consumer, b) composting an that white-rot fungi played an important role in ligninaerobic, biological process of degradation of degradation. Nakasaki [7] reported that a thermophilic

process of treating raw sewage to produce a non-toxic

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bacterium, Bacillus licheniformis, could effectively of waste decomposition, the microbial activity lowers duedecompose protein and prevent the drop of pH values to the limited availability of degradable organicduring composting; thus, it could stimulate proliferation substances. This cooling phase leads to a decline ofof other thermophilic bacteria. temperature and allows mesophilic microorganisms to

Ohtaki [8] revealed that inoculation could increase predominate again.the microbial population, formulate beneficial microbial Composting converts organic matter into a stablecommunities, improve microbiological quality and substance which can be handled, stored, transported andgenerate various desired enzymes; and thus enhance the applied to the field without adversely affecting theconversion of organics and reduce odorous gas environment. Proper composting effectively destroysemissions. The studies of Lei [9] indicated that the pathogens and weed seeds through the metabolic heatinoculated microbial populations and indigenous generated by microorganism during the process [12]. Suchpopulations would evolve continuously, leading to composts are not only suitable for use as a soilvariations during different composting stages. This could conditioner and fertilizer, but can also suppress soil-borneresult in difficulties in describing the relevant inoculation and foliar plant pathogens [13].mechanisms. It also indicated that inoculation did not Composting is a well-known system for rapidsignificantly raise the rate of temperature increase, but did stabilization and humification of organic matter [14].increase the time the composting high temperature As well as an environmentally friendly and economicalremained. Shin et al. [10] also studied the enhancement of alternative method for treating solid organic waste [15].composting efficiency by adding solid and liquid During composting, readily degradable organic matter isinoculants. However, the inoculation efficiency was used by microorganism as a source of C and N. The endusually affected by competition with indigenous product (Compost) consists of transformed, slowly-microorganisms. The composting system may not have degradable compounds, intermediate breakdown productsthe desired performance due to improper process and the cell walls of dead microorganisms, which areoperations. For instance, Steven Donald Thomas [11] classified together as humic substances (H S). Numerouscompleted a study on microbial inoculation with mixed biological, microbiological and physic-chemicalcultures of Bacillus sp., Trichoderma reesei and techniques have been developed to characterize theTrichoderma harzianum in composting fish wastes. The agrochemical properties and the maturity of compost.inocula, performed well overall but were not always One of the most effective means of recycling anysignificantly better than the controlled compost organic wastes for agricultural use is by means ofpiles, depending on the season and combination of composting, an accepted practice in India and elsewhere.inocula. In many cases in India it is valuable to add nutrients to

Composting provides a good model of microbial compost to increase its fertilizer value. Although, sugarcommunities to study ecological issues such as diversity industry wastes are relatively high in nitrogen, calcium,succession and competition during the biodegradation magnesium and potassium, they are generally deficientand bioconversion of organic matter with thermal phosphorus, iron and zinc when compared to fertilizersgradients. The typical batch composting process commonly used in India. As a result, it is important toproceeds via four major thermal stages, i.e., the investigate the effect that amendments that are used tomesophilic, thermophilic, cooling and maturation phases, increase the fertilizer value of compost have on theeach of which has a particular microbial community production of compost. Further, the possibility ofstructure developing in response to temperature and other enriching organic wastes with micronutrients like Feenvironmental conditions. In the first stage, organic and Zn, which have become critical in cropsubstances are decomposed by mesophilic production, have been studied and their effectivenessmicroorganisms at moderate temperature. Then, the is increased appreciably through combined applicationtemperature is increased by self-heating as a result of of organics with FeSO4 and ZnSO4 in addition tovigorous microbial activity. In the thermophilic phase, the N, P, K fertilizer [16]. Therefore, it is appropriate totemperature reaches 80°C, which not only stimulates the develop composting systems that are capable ofproliferation of themophilic microorganisms, including converting these agro-industrial wastes into valuablemesophilic pathogens. After the themophilic progression organic fertilizers.

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Composting: India has huge biomass crop residues period initially and then a rapid transition to the(100-115 million tonnes) like sugarcane trash, straw, thermophilic period [22]. After the subsequent decreasebagasse, coir pith, cotton waste, farmland waste, in temperature, the curing period starts and may last for aagro-industrial wastes, aquatic weeds, but the potential long time. Therefore, two different groups ofof these organic resources is not fully tapped. It has microorganisms are involved in the composting process:been estimated that in India, about various tonnes of Mesophilic and thermophilic microorganisms. Thegood-quality compost would be made available by development of the mesophilic microbial community at theutilizing these wastes and the monetary value of plant initial stage is very important as it decides whether thenutrients such as N, P, K and lime in the fertilizers. India smooth transition from mesophilic to thermophilic periodis the second largest sugar producing country in the can be accomplished successfully despite the fact that theworld and sugar industries discharge about 5, 45 and 7.5 activity of Mesophilic bacteria may be greatly decreasedmillion tonnes annually of pressmud, bagasse and under a thermophilic temperature of 60°C [23].molasses, respectively, as wastes [17, 18]. Temperature change and the availability of substrates to

Pressmud or filter cake, a waste by-product from bacteria seemed to mainly determine the composition ofsugar factories, is a soft, spongy, amorphous and dark bacterial members at the different stages of compostingbrown to brownish material which contains sugar, fiber, [24]. A high external temperature at the initial period maycoagulated colloids, including cane wax, albuminoids, retard the composting process of food waste because theinorganic salts and soil particles. By virtue of the chemical low pH and high temperature can result in the absence ofcomposition and high content of organic carbon, the the mesophilic microbial community [25]. usefulness of pressmud as a valuable organic manure hasbeen reported by several workers [19]. Bagasse is another Composting of Pollutants and Various Industrial Wastes:waste material from the sugar industry. It has been found The past 200 years has seen a rapid increase into be the best substrate for the growth of cellulolytic and populations worldwide resulting in the need for evenligninolytic microorganisms [20] and could serve as an greater amounts of fuel and development of industrialexcellent carrier for bacterial inoculants. chemicals, fertilizers, pesticides and pharmaceuticals to

Composting, generally defined as the biological sustain and improve quality of life [26]. Although, manyaerobic transformation of an organic by-product into a of these chemicals are utilized or destroyed, a highdifferent organic product that can be added to the soil percentage is released into the air, water and soil,without detrimental effects on crop growth [21]. In the representing a potential environmental hazard [27].process of composting, organic wastes are recycled into Environmental pollution has become unacceptable forstabilized products that can be applied to the soil as an technological societies as awareness of its effects on theodorless and relatively dry source of organic matter, environment has increased. Unfortunately, it is notwhich would respond more efficiently and safely than the possible to replace all the industrial processes generatingfresh material to soil organic fertility requirements. The polluting wastes with clean alternatives. Therefore,conventional and most traditional method of composting treatment both at source and after release, whetherconsists of an accelerated biooxidation of the organic accidental or not, must be considered as alternatives inmatter as it passes through a thermophilic stage (45° to many cases [28].65°C) where microorganisms liberate heat, carbon dioxide Composting, the biotransformation of organic matter,and water. However, in recent years, researchers have minimizes or even eliminates such risks by means of thebecome progressively interested in using another related biological and physicochemical conditions that existbiological process for stabilizing organic wastes, which during the process. Biological activity leads to highdoes not include a thermophilic stage, but involves the temperatures that can destroy pathogens if it lasts longuse of earthworms for breaking down and stabilizing the enough [29] and to the decomposition and transformationorganic wastes. of organic components into stable humic substances [30].

Composting is also a self-heating process and The production of antimicrobial compounds maytemperature is a function of the accumulation of heat contribute to this activity as well. On the other hand,generated metabolically and is simultaneously a several authors describe a limitation in the bioavailabilitydeterminant of metabolic activity. The composting of pollutants such as heavy metals or pesticidesprocess is generally characterized by a short mesophilic throughout the composting process [31].

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Composting is an aerobic process that relies on the compost prepared by using thermophillic bacteria and it’sactions of microorganisms to degrade organic materials,resulting in the thermogenesis and production of organicand inorganic compounds. The metabolically generatedheat is trapped within the compost matrix, which leads toelevations in temperature, a characteristic of composting[32]. Fogarty and Tuovinen [33] divided the compostingprocess into four major microbiological stages in relationto temperature. With these changes in temperature, thereare related changes in the structure of the microbialcommunity. With increases in the respiratory activity,there is an increase in temperature resulting in a decreasein mesophilic microbes and an increase in thermophilesand it is at these higher temperatures that most of themicrobial decomposition takes place. In the third phase,there is a cooling effect due to the decrease in microbialactivity as most of the utilizable organic carbon has beenremoved, resulting in an increase in mesophilicmicroorganisms.

It is important to differentiate at the onset thedissimilarity between compost and composting [34].Composting is the process by which compost isproduced, i.e. the maturation of, for example straw andmanure [35]. Compost is the resultant product ofcomposting, with the exception of horticultural pottingcomposts. Thus, a composting bioremediation strategyrelies on the addition of compost's primary ingredients tocontaminated soil, wherein the compost matures in thepresence of the contaminated soil. In contrast, compostcan be added to contaminated soil after its maturation.These distinct approaches are discussed separately [36].Because of the above characteristics, composting isconsidered the most suitable technique for transformingorganic wastes into usable agricultural amendments.

Nagaraju et al. [37] assessed the physicochemicaland cellulase activity in waste dump sites. Theexperimental results indicated that, most of thephysicochemical properties such as silt, clay, electricalconductivity, water holding capacity, organic matter andtotal nitrogen contents, microbial population and cellulaseactivities were significantly higher in the test sample thanin the control. Furthermore, though the application ofeffluents substantially increased the cellulase activity, butwas declined at high effluent concentration. Nevertheless,enzyme activity was gradually dropped upon prolongedincubation period in all three samples, such as control,test and effluent amended samples.

Namita Joshi and Sonal Sharma [38] analyzed thephysical and chemical characteristics of raw pressmud, its

vermicompost which is prepared by using species Eiseniafoetida. while comparing physical and chemicalcharacteristics, it was found that vermicompost havelower temperature, water holding , pH and carbon contentbut higher electrical conductivity, available phosphorusand moisture content as compared to raw pressmud andits compost.

Bhosale et al. [39] tested the physical and chemicalcharacteristics such as pH, NPK organic carbon, organicmatter, moisture content etc. of raw pressmud as well aspressmud from which the wax is extracted by solventrecovery. It was found that the water holding capacity ofsoil containing dewaxed pressmud was high as comparedto waxed pressmud and in the range of 58.39 to 92.43% inthe dewaxed pressmud where as for wax containingpressmud it was 49.39 to 86.63 %. The C: N ratio ofdewaxed pressmud was high and was 18.54 % ascompared to that of waxed pressmud. The compostingprocesses improve the physical structure and lower the C:N ratio of the pressmud and leads to reduction in C: Nratio i.e. 16.53 % of dewaxed pressmud after composting.

Physical and Chemical Nature of Raw Pressmud:Pressmud or filter cake, a waste byproduct from sugarfactory is a soft, spongy, amorphous and dark brown tobrownish material which contains sugar, fiber, coagulatedcolloids, including cane wax, albuminoids, inorganic saltsand soil particles. The composition of pressmud wasfound to vary depending upon the quality of cane andprocess of cane juice clarification. There are twoprocesses, i.e., carbonation and sulphitation by which thecane juice is cleaned before its conversion to sugarcrystals. Sulphitation processed pressmud being organicin nature could serve as a store house of macro and micronutrients and the chemical analysis showed an organiccarbon of 35- 37 per cent, 1.0 to 1.5 per cent nitrogen,2.5-3.5 per cent phosphorus and 0.5-0.8 per cent potash[40]. Pressmud contains many valuable micronutrients.When this material is digested under anaerobic condition,the lignin, cellulose and waxes are converted to releasemicronutrients from pressmud that are freely available forplant growth [41].

Kapur and Kanwar [42] compared the nutritive valuebetween sulphitation and carbonation processedpressmud cakes and reported that the nitrogen,phosphorus and potassium contents in sulphitationprocessed pressmud cane were 2.43, 2.95 and 0.44 percent. While carbonation processed pressmud cakecontained 0.88, 0.93 and 0.53 per cent of N, P and K.

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Virendrakumar and Mishra [43] found that the energy is released during the oxidation of carbon to CO .pressmud obtained from both carbonation and The overall reaction likely to occur during aerobicsulphitation processes was alkaline in nature. The organic composting may be represented as follows.carbon content of pressmud obtained from carbonationprocess was low (15.07%) as compared to that fromsulphitation processed (26.0%). Nitrogen, phosphorusand potassium contents of sulphitation filter cake were Cellulose Degradation: Cellulose is a basic component of2.38, 2.62 and 0.62 per cent respectively, whereas all plant materials and its production exceeds that of allcarbonation process cake contained 0.86, 1.02 and 0.60 per other natural substances. Plant residues in soil consist ofcent N, P and K respectively. 40-70 per cent cellulose. Cellulose is made up of chains of

According to Santhi and Selvakumari [44], the -D-Glucose consisting of about 1900 glucose unitsquantity of pressmud available in Tamil Nadu was around (monomers). The enzymatic cleavage of cellulose is6.83 lakhs tonnes. Earlier this material was dumped in catalyzed by cellulases. The cellulase system consists ofheaps in the vicinity of sugar factories since its use was at least three enzymes viz., Endo -1, 4 glucanases, Exo-not known. Various authors [45] have reported the 1,4 glucanases and -glucosidases.usefulness of pressmud as valuable organic manure. Cellulose is degraded and utilized well in aerated soils

Namita Joshi and Sonal Sharma [46] analyzed the by aerobic microorganisms. The fungi play a significantphysical and chemical characteristics of raw pressmud, its part in the degradation of cellulose under aerobiccompost prepared by using thermophilic bacteria and it’s condition. They are more successful than bacteria in acidvermicompost which is prepared by using species Eisenia soils and in the degradation of cellulose embedded infoetida. It was found that vermicompost have lower lignin. The fungi actively involved in cellulosetemperature, water holding, pH and carbon content but degradation are species of Fusarium, Chaetomium,higher electrical conductivity, available phosphorus and Aspergillus fumigatus, Aspergillus nidulans, Botrytismoisture content as compared to raw pressmud and its cinerea, Rhizoctonia solani, Trichoderma viride andcompost. Myrothecium verucaria.

Bhosale et al. [47] tested the physical and chemical Cellulolytic microorganisms are commonly found incharacteristics such as pH, NPK organic carbon, organic the field and forest soil in manure and on decaying plantmatter and moisture content of raw pressmud as well as tissue. They include both aerobic and anaerobic fungi andpressmud from which the wax was extracted by solvent bacteria, many of which grow under extreme conditions ofrecovery. It was found that the water holding capacity of temperature and pH. Among the fungi, white-rot, brownsoil containing dewaxed pressmud was high as compared rot and soft-rot fungi are more capable of degradingto waxed pressmud and in the range of 58.39% to 92.43% cellulose materials. The enzyme mechanisms involved inin the dewaxed pressmud where as for wax containing cellulose degradation have been well studied by Rhy andpressmud it was 49.39% to 86.63 %. The C: N ratio of Mandels [49]. Some cellulose materials are associated withdewaxed pressmud was high and was 18.54 % as lignin and hence they also become somewhat recalcitrantcompared to that of waxed pressmud. The composting and resistant to bioconversion. The crystalline celluloseprocesses improved the physical structure and lower the was found to be a superior carbon source for induction ofC: N ratio of the pressmud and leads to reduction in C: N cellulase enzyme in thermophilic fungi than its amorphousratio i.e. 16.53 % of dewaxed pressmud after composting. or impure form. Marchessault and Sundarajan [50] stated

Biochemical Changes During Composting cellulose fibers contain various types of irregularities,Organic Matter Decomposition: When organic materials such as kinks of twists on the micro fibrils or voids suchare biodegraded in presence of oxygen, the process called as surface micro pores, large pits and capillaries.aerobic composting [48]. During aerobic condition, livingorganisms utilize oxygen, decompose organic matter and Degradation of Hemicelluloses: Hemicelluloses are aassimilate some of the carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus, complex group of cell wall polysaccharides. Thesulphur and other elements for synthesis of their cell hemicellulose is acted upon by a group of enzymes knownprotein. Carbon serves both as an energy source and for as hemicellulases. The hemicellulases complex consists ofbuilding protoplasm and a greater amount of carbon is the enzymes viz., xylanases, arabinases, galactanases andassimilated than nitrogen. A great deal of exothermic mannanases. Wide array of glucosidases are involved in

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that in addition to the crystalline and amorphous regions,

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the breakdown of the non cellulosic structural expanding range of organisms known to have thispolysaccharides of the plant cell wall. property. In particular, fungi classified as white rot

Hemicellulose includes xylan, mannan, galactan under Basidiomycetes and Deuteromycetes are welland arabinan as main heteropolymers. Xylan contains known to degrade lignin. Some bacteria are also known toD-xylose as its monomeric unit and traces of L-arabinose. degrade lignin completely, acting synergistically withGalactan contains D-galactose and mannan is made up fungi. The oxidative pathways of lignin degradation byof D-mannose units while arabinan is composed of such aerobes have been reported by Janshekar andL-arabinose. The capacity to degrade these carbohydrates Fiechter [53].present in the major fungal groups includes the membersof the classes, Deuteromycetes, Phycomycetes, Microbial Enzymes and Composting: Composting is anAscomycetes and Basidiomycetes. Pleurotus sp. are effective organic matter degrading process when theknown to colonize and degrade a variety of lignocellulosic appropriate conditions for microbial activity are given.materials including crop residues and improve their food, It is a well known fact different types of microorganismsfeed and fuel value. Rajarathanam and Bano [51] studied dominate as degradation proceeds [54]. Pressmud is athe decomposition of hemicellulose in soil and reported solid waste by-product from sugar industry. The value ofthat any process increasing the surface area of the debris pressmud as an organic manure has been well recognizedbefore its incorporation into the soil increased the for utilizing in agriculture as it contains valuable plantdecomposition rate. They have observed that nutrients and besides being very effective soil ameliorantincorporation of hemicelluloses into soil resulted in [55]. However, pressmud and other lignocellulosicapproximately 70 per cent of the carbon being evolved as materials are not easily degraded due to the lignin,CO after 48 days incubation, whereas fine grinding of the crystalline and structural complexity of cellulose matrix2

hemicellulose prior to incorporation increased the [56]. Therefore, many treatments have been tested todecomposition to 80 per cent. improve the susceptibility of lignocelluloses through

Degradation of Lignin: Lignin comprises 20 to 30 per cent steam and acid treatments are few of the most commonlyof the dry weight of vascular plant. The lignin molecule used pretreatments on lignocellosic materials to increasecontains only three elements viz., carbon, hydrogen and the sugars, the enzyme, the enzyme activity and biomassoxygen but the structure is aromatic rather than being of yields and the digestibility of the substrate [57].the carbohydrate type as typified by cellulose and Pressmud can be degraded by variety ofhemicellulose. The molecule is a polymer of aromatic microorganisms such as bacteria, fungi and somenuclei with either a single repeating unit or several similar actinomycetes. Primary decomposition of pressmud issubstances as the building blocks. Lignin is linked to carried out by mesophilic populations using availablecellulose and other carbohydrate polymers. As such simple sugars and the metabolic energy is dissipated aslignin carbohydrate complexes limit both the rate and heat, temperature increases up to the thermophilic rangeproportion of carbohydrate digestion by microbes, from 40 to 70°C. A second group of organisms capable ofparticularly under anoxic condition. The economic degrading polymers and utilizing intermediateapplications of microbiological process for producing fermentation products becomes active during thissolvents, alcohols and methane from biomass requires, themophilic period. The proper composting process inamong other things, that rapid and complete substrate which, conditions were provided for adequate transfer ofunder anaerobic conditions. oxygen inside the piles was became a good quality

McCarty et al. [52] showed that pretreatment of compost [58].biomass with alkali at high temperature greatly increased Charya and Reddy [59] reported hydrolytic enzymeits digestibility and gave increased yields of methane. production by nonsporic isolates of Phoma enigue andDuring subsequent fermentation, chemical analysis of Graphium penicilliodies obtained from Phaseolus aureuslignin subjected to heat and high pH showed that simple and Cyamopsis tetrgonolobus. Sharma and Doshi [60]aromatic compounds were released by the treatment and reported the production of pectinolytic and cellulolyticsuch compounds were readily metabolized to methane by enzymes during growth stages of Phellorina inquinans.populations of anaerobic bacteria. Cellulolytic enzyme systems are produced by a number of

Degradation of lignin and related compounds by different types of microorganisms, such as aerobicmicroorganisms has been studied extensively with an

chemical, enzymatic and microbial degradation and alkali,

bacteria, mesophilic and thermophilic fungi on wide

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spectrum of lignocellulosic substrate such as wheat bran, sugar beet pulp and sugarcane baggase have beenstraw [61], baggase [62], pretreated wood [63]. Of all the used for induction of xylanases.cellulolytic organisms, fungal cellulolytic enzyme systems Lynd and Zhang [70] reported cellulose hydrolysishave been well studied with respect to their components, limits the rate of microbial cellulose utilization under mostinduction and secretion, molecular biology and their conditions as may be inferred from the observation thatstructure [64]. maximum growth rates on soluble sugars were usually

Maheswari et al. [65] reported that the thermophilic several fold faster than on crystalline cellulose.fungi produce multiple forms of the cellulose compounds. Thermophilic cellulolytic and thermo tolerant cellulolyticHowever, two different strains of Thermoascus microbes exhibited substantially higher growth rates onauranticus produced one from each of endoglucanase, cellulose than do any of the mesophiles.exoglucanase and -glucosidase, but it forms the two Thermostability of cellulases and xylanases is due tostrains had somewhat different properties. The multiplicity the presence of an extra disulfide bridge which was absentof individual cellulose might be a result of post in the majority of mesophilic xylanases and to an extent oftranslational and for post secretion modifications of a an increased density of charged residues throughout thegene product or might be due to multiple genes. The protein [71]. Important enzymes involved in compostingendoglucanase of thermophilic fungi were thermostable process include cellulase, protease, lipases, phosphateswith optimal activity between 55°C and 80°C at pH 5.0-5.5 and arlyl sulphatases. High levels of protease, lipase andand carbohydrate count of 2-50 per cent. The cellulose activities have been detected throughout theexoglucanase were optimally active at 50-75°C and are active phase of composting [72].thermostable. Goyal et al. [73] reported that the activities of

The major hemicellulosic constituents of pressmud cellulases, xylanases and proteases were maximumresidues are the hetro-1,4 -xylans. The hydrolysis of the between 30 and 60 days of composting in various wastes.xylans in these residues requires the participation of Similar trend was observed with respect to mesophilicxylanases as well as cellulases and -glucosidases. Many bacterial and fungal population. Various qualityorganisms are known to elaborate extracellular xylanases parameters like C:N ratio, water soluble carbon (WSC),during growth on cellulosic residues. A mixed culture CO evolution and level of humic substances wereprocess has enhanced cellulose and xylanase production compared after 90 day composting. Statistically significantunder the optimal fermentation conditions [66]. The correlation between C:N ratio, CO evolution, WSC andcapabilities of the xylanolytic systems of different humic substances were observed.organisms to remove the substituents of the xylanbackbone (acetyl, arbinosyl and 4-methyl glucuronosyl Factors Controlling Compostinggroups) were variable. Trichoderma reesi culture filtrates Moisture: Optimum moisture content is essential for thecontained all of these enzyme activities [67]. microbial degradation of organic wastes. Aerobic

Prabhu and Maheswari [68] reported that multiple decomposition can proceed at moisture content betweenforms of xylanases differ in stability, catalytic efficiency, 30 and 100 per cent if aeration can be provided. Initiallyabsorption and activity on substrates. A possible role for the moisture content may be between 45 and 75 per centthe production of xylanase isoenzymes of different with 50 to 65 per cent as optimum. molecular size might be to allow their diffusion into the The materials can be stabilized at various moistureplant cell walls of highly variable structures. The majority levels depending upon several factors including initialof xylanases have pH optima were ranging from 4.5 to 6.5. moisture, volatile solid content, turning frequency andThermoascus auranticus and Thermoascus lanuginosus water added from rainfall. Floate [74] reported thatwere optimally active at 70 to 80°C. moisture content has less influence than temperature on

Maheswari et al. [69] reported that xylanases of the decomposition of organic materials of plant and animalthermophilic fungi are receiving considerable attention origin. Consequently, high moisture content must bebecause of their application in bioleaching of pulp in the avoided because water displaces air from the intersticespaper industry, wherein enzymatic removal of xylan from between particles and creates anaerobic conditions.lignin-carbohydrate complex facilitates the leaching of Very low moisture content may deprive the organisms oflignin from the fiber cell wall, obviating the need from water needed for their metabolism and inhibit theirchlorine for pulp bleaching in the brightening process. activity.A variety of materials such as pure xylan, xylan rich Waksman [75] recommended 75-80 per cent moisturenatural substrates, such as sawdust, corn cob, wheat for composting farm yard manure. Gotaas [76] stated that

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little decomposition takes place in manure heaps both Physical and Chemical Nature of Substrates: Theunder dry and waterlogged conditions and suggested a chemical and physical properties of the substrate affectmoisture content of 65-85 per cent depending on the the composting process and the quality of the finishedcharacteristic of the composting materials. product [88]. The waste which contains high content of

Singh [77] reported that the loss of organic matter organic matter, domestic wastes, sewage sludge andincreased as moisture content upto 70 per cent and also agricultural biomass are suitable for composting [89].decreased the rate of decomposition. Inbar et al. [78] Nutrient quality and quantity are the terms which mayobserved that that moisture content had a major effect on be considered for the chemical characteristic of theoxygen consumption. They reported that the oxygen wastes. The relative quantity of carbon, nitrogen,consumption was higher at higher moisture content and phosphorus, sulphur and other nutrients is important, butmicrobial activity declined. it is also the quality of the substrate that decides the rate

Optimum moisture content is essential for the of decomposition [90]. Cellulose and lignin have similarmicrobial proliferation during composting of wastes. content of carbon but lignin undergoes decompositionParticle size and moisture content are the important much more slowly than cellulose [91]. Microbial andphysical properties that affects the rate of decomposition. enzymatic access to the substrates acceleratesOptimum moisture content of 40-60 per cent is essential decomposition of wastes [92].for composting. If the moisture is below 40 per cent,decomposition will be slow. If the moisture content is C:N Ratio: The carbon to nitrogen ratio affects the speedmore than 60 per cent anaerobic conditions occur [79]. of the composting process and the volume of materials

Temperature: Proper temperature control is an important decomposes during composting is principally dependentfactor in aerobic composting process. During the process, upon the C:N ratio of the materials. During composting,the temperature condition is considered to be a reflection microorganisms utilize the carbon as a source of energyof the metabolic status of the microbial population and the nitrogen for building cell structure. But, if the C isinvolved in the process [80]. The temperature in the excessive, decomposition decreases. When thecompost heap increases during the first few days between availability of C is less than that required for converting60°C and 70°C for several days and then decreased available N into protein, microorganisms use most of thegradually to a constant temperature [81]. A drop in available C and there may be loss of N through NHtemperature could mean that the materials need to be volatilization [93].aerated or moistened [82]. The temperature must be Golueke [94] reported that the optimum C:N ratio asmaintained between 60°C and 70°C for 24 hrs to kill all 20-25 to 1. However, the C:N ratio of 50:1 is well withinpathogens and weed seeds [83]. optimum range and excellent results are also obtained with

Shindia [84] reported that the variation in temperature even higher ratios as demonstrated by successfulrecorded during the composting process led to the composting of leaves, sugarcane bagasse, saw dust, alderchanges in distribution of decomposing fungi in the chips and cotton waste. Gaur [95] observed that whencompost. Goyal et al. [85] observed changes in there is a severe nitrogen deficiency in the waste, additiontemperature at various stages of decomposition of of small amount of urea or other nitrogen sources may bedifferent organic wastes. The initial temperature of 20- required to overcome to complete.30°C was recorded at the start of composting and highesttemperature of 68°C was observed at 14 days of Aeration/Turning: Aeration is useful in reducing highcomposting. initial moisture content in composting materials. Adequate

pH: The pH of compostable material influences the type if composting is to proceed rapidly. The supply of oxygenof organisms involved in the composting process. Fungi can be increased by blowing air into the compost.tolerate a wide pH range than bacteria. The optimum pH The provision of air vents into the base of the compostingrange for most bacteria is between 6.0 and 7.5. According mass or by ‘turning’ or regular mixing of compost heapsto Gotaas [86], most of the waste materials available for [96].composting were within the above pH level. Further, Turning the materials is the most common method ofVerdonck [87] reported that organic matter with a wide aeration. Turning is often cited as the primary mechanismrange of pH (3.0 to 11.0) can be composted and the of aeration and temperature regulation during windrowoptimum levels for composting are between 6.0 and 8.0 composting [97]. Turning frequency is commonly believedand between 4.0 and 7.0 for the end product. to be a factor which affects the rate of composting, time

finished. In other words, the rate at which organic matter

3

supply of oxygen to the organism should be maintained

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required to reach full maturation and the elimination of pre-decomposition and vermicomposting. The N, P, Kphytotoxicity as well as compost quality [98]. However, content increased significantly during pre-decompositionoptimum turning frequencies for different materials vary with bioinoculants. The best quality compost, based onwidely. It was also reported that composting of spent litter chemical analysis, was prepared where the substrate waswith a 2 or 4 day turning frequency had a faster treated with all the four bioinoculants together followedcomposting rate than turning of spent litter pile with a 7 by vermicomposting. Results indicated that theday turning frequency. combination of both the systems reduced the overall time

Odour and Colour of the Compost: The unpleasant odour of lignocellulosic waste during the winter season besidesemitted from composting heaps decreased during the first producing a nutrient-enriched compost product.stages of bio oxidation phase and practically disappears The effect of composts prepared from various organicby the end of the composting process [99]. Chanyasak waste were examined by several workers through glassand Kubota [100] stated that lower fatty acids are one of house and field experiments. It is evident that increasedthe major components causing the very unpleasant odor yield and nutrient uptake were related mainly to thein the compost. During the composting of waste, a improved physical condition or the nutrient contents ofgradual darkening or melanization of the material takes organic wastes [104] and a significant increase in cropplace and the final product was dark brown in color. yield and nutrient uptake was reported due to the

Characteristics of the Compost and its Application in experiments indicated that application of 3202 kg ofAgriculture: Compost produced by super thermophilic pressmud compost was equivalent to 502 kg of triplebacteria was well characterized by Kanazawa et al. [101] super phosphate. They also demonstrated that dry matterfor its application as fertilizer to cultivate plants. Soil yield, phosphorus uptake, grain and straw yield of ricefertilized by the compost keeps nutrient ions in forms were comparable for pressmud compost and triple supereasily accessible for uptake by plant roots. Nitrogen in phosphate.organic compounds is converted to ammonium ion Mishra et al. [105] observed that the compostthrough hyper-thermophilic aerobic fermentation. The application increased the phosphorus use efficiency byoxidative process producing nitrate ion does not take wheat (20.48%) and greengram (12-90%) as compared toplace during composting because Nitrosomonas or single super phosphate. It was also reported that theNitrobactor cannot survive or be active under compost increased the quality of grains by increasing thetemperatures higher than 80°C. For the same reason, the protein and Ca contents.denitrification process might not be activated. Organic Gaur [106] observed that the addition of compost tonitrogen, typically amino or heterocyclic group in the top layer at a soil favoured the penetration of waterbiochemicals, is either converted to ammonium or remains and air. Organic matter has greater influence of waterin an undigested form in the compost, thus reducing any retention through soil structural changes viz., change inlosses of nitrogen. One explanation of the advantages of pore size between soil aggregates. The results of the threeapplying the compost in agricultural fields is that the year field trials conducted by Raman et al. [107] havechemical and micro-morphological features of compost shown that application of pressmud significantlyproduced by the hyper-thermophilic aerobic bacteria increased infiltration rate as well as water stableeffectively control the ecology of bacteria and other aggregates and found to be superior compared to fly ashorganisms, even though the hyper-thermophilic bacteria and gypsum.themselves are inactive [102]. Pressmud applied to sugarcane along with N, P

Anshu Singh and Satyawati Sharma [103] conducted and K fertilizers significantly increased the yield ofthe preliminary studies on wheat straw to test the cane and also quality of rice [108]. On the contrary,technical viability of an integrated system of composting, Yaduvanshi et al. [109] observed that application ofwith bioinoculants and subsequent vermicomposting. pressmud and nitrogen alone or in combination did notWheat straw was pre-decomposed for 40days by affect the sucrose and purity of cane juice. However, theyinoculating it with Pleurotus sajor-caju, Trichoderma found that the yield of cane increased by 12.9 to 65.6%harzianum, Aspergillus niger and Azotobacter over that of control. Application of pressmud increasedchroococcum in different combinations. This was the maize and wheat yield by 129.4 and 62.2%followed by vermicomposting for 30days. Chemical respectively. Continuous application of pressmud andanalysis of the samples showed a significant decrease nitrogenous fertilizer also significantly increased the canein cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin contents during and sugar yield of sugarcane. Tiwari et al. [110] found

required for composting and accelerated the composting

application of enriched compost. The results of field

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that combined application of 5 tonnes of pressmud and 5 increase in NO – N. The C:N ratios of the compostingtonnes of FYM significantly increased sunflower seed mixes decreased substantially by the 90 day in fullyield, seed protein and oil contents as compared to thermophilic phase and became comparatively stable latercontrol without pressmud. on. Addition of additives showed potential in improving

Virendrakumar and Mishra [111] observed that the C:N ratios. addition of pressmud obtained from carbonation process Rahul Kumar et al. [115] composted the wasteincreased the pH and decreased the available by-products of the sugar cane industry, bagasse,phosphorus; whereas sulphitation pressmud caused no pressmud and trash using bioinoculation followed bychange in the pH and available P, both types of pressmud vermicomposting to shorten stabilization time andincreased the organic carbon and available K content of improve product quality. Pressmud alone and insoil. Addition of organic manure in conjunction with combination with other by-products of sugar processingfertilizers to maize-soybean cropping system significantly industries was pre-decomposed for 30 days byincreased available N, P, K, Fe, Cu, Mn and Zn in soil. inoculation with combination of Pleurotus sajor-caju,

Yadav et al. [112] reported that addition of sugarcane Trichoderma viride, Aspergillus niger and Pseudomonastrash enriched with rock phosphate, phosphorus striatum. This treatment was followed bysolubilizers, cellulolytic fungi and Azotobacter increased vermicomposting for 40 days with the native earthworm,the number of nodules, nitrogen activity of nodules and Drawida willsi. The combination of both treatmentsgrain and straw yields of greengram. In sugarcane reduced the overall time required for composting tocultivation, nitrogen uptake and dry matter production 20 days and accelerated the degradation process of wastewas increased by incorporation of pressmud (normal or by-products of sugar processing industry, therebyenriched with Pleurotus or Trichoderma viride) in to soil producing a nutrient enriched compost product useful forfor sugarcane. Continuous application of pressmud and sustaining high crop yield, minimizing soil depletion andnitrogenous fertilizer also increased significantly cane and value added disposal of waste materials. sugar yield of sugar cane. Ferial Rashad et al. [116] monitored the

Shindia [113] conducted the compost studies to microbiological and physicochemical parameters duringdetermine the conversion of sugar mill wastes into a composting of five piles containing mainly rice straw,stable product that may be useful in crop production and soybean residue and enriched with rock phosphate.to characterize the N transformations. Two kinds of sugar Physico-chemical changes confirmed the succession ofmill by-products were composted, filter cake and filter microbial populations depending on the temperature ofcake mixed with bagasse, at a 2:1 ratio to reduce the C:N each phase in all treatments. Intense microbial activitiesratio in an attempt to reduce N loss during composting. led to organic matter mineralization and simultaneouslyMaterials were mixed manually at 3-5 day intervals during narrow C/N ratios. Inoculation of composting mixturesthe composting process. Both composts were analyzed at enhanced the biodegradation of recalcitrant substances.least weekly to measure temperature, pH, NH , NO , total The duration of exposure to a temperature above 55°C for4 3

N content, C loss and germination index. For both at least 16 consecutive days was quite enough to sanitizemixtures, the thermophilic stage lasted 15-20 days and was the produced composts. After 84 days, all compostshigher than ambient for nearly 80 days. The degradation reached maturity as indicated by various parameters.of organic matter was rapid in both mixtures to Dan Lian Huang et al. [117] tested the microbialapproximately 40 days after which it began to stabilize. populations and their relationship to bioconversionBoth mixtures achieved maturity at approximately 90 days during lignocellulosic waste composting quinoneas indicated by a stable C:N, low NH /NO , lack of heat profiling. Nine quinones were observed in the initial4 3

production and a germination index was higher than 80%. composting materials and 15 quinones were found inGoyal et al. [114] studied the changes in temperature compost after 50 days of composting. The quinone

and physico-chemical parameters of sugar industry species which are indicative of certain fungi appeared atwastes during windrow composting. The rise in the thermophilic stage but disappeared at the coolingtemperature which occurred as composting progressed stage. Q-10, indicative of certain fungi and characteristicwas accompanied by an increase in NH –N and the of certain bacteria, were the predominant quinones during4

passage of the thermophilic phase to mesophilic took the thermophilic stage and were correlated with ligninplace between 90 and 105 days. This overall pattern was degradation at the thermophilic stage. The highest ligninobserved in all composting mixes, whereby the degradation ratio (26%) and good cellulose degradationconcentrations of NH – N increased rapidly and then were found at the cooling stage and were correlated with4

declined gradually over the course of monitoring with quinones and long-chain menaquinones attributed to

3th

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mesophilic fungi, bacteria and actinomycetes, 5. Rushton, L., 2003. Health hazards and wasterespectively.

Ali Mohammadi Torkashvand et al. [118]investigated the compost production by usingTrichoderma fungus, different acidities of the used waterin moistening organic wastes and nitrogen in a factorialcompletely randomized design. Treatments includeddifferent levels of water pH for moistening organic matterand urea. Each treatment contained a mixture of bagasse,filter cake, manure and fresh alfalfa; that themicroorganism’s suspension was sprayed on the rawmaterials amounted 2.5 mg/kg dry organic matters.-1

Results indicated that the C/N ratio reduced to lessthan16% in produced compost. Treatment having pH=5.5of the used water with 0.5% urea was suitable forproviding compost from the cane organic wastes.

Shrikumar et al. [119] conducted the experiment ondisposal of spent wash by composting with pressmudcake (PMC) through microbial consortium treatment by pitand windrow system. The compost prepared by windrowand pit methods from PMC and spent wash usingmicrobial culture within 45 days ranged C: N ratio from10.19:1 to 13.88:1 and 14.32:1 to 22.34:1, respectively. Thecompost obtained in various treatments by windrowmethod contained 1.52-3.7 % N, 0.9-3.54 % P O , 1.95-3.452 5

% K O and had pH range from 7.02-7.82. Similarly, the2

compost obtained in various treatments by pit methodcontained 1.34-2.85 % N, 0.30-0.72 % P O , 2.20-4.72 %2 5

K O and had pH range from 7.40-8.16. Microbial2

consortium used in their investigation includedphosphate solubilizing fungi and Burkholderia speciesisolated from the sugarcane and sugar beet rhizosphere.

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International and The 4 National Congress on Biological and Physical Sciences, 2(2): 847-855.th

Recycling of Organic Waste in Agriculture 26-27April 2012 in Isfahan, Iran.