Wireless Networking Technologies WLAN, WiFi Mesh and WiMAX Vikas Singh Bhadouria SATI , VIDISHA (M.P.)
Wireless Networking TechnologiesWLAN, WiFi Mesh and WiMAX
Vikas Singh Bhadouria
SATI , VIDISHA (M.P.)
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Course Outline
Wireless Networks– Difference from wired– Mobility
RF Basics– Frequency, modulation– Medium access control
WiFi Overview– Basic elements– Standards and variants
WiMaX Overview– Basic elements
Wireless LANs (WiFi)– 802.11 standards – Mobility support– Voice and QoS support
Mesh and Adhoc Networks– Routing and Transport
Wireless MANs (WiMaX)– 802.16 standard– Voice and QoS support
Trends– Overlay networks
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Wireless networks
Access computing/communication services, on the move
Wireless WANs– Cellular Networks: GSM, GPRS, CDMA– Satellite Networks: Iridium
Wireless LANs– WiFi Networks: 802.11– Personal Area Networks: Bluetooth
Wireless MANs– WiMaX Networks: 802.16– Mesh Networks: Multi-hop WiFi– Adhoc Networks: useful when infrastructure not available
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Limitations of the mobile environment
• Limitations of the Wireless Network• limited communication bandwidth • frequent disconnections• heterogeneity of fragmented networks
• Limitations Imposed by Mobility• route breakages• lack of mobility awareness by system/applications
• Limitations of the Mobile Device• short battery lifetime• limited capacities
Mobile communication
Wireless vs. mobile Examples
stationary computer laptop in a hotel (portable) wireless LAN in historic buildings Personal Digital Assistant (PDA)
Integration of wireless into existing fixed networks:– Local area networks: IEEE 802.11, ETSI (HIPERLAN)
– Wide area networks: Cellular 3G, IEEE 802.16
– Internet: Mobile IP extension
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Wireless v/s Wired networks
Regulations of frequencies– Limited availability, coordination is required– useful frequencies are almost all occupied
Bandwidth and delays– Low transmission rates
• few Kbits/s to some Mbit/s.– Higher delays
• several hundred milliseconds– Higher loss rates
• susceptible to interference, e.g., engines, lightning
Always shared medium– Lower security, simpler active attacking– radio interface accessible for everyone– secure access mechanisms important
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384 Kbps384 Kbps
56 Kbps56 Kbps
54 Mbps54 Mbps
72 Mbps72 Mbps
5-11 Mbps5-11 Mbps
1-2 Mbps1-2 Mbps 802.11
Wireless Technology Landscape
Bluetooth
802.11b
802.11{a,b}Turbo .11a
Indoor
10 – 30m
IS-95, GSM, CDMA
WCDMA, CDMA2000
Outdoor
50 – 200m
Mid rangeoutdoor
200m – 4Km
Long rangeoutdoor
5Km – 20Km
Long distance com.
20m – 50Km
µwave p-to-p links
.11 p-to-p link
2G
3G
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Reference model
Application
Transport
Network
Data Link
Physical
Medium
Data Link
Physical
Application
Transport
Network
Data Link
Physical
Data Link
Physical
Network Network
Radio
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Effect of mobility on protocol stack
Application– new applications and adaptations– service location, multimedia
Transport– congestion and flow control– quality of service
Network– addressing and routing– device location, hand-over
Link– media access and security
Physical– transmission errors and interference
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Perspectives
Network designers: Concerned with cost-effective design – Need to ensure that network resources are efficiently utilized
and fairly allocated to different users.
Network users: Concerned with application services– Need guarantees that each message sent will be delivered
without error within a certain amount of time.
Network providers: Concerned with system administration – Need mechanisms for security, management, fault-tolerance
and accounting.
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Factors affecting wireless system design
Frequency allocations– What range to operate? May need licenses.
Multiple access mechanism– How do users share the medium without interfering?
Antennas and propagation– What distances? Possible channel errors introduced.
Signals encoding– How to improve the data rate?
Error correction– How to ensure that bandwidth is not wasted?
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Frequencies for communication
VLF = Very Low Frequency UHF = Ultra High Frequency LF = Low Frequency SHF = Super High Frequency MF = Medium Frequency EHF = Extra High Frequency HF = High Frequency UV = Ultraviolet Light VHF = Very High Frequency
Frequency and wave length: λ = c/f wave length λ, speed of light c ≅ 3x108m/s, frequency f
1 Mm300 Hz
10 km30 kHz
100 m3 MHz
1 m300 MHz
10 mm30 GHz
100 µm3 THz
1 µm300 THz
visible lightVLF LF MF HF VHF UHF SHF EHF infrared UV
optical transmissioncoax cabletwisted pair
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Wireless frequency allocation
Radio frequencies range from 9KHz to 400GHZ (ITU)
Microwave frequency range– 1 GHz to 40 GHz– Directional beams possible– Suitable for point-to-point transmission– Used for satellite communications
Radio frequency range– 30 MHz to 1 GHz – Suitable for omnidirectional applications
Infrared frequency range– Roughly, 3x1011 to 2x1014 Hz– Useful in local point-to-point multipoint applications within confined
areas
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Frequencies for mobile communication
VHF-/UHF-ranges for mobile radio– simple, small antenna for cars– deterministic propagation characteristics, reliable connections
SHF and higher for directed radio links, satellite communication– small antenna, focusing– large bandwidth available
Wireless LANs use frequencies in UHF to SHF spectrum– some systems planned up to EHF– limitations due to absorption by water and oxygen molecules
(resonance frequencies)• weather dependent fading, signal loss caused by heavy
rainfall etc.
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Frequency regulations
Frequencies from 9KHz to 300 MHZ in high demand (especially VHF: 30-300MHZ)
Two unlicensed bands– Industrial, Science, and Medicine (ISM): 2.4 GHz– Unlicensed National Information Infrastructure (UNII): 5.2 GHz
Different agencies license and regulate– www.fcc.gov - US – www.etsi.org - Europe– www.wpc.dot.gov.in - India– www.itu.org - International co-ordination
Regional, national, and international issues Procedures for military, emergency, air traffic control, etc
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Wireless transmission
Wireless communication systems consist of:– Transmitters– Antennas: radiates electromagnetic energy into air– Receivers
In some cases, transmitters and receivers are on same device, called transceivers.
Transmitter Receiver
AntennaAntenna
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Transmitters
Amplifier
Oscillator
Mixer Filter Amplifier
Antenna
Transmitter
Suppose you want to generate a signal that is sent at 900 MHz and the original source generates a signal at 300 MHz.
•Amplifier - strengthens the initial signal•Oscillator - creates a carrier wave of 600 MHz•Mixer - combines signal with oscillator and produces 900 MHz (also does modulation, etc)•Filter - selects correct frequency •Amplifier - Strengthens the signal before sending it
Source
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Antennas
An antenna is an electrical conductor or system of conductors to send/receive RF signals– Transmission - radiates electromagnetic energy into space– Reception - collects electromagnetic energy from space
In two-way communication, the same antenna can be used for transmission and reception
Omnidirectional Antenna (lower frequency)
Directional Antenna (higher frequency)
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Radiation and reception of electromagnetic waves, coupling of wires to space for radio transmission
Isotropic radiator: equal radiation in all directions (three dimensional) - only a theoretical reference antenna
Real antennas always have directive effects (vertically and/or horizontally)
Radiation pattern: measurement of radiation around an antenna
Antennas: isotropic radiator
zy
x
z
y x idealisotropicradiator
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Antennas: simple dipoles Real antennas are not isotropic radiators
– dipoles with lengths λ/4 on car roofs or λ/2 (Hertzian dipole) shape of antenna proportional to wavelength
Gain: maximum power in the direction of the main lobe compared to the power of an isotropic radiator (with the same average power)
side view (xy-plane)
x
y
side view (yz-plane)
z
y
top view (xz-plane)
x
z
simpledipole
λ/4 λ/2
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Antennas: directed and sectorized
side view (xy-plane)
x
y
side view (yz-plane)
z
y
top view (xz-plane)
x
z
top view, 3 sector
x
z
top view, 6 sector
x
z
Often used for microwave connections or base stations for mobile phones (e.g., radio coverage of a valley)
directedantenna
sectorizedantenna
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Antenna models
In Omni Mode: Nodes receive signals with gain Go
In Directional Mode: Capable of beamforming in specified direction Directional Gain Gd (Gd > Go)
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Directional communication
Received Power ∝ (Transmit power)
*(Tx Gain) * (Rx Gain)
Directional gain is higher
Directional antennas useful for: Increase “range”, keeping transmit power constant Reduce transmit power, keeping range comparable with omni mode
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Comparison of omni and directional
Issues Omni Directional
Spatial Reuse Low High
Connectivity Low High
Interference Omni Directional
Cost & Complexity Low High
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Antennas: diversity Grouping of 2 or more antennas
– multi-element antenna arrays
Antenna diversity– switched diversity, selection diversity
• receiver chooses antenna with largest output
– diversity combining• combine output power to produce gain• cophasing needed to avoid cancellation
+
λ/4λ/2λ/4
ground plane
λ/2λ/2
+
λ/2
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Signals
physical representation of data function of time and location signal parameters: parameters representing the value of
data classification
– continuous time/discrete time– continuous values/discrete values– analog signal = continuous time and continuous values– digital signal = discrete time and discrete values
signal parameters of periodic signals: period T, frequency f=1/T, amplitude A, phase shift ϕ– sine wave as special periodic signal for a carrier:
s(t) = At sin(2 π ft t + ϕt)
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Signal propagation ranges
distance
sender
transmission
detection
interference
Transmission range– communication possible– low error rate
Detection range– detection of the signal
possible– no communication
possible
Interference range– signal may not be
detected – signal adds to the
background noise
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Attenuation
Strength of signal falls off with distance over transmission medium
Attenuation factors for unguided media:– Received signal must have sufficient strength so that
circuitry in the receiver can interpret the signal
– Signal must maintain a level sufficiently higher than noise to be received without error
– Attenuation is greater at higher frequencies, causing distortion
Approach: amplifiers that strengthen higher frequencies
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Signal propagation Propagation in free space always like light (straight line) Receiving power proportional to 1/d²
(d = distance between sender and receiver) Receiving power additionally influenced by
– fading (frequency dependent)– shadowing– reflection at large obstacles– refraction depending on the density of a medium– scattering at small obstacles– diffraction at edges
reflection scattering diffractionshadowing refraction
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Signal can take many different paths between sender and receiver due to reflection, scattering, diffraction
Time dispersion: signal is dispersed over time interference with “neighbor” symbols, Inter
Symbol Interference (ISI) The signal reaches a receiver directly and phase shifted distorted signal depending on the phases of the
different parts
Multipath propagation
signal at sendersignal at receiver
LOS pulsesmultipathpulses
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Effects of mobility
Channel characteristics change over time and location – signal paths change– different delay variations of different signal parts– different phases of signal parts
quick changes in the power received
(short term fading)
Additional changes in– distance to sender– obstacles further away
slow changes in the average power received (long term fading)
short term fading
long termfading
t
power
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Propagation modes
Earth
Earth
Earth
a) Ground Wave Propagation
b) Sky Wave Propagation
c) Line-of-Sight Propagation
TransmissionAntenna
ReceivingAntenna
Signal
Signal
Ionosphere
Signal
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Modulation Digital modulation
– digital data is translated into an analog signal (baseband)– ASK, FSK, PSK– differences in spectral efficiency, power efficiency, robustness
Analog modulation– shifts center frequency of baseband signal up to the radio
carrier
Motivation– smaller antennas (e.g., λ/4)– Frequency Division Multiplexing– medium characteristics
Basic schemes– Amplitude Modulation (AM)– Frequency Modulation (FM)– Phase Modulation (PM)
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Modulation and demodulation
synchronizationdecision
digitaldataanalog
demodulation
radiocarrier
analogbasebandsignal
101101001 radio receiver
digitalmodulation
digitaldata analog
modulation
radiocarrier
analogbasebandsignal
101101001 radio transmitter
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Digital modulation Modulation of digital signals known as Shift Keying Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK):
– very simple– low bandwidth requirements– very susceptible to interference
Frequency Shift Keying (FSK):– needs larger bandwidth
Phase Shift Keying (PSK):– more complex– robust against interference
Many advanced variants
1 0 1
t
1 0 1
t
1 0 1
t
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Multiplexing in 4 dimensions– space (si)
– time (t)– frequency (f)– code (c)
Goal: multiple use of a shared medium
Important: guard spaces needed!
s2
s3
s1
Multiplexing
f
t
c
k2 k3 k4 k5 k6k1
f
t
c
f
t
c
channels ki
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Frequency multiplex Separation of the whole spectrum into smaller frequency
bands A channel gets a certain band of the spectrum for the
whole time Advantages: no dynamic coordination
necessary works also for analog signals
Disadvantages: waste of bandwidth
if the traffic is distributed unevenly
inflexible guard spaces
k2 k3 k4 k5 k6k1
f
t
c
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f
t
c
k2 k3 k4 k5 k6k1
Time multiplex A channel gets the whole spectrum for a certain
amount of time
Advantages: only one carrier in the
medium at any time throughput high even
for many users
Disadvantages: precise
synchronization necessary
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f
Time and frequency multiplex
Combination of both methods A channel gets a certain frequency band for a certain
amount of time Example: GSM Advantages:
– better protection against tapping
– protection against frequency selective interference
– higher data rates compared tocode multiplex
but: precise coordinationrequired
t
c
k2 k3 k4 k5 k6k1
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Code multiplex Each channel has a unique code All channels use the same
spectrum at the same time Advantages:
– bandwidth efficient– no coordination and synchronization
necessary– good protection against interference
and tapping
Disadvantages:– lower user data rates– more complex signal regeneration
Implemented using spread spectrum technology
k2 k3 k4 k5 k6k1
f
t
c
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CDMA Example– D = rate of data signal– Break each bit into k chips
• Chips are a user-specific fixed pattern – Chip data rate of new channel = kD
If k=6 and code is a sequence of 1s and -1s– For a ‘1’ bit, A sends code as chip pattern
• <c1, c2, c3, c4, c5, c6>– For a ‘0’ bit, A sends complement of code
• <-c1, -c2, -c3, -c4, -c5, -c6>
Receiver knows sender’s code and performs electronic decode function
• <d1, d2, d3, d4, d5, d6> = received chip pattern• <c1, c2, c3, c4, c5, c6> = sender’s code
( ) 665544332211 cdcdcdcdcdcddSu ×+×+×+×+×+×=
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CDMA Example
User A code = <1, –1, –1, 1, –1, 1>– To send a 1 bit = <1, –1, –1, 1, –1, 1>– To send a 0 bit = <–1, 1, 1, –1, 1, –1>
User B code = <1, 1, –1, – 1, 1, 1>– To send a 1 bit = <1, 1, –1, –1, 1, 1>
Receiver receiving with A’s code– (A’s code) x (received chip pattern)
• User A ‘1’ bit: 6 -> 1• User A ‘0’ bit: -6 -> 0• User B ‘1’ bit: 0 -> unwanted signal ignored
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Spread spectrum technology Problem of radio transmission: frequency dependent
fading can wipe out narrow band signals for duration of the interference
Solution: spread the narrow band signal into a broad band signal using a special code - protection against narrow band interference
Side effects:– coexistence of several signals without dynamic coordination– tap-proof
Alternatives: Direct Sequence, Frequency Hopping
detection atreceiver
interference spread signal
signal
spreadinterference
f f
power power
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Effects of spreading and interference
dP/df
f
i)
dP/df
f
ii)
sender
dP/df
f
iii)
dP/df
f
iv)
receiverf
v)
user signalbroadband interferencenarrowband interference
dP/df
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DSSS (Direct Sequence) XOR of the signal with pseudo-random number
(chipping sequence)– many chips per bit (e.g., 128) result in higher bandwidth of the
signal
Advantages– reduces frequency selective
fading– in cellular networks
• base stations can use the same frequency range
• several base stations can detect and recover the signal
• soft handover
Disadvantages– precise power control necessary
user data
chipping sequence
resultingsignal
0 1
0 1 1 0 1 0 1 01 0 0 1 11
XOR
0 1 1 0 0 1 0 11 0 1 0 01
=
tb
tc
tb: bit periodtc: chip period
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DSSS Transmit/Receive
Xuser data
chippingsequence
modulator
radiocarrier
spreadspectrumsignal
transmitsignal
transmitter
demodulator
receivedsignal
radiocarrier
X
chippingsequence
lowpassfilteredsignal
receiver
integrator
products
decisiondata
sampledsums
correlator
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Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS)
Signal is broadcast over seemingly random series of radio frequencies
Signal hops from frequency to frequency at fixed intervals Channel sequence dictated by spreading code Receiver, hopping between frequencies in synchronization
with transmitter, picks up message Advantages
– Eavesdroppers hear only unintelligible blips– Attempts to jam signal on one frequency succeed only at knocking
out a few bits
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FHSS (Frequency Hopping)
Discrete changes of carrier frequency– sequence of frequency changes determined via pseudo random
number sequence
Two versions– Fast Hopping: several frequencies per user bit– Slow Hopping: several user bits per frequency
Advantages– frequency selective fading and interference limited to short
period– simple implementation– uses only small portion of spectrum at any time
Disadvantages– not as robust as DSSS– simpler to detect
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Slow and Fast FHSS
user data
slowhopping(3 bits/hop)
fasthopping(3 hops/bit)
0 1
tb
0 1 1 t
f
f1
f2
f3
t
td
f
f1
f2
f3
t
td
tb: bit period td: dwell time
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FHSS Transmit/Receive
modulatoruser data
hoppingsequence
modulator
narrowbandsignal
spreadtransmitsignal
transmitter
receivedsignal
receiver
demodulatordata
frequencysynthesizer
hoppingsequence
demodulator
frequencysynthesizer
narrowbandsignal
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OFDM (Orthogonal Frequency Division) Parallel data transmission on several
orthogonal subcarriers with lower rate
Maximum of one subcarrier frequency appears exactly at a frequency where all other subcarriers equal zero superposition of frequencies in the same frequency range
k3
f
t
c
Amplitude
f
subcarrier: SI function=
sin(x)x
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OFDM Properties
– Lower data rate on each subcarrier less ISI– interference on one frequency results in interference of one
subcarrier only– no guard space necessary– orthogonality allows for signal separation via inverse FFT on
receiver side– precise synchronization necessary (sender/receiver)
Advantages– no equalizer necessary– no expensive filters with sharp edges necessary– better spectral efficiency (compared to CDM)
Application– 802.11a, HiperLAN2, ADSL
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ALOHA
Stations transmit whenever they have data to send Detect collision or wait for acknowledgment If no acknowledgment (or collision), try again after a
random waiting time
Collision: If more than one node transmits at the same time
If there is a collision, all nodes have to re-transmit packets
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Mechanism– random, distributed (no central arbiter), time-multiplex– Slotted Aloha additionally uses time-slots, sending must
always start at slot boundaries
Aloha
Slotted Aloha
Aloha/slotted Aloha
sender A
sender B
sender C
collision
sender A
sender B
sender C
collision
t
t
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Slotted Aloha
Time is divided into slots– slot = one packet transmission time at least
Master station generates synchronization pulses for time-slots
Station waits till beginning of slot to transmit
Vulnerability Window reduced from 2T to T; goodput doubles
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Bit level error detection/correction
Single-bit, multi-bit or burst errors introduced due to channel noise– Detected using redundant information sent along
with data
Full Redundancy:– Send everything twice– Simple but inefficient
Common Schemes:– Parity – Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC)– Checksum
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Error detection process
Transmitter– For a given frame, an error-detecting code (check bits)
is calculated from data bits– Check bits are appended to data bits
Receiver– Separates incoming frame into data bits and check
bits– Calculates check bits from received data bits– Compares calculated check bits against received
check bits– Detected error occurs if mismatch
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Frame level error correction
Problems in transmitting a sequence of frames over a lossy link– frame damage, loss, reordering, duplication, insertion
Solutions:– Forward Error Correction (FEC)
• Use of redundancy for packet level error correction• Block Codes, Turbo Codes
– Automatic Repeat Request (ARQ)• Use of acknowledgements and retransmission• Stop and Wait; Sliding Window
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Block Code (Error Correction) Hamming distance – for 2 n-bit binary sequences, the number of
different bits– E.g., v1=011011; v2=110001; d(v1, v2)=3
For each data block, create a codeword Send the codeword If the code is invalid, look for data with shortest hamming distance
(possibly correct code) Datablock (k=2) Codeword (n=5)
00 0000001 0011110 1100111 11110
Suppose you receive codeword 00100 (error)Closest is 00000 (only one bit different)
Efficient version: Turbo Codes
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Stop and Wait ARQ Sender waits for ACK
(acknowledgement) after transmitting each frame; keeps copy of last frame.
Receiver sends ACK if received frame is error free.
Sender retransmits frame if ACKnot received before timer expires.
Simple to implement but may waste bandwidth.
Efficient Version: Sliding Window
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Bandwidth
Amount of data that can be transmitted per unit time– expressed in cycles per second, or Hertz (Hz) for analog
devices– expressed in bits per second (bps) for digital devices– KB = 2^10 bytes; Mbps = 10^6 bps
Link v/s End-to-End
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Latency (delay)
Time it takes to send message from point A to point B– Latency = Propagation + Transmit
+ Queue– Propagation = Distance /
SpeedOfLight– Transmit = Size / Bandwidth
Queueing not relevant for direct links Bandwidth not relevant if Size = 1 bit Software overhead can dominate when Distance is small
RTT: round-trip time
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Delay X Bandwidth product
Relative importance of bandwidth and delay
Small message: 1ms vs 100ms dominates 1Mbps vs 100Mbps
Large message: 1Mbps vs 100Mbps dominates 1ms vs 100ms
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Delay X Bandwidth product
100ms RTT and 45Mbps Bandwidth = 560 KB of data
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Interconnection devicesBasic Idea: Transfer data from input to output Repeater
– Amplifies the signal received on input and transmits it on output
Switch– Reads destination address of each packet and forwards
appropriately to specific port– Layer 3 switches (IP switches) also perform routing
functions
Router– decides routes for packets, based on destination address
and network topology– Exchanges information with other routers to learn network
topology
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TCP/IP layers
Physical Layer: – Transmitting bits over a channel.
– Deals with electrical and procedural interface to the transmission medium.
Data Link Layer: – Transform the raw physical layer into a `link' for the
higher layer.– Deals with framing, error detection, correction and
multiple access.
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TCP/IP layers (contd.)
Network Layer: – Addressing and routing of packets.– Deals with subnetting, route determination.
Transport Layer: – end-to-end connection characteristics.
– Deals with retransmissions, sequencing and congestion control.
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TCP/IP layers (contd.)
Application Layer: – ``application'' protocols.– Deals with providing services to users and application
developers.
Protocols are the building blocks of a network architecture.
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Lower layer services Unacknowledged connectionless service
– No acknowledgements, no connection– Error recovery up to higher layers – For low error-rate links or voice traffic
Acknowledged connectionless service – Acknowledgements improve reliability – For unreliable channels. e.g.: wireless systems
Acknowledged connection-oriented service – Equivalent of reliable bit-stream; in-order delivery– Connection establishment and release– Inter-router traffic
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Generic router architecture
LookupIP Address
UpdateHeader
Header Processing
AddressTable
AddressTable
LookupIP Address
UpdateHeader
Header Processing
AddressTable
AddressTable
LookupIP Address
UpdateHeader
Header Processing
AddressTable
AddressTable
QueuePacket
BufferMemory
BufferMemory
QueuePacket
BufferMemory
BufferMemory
QueuePacket
BufferMemory
BufferMemory
Data Hdr
Data Hdr
Data Hdr
1
2
N
1
2
N
N times line rate
N times line rate
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0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Time (round trips)
Con
gest
ion
Win
dow
siz
e (s
egm
ents
)
Slow start
Congestionavoidance
Slow start threshold
Typical TCP behaviour
04/14/15 VIKAS SINGH BHADOURIA 85
Slow start phase
• initialize: • Cwnd = 1
• for (each ACK)• Cwnd++
• until • loss detection OR •Cwnd > ssthresh
Host A
one segment
RTT
Host B
time
two segments
four segments
04/14/15 VIKAS SINGH BHADOURIA 86
Congestion avoidance phase
/* Cwnd > threshold */• Until (loss detection) { every w ACKs: Cwnd++ }• ssthresh = Cwnd/2• Cwnd = 1• perform slow start
1
Host A Host B
timeRT
T
four segments
five segments
04/14/15 VIKAS SINGH BHADOURIA 87
0
2
4
6
8
10
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
Time (round trips)
Win
dow
size
(seg
men
ts)
advertised window
After fast recovery
TCP: Fast retransmit and Fast recovery
04/14/15 VIKAS SINGH BHADOURIA 89
Wireless LANs
Infrared (IrDA) or radio links (Wavelan) Advantages
– very flexible within the reception area – Ad-hoc networks possible– (almost) no wiring difficulties
Disadvantages– low bandwidth compared to wired networks– many proprietary solutions
Infrastructure v/s ad-hoc networks (802.11)
04/14/15 VIKAS SINGH BHADOURIA 90
Infrastructure vs. Ad hoc networksinfrastructure network
ad-hoc network
APAP
AP
wired network
AP: Access Point
Source: Schiller
04/14/15 VIKAS SINGH BHADOURIA 91
Difference between wired and wireless
If both A and C sense the channel to be idle at the same time, they send at the same time.
Collision can be detected at sender in Ethernet. Half-duplex radios in wireless cannot detect collision
at sender.
A B C
A
B
C
Ethernet LAN Wireless LAN
04/14/15 VIKAS SINGH BHADOURIA 92
Carrier Sense Multiple Access (CSMA)
Listen before you speak Check whether the medium is active before sending a
packet (i.e carrier sensing) If medium idle, then transmit If collision happens, then detect and resolve
If medium is found busy, transmission follows:– 1- persistent– P- persistent– Non-persistent
04/14/15 VIKAS SINGH BHADOURIA 93
Collision detection (CSMA/CD)
All aforementioned scheme can suffer from collision
Device can detect collision– Listen while transmitting
– Wait for 2 * propagation delay
On collision detection wait for random time before retrying
Binary Exponential Backoff Algorithm– Reduces the chances of two waiting stations picking the
same random time
04/14/15 VIKAS SINGH BHADOURIA 94
Binary Exponential Backoff
1.On detecting 1st collision for packet x
station A chooses a number r between 0 and 1.
wait for r * slot time and transmit.
Slot time is taken as 2 * propagation delay
k. On detecting kth collision for packet x
choose r between 0,1,..,(2k –1)
When value of k becomes high (10), give up. Randomization increase with larger window, but delay
increases.
04/14/15 VIKAS SINGH BHADOURIA 95
– A and C cannot hear each other.– A sends to B, C cannot receive A. – C wants to send to B, C senses a “free” medium
(CS fails)– Collision occurs at B.
– A cannot receive the collision (CD fails).
– A is “hidden” for C.
Hidden Terminal Problem
BA C
04/14/15 VIKAS SINGH BHADOURIA 97
Solution for Hidden Terminals A first sends a Request-to-Send (RTS) to B On receiving RTS, B responds Clear-to-Send (CTS) Hidden node C overhears CTS and keeps quiet
– Transfer duration is included in both RTS and CTS
Exposed node overhears a RTS but not the CTS– D’s transmission cannot interfere at B
A B C
RTS
CTS CTS
DATA
D
RTS
04/14/15 VIKAS SINGH BHADOURIA 98
Components of IEEE 802.11 architecture The basic service set (BSS) is the basic building
block of an IEEE 802.11 LAN The ovals can be thought of as the coverage area
within which member stations can directly communicate
The Independent BSS (IBSS) is the simplest LAN. It may consist of as few as two stations
ad-hoc network BSS2BSS1
04/14/15 VIKAS SINGH BHADOURIA 99
802.11 - ad-hoc network (DCF)
Direct communication within a limited range– Station (STA):
terminal with access mechanisms to the wireless medium
– Basic Service Set (BSS):group of stations using the same radio frequency
802.11 LAN
BSS2
802.11 LAN
BSS1
STA1
STA4
STA5
STA2
STA3
Source: Schiller
04/14/15 VIKAS SINGH BHADOURIA 100
Distribution System
Portal
802.x LAN
Access Point
802.11 LAN
BSS2
802.11 LAN
BSS1
Access Point
802.11 - infrastructure network (PCF)Station (STA)
– terminal with access mechanisms to the wireless medium and radio contact to the access point
Basic Service Set (BSS)– group of stations using the
same radio frequencyAccess Point
– station integrated into the wireless LAN and the distribution system
Portal– bridge to other (wired)
networksDistribution System
– interconnection network to form one logical network (EES: Extended Service Set) based on several BSS
STA1
STA2 STA3
ESS
Source: Schiller
04/14/15 VIKAS SINGH BHADOURIA 101
802.11- in the TCP/IP stack
mobile terminal
access point
server
fixed terminal
application
TCP
802.11 PHY
802.11 MAC
IP
802.3 MAC
802.3 PHY
application
TCP
802.3 PHY
802.3 MAC
IP
802.11 MAC
802.11 PHY
LLC
infrastructure network
LLC LLC
04/14/15 VIKAS SINGH BHADOURIA 102
802.11 - MAC layer
Traffic services– Asynchronous Data Service (mandatory) – DCF– Time-Bounded Service (optional) - PCF
Access methods– DCF CSMA/CA (mandatory)
• collision avoidance via randomized back-off mechanism• ACK packet for acknowledgements (not for broadcasts)
– DCF w/ RTS/CTS (optional)• avoids hidden terminal problem
– PCF (optional)• access point polls terminals according to a list
04/14/15 VIKAS SINGH BHADOURIA 103
t
medium busy
DIFSDIFS
next frame
contention window(randomized back-offmechanism)
802.11 - CSMA/CA
– station ready to send starts sensing the medium (Carrier Sense based on CCA, Clear Channel Assessment)
– if the medium is free for the duration of an Inter-Frame Space (IFS), the station can start sending (IFS depends on service type)
– if the medium is busy, the station has to wait for a free IFS, then the station must additionally wait a random back-off time (collision avoidance, multiple of slot-time)
– if another station occupies the medium during the back-off time of the station, the back-off timer stops (fairness)
slot timedirect access if medium is free ≥ DIFS
04/14/15 VIKAS SINGH BHADOURIA 104
802.11 –CSMA/CA example
t
busy
boe
station1
station2
station3
station4
station5
packet arrival at MAC
DIFSboe
boe
boe
busy
elapsed backoff time
bor residual backoff time
busy medium not idle (frame, ack etc.)
bor
bor
DIFS
boe
boe
boe bor
DIFS
busy
busy
DIFSboe busy
boe
boe
bor
bor
04/14/15 VIKAS SINGH BHADOURIA 105
802.11 –RTS/CTS station can send RTS with reservation parameter after waiting for DIFS
(reservation determines amount of time the data packet needs the medium)
acknowledgement via CTS after SIFS by receiver (if ready to receive) sender can now send data at once, acknowledgement via ACK other stations store medium reservations distributed via RTS and CTS
t
SIFS
DIFS
data
ACK
defer access
otherstations
receiver
senderdata
DIFS
contention
RTS
CTSSIFS SIFS
NAV (RTS)NAV (CTS)
04/14/15 VIKAS SINGH BHADOURIA 106
802.11 - PCF I
PIFS
stations‘NAV
wirelessstations
point coordinator
D1
U1
SIFS
NAV
SIFSD2
U2
SIFS
SIFS
SuperFramet0
medium busy
t1
04/14/15 VIKAS SINGH BHADOURIA 107
802.11 - PCF II
tstations‘NAV
wirelessstations
point coordinator
D3
NAV
PIFSD4
U4
SIFS
SIFSCFend
contentionperiod
contention free period
t2 t3 t4
04/14/15 VIKAS SINGH BHADOURIA 109
802.11 - MAC management
Synchronization– try to find a LAN, try to stay within a LAN– timer etc.
Power management– sleep-mode without missing a message– periodic sleep, frame buffering, traffic measurements
Association/Reassociation– integration into a LAN– roaming, i.e. change networks by changing access points – scanning, i.e. active search for a network
MIB - Management Information Base– managing, read, write
04/14/15 VIKAS SINGH BHADOURIA 110
802.11 - Channels, association
802.11b: 2.4GHz-2.485GHz spectrum divided into 11 channels at different frequencies– AP admin chooses frequency for AP– interference possible: channel can be same as that
chosen by neighboring AP!
host: must associate with an AP– scans channels, listening for beacon frames containing
AP’s name (SSID) and MAC address– selects AP to associate with– may perform authentication
– will typically run DHCP to get IP address in AP’s subnet
04/14/15 VIKAS SINGH BHADOURIA 111
802.11 variants
MAC
MIB
DSSS FH IR
PHY
WEP
LLC
MAC Mgmt
802.11b5,11 Mbps
802.11g20+ Mbps
802.11a6,9,12,18,24
36,48,54 Mbps
OFDM
802.11isecurity
802.11fInter Access Point Protocol
802.11eQoS enhancements
04/14/15 VIKAS SINGH BHADOURIA 112
802.11 Market Evolution
802.11
CampusNetworking
Mobile userpopulation without anyoffice space
Enterprise
Freedom fromwires for laptopusers;productivity enhancement
IndustryVerticals
Medical
Factory floors
Warehouses
Remote data entry; business process efficiency improvement
Public hotspotsMobile Operators
Revenue generationopportunity;low cost alternativeto GPRS
Broadband accessto home
Untested proposition;attempts are on-going
04/14/15 VIKAS SINGH BHADOURIA 113
Public WLANs
Provide significantly higher data rates than wide-area wireless networks
Could take advantages of both WLAN and wide-area radio technologies to create new services and reduce networking costs
Public WLANs are the first wave of all-IP radio access networks
New and innovative business models for providing public mobile services
04/14/15 VIKAS SINGH BHADOURIA 116
Motivation for 802.16
Broadband: – A transmission facility having a bandwidth sufficient to
carry multiple voice, video or data, simultaneously.– High-capacity fiber to every user is expensive.
Broadband Wireless Access:– provides “First-mile” network access to buildings.
– Cost effective and easy deployment.
04/14/15 VIKAS SINGH BHADOURIA 117
IEEE 802.16
WirelessMAN air interface – for fixed point to multi-point BWA
Broad bandwidth: 10-66 GHz– Channel as wide as 28 MHz and – Data rate upto 134 Mbps
MAC designed for efficient use of spectrum– Bandwidth on demand– QoS Support
04/14/15 VIKAS SINGH BHADOURIA 119
Channel model
Two Channels: Downlink and Uplink Supports both Time Division Duplexing and
Frequency Division Duplexing
Base station maps downstream traffic onto time slots with individual subscriber stations allocated time slot serially
Uplink is shared between a number of subscriber stations by Time Division Multiple Access
04/14/15 VIKAS SINGH BHADOURIA 120
Network initialization of SS
Acquires downlink and uplink channel. Perform initial ranging, negotiate basic capabilities. Perform registration and authorization. Establish IP connectivity and time of day. Transfer operational parameters. Set up connections.
04/14/15 VIKAS SINGH BHADOURIA 121
Bandwidth requests and grants
Ways – Bandwidth request packet.– Piggybacking bandwidth request with normal data
packet. Request can be made during time slot assigned by base
station for sending request or data. Grant modes
– Grant per connection.– Grant per subscriber station.
Grant per subscriber station is more efficient and scalable but complex than Grant per connection.
04/14/15 VIKAS SINGH BHADOURIA 122
Uplink scheduling services Unsolicited grant service
– Support applications generating constant bit rate traffic periodically.
– Provides fixed bandwidth at periodic intervals.
Real-time polling service– Supports real-time applications generating variable bit rate
traffic periodically.– Offers periodic opportunities to request bandwidth.
Non-real-time polling service– Supports non-real-time applications generating variable bit rate
traffic regularly.– Offers opportunities to request bandwidth regularly.
Best effort– Offers no guarantee.
04/14/15 VIKAS SINGH BHADOURIA 123
802.16: Summary
Higher throughput at longer ranges (up to 50 km)– Better bits/second/Hz at longer ranges
Scalable system capacity– Easy addition of channels maximizes cell capacity– Flexible channel bandwidths accommodate allocations for both
licensed and license-exempt spectrums
Coverage– Standards-based mesh and smart antenna support– Adaptive modulation enables tradeoff of bandwidth for range
Quality of Service– Grant / request MAC supports voice and video– Differentiated service levels: E1/T1 for business, best effort for
residential
04/14/15 VIKAS SINGH BHADOURIA 124
IEEE 802.16 Standard
802.16 802.16a/REVd 802.16e
Completed Dec 2001 802.16a: Jan 2003802.16REVd: Q3’04
Estimate 2006
Spectrum 10 - 66 GHz < 11 GHz < 6 GHz
Channel Conditions Line of sight only Non line of sight Non line of sight
Bit Rate 32 – 134 Mbps at 28MHz channelization
Up to 75 Mbps at 20MHz channelization
Up to 15 Mbps at 5MHz channelization
Modulation QPSK, 16QAM and 64QAM
OFDM 256 sub-carriersQPSK, 16QAM, 64QAM
Same as 802.16a
Mobility Fixed Fixed Pedestrian mobility –regional roaming
Channel Bandwidths
20, 25 and 28 MHz Selectable channel bandwidths between 1.25 and 20 MHz
Same as 802.16a with uplink sub-channels to conserve power
Typical Cell Radius 1-3 miles 3 to 5 miles; max range 30 miles based on tower height, antenna gain and power transmit
1-3 miles
04/14/15 VIKAS SINGH BHADOURIA 126
Wireless LANs vs. Wired LANs
Destination address does not equal destination location
The media impact the design– wireless LANs intended to cover reasonable
geographic distances must be built from basic coverage blocks
Impact of handling mobile (and portable) stations– Propagation effects – Mobility management– Power management
04/14/15 VIKAS SINGH BHADOURIA 127
Wireless Media Physical layers used in wireless networks
– have neither absolute nor readily observable boundaries outside which stations are unable to receive frames
– are unprotected from outside signals
– communicate over a medium significantly less reliable than the cable of a wired network
– have dynamic topologies
– lack full connectivity and therefore the assumption normally made that every station can hear every other station in a LAN is invalid (i.e., STAs may be “hidden” from each other)
– have time varying and asymmetric propagation properties
04/14/15 VIKAS SINGH BHADOURIA 128
Infrastructure vs. Ad hoc WLANsinfrastructure network
ad-hoc network
APAP
AP
wired network
AP: Access Point
Source: Schiller
04/14/15 VIKAS SINGH BHADOURIA 129
IEEE 802.11
Wireless LAN standard defined in the unlicensed spectrum (2.4 GHz and 5 GHz U-NII bands)
Standards covers the MAC sublayer and PHY layers Three different physical layers in the 2.4 GHz band
– FHSS, DSSS and IR OFDM based Phys layer in the 5 GHz band (802.11a)
902 MHz
928 MHz
26 MHz 83.5 MHz 200 MHz
2.4 GHz
2.4835 GHz5.15 GHz
5.35 GHz
λ 33cm 12cm 5cm
04/14/15 VIKAS SINGH BHADOURIA 130
802.11- in the TCP/IP stack
mobile terminal
access point
server
fixed terminal
application
TCP
802.11 PHY
802.11 MAC
IP
802.3 MAC
802.3 PHY
application
TCP
802.3 PHY
802.3 MAC
IP
802.11 MAC
802.11 PHY
LLC
infrastructure network
LLC LLC
04/14/15 VIKAS SINGH BHADOURIA 132
802.11 - Layers and functions
PLCP Physical Layer Convergence Protocol– clear channel
assessment signal (carrier sense)
PMD Physical Medium Dependent– modulation, coding
PHY Management– channel selection, MIB
Station Management– coordination of all
management functionsPMD
PLCP
MAC
LLC
MAC Management
PHY Management
MAC– access mechanisms,
fragmentation, encryption MAC Management
– synchronization, roaming, MIB, power management
PH
YD
LC
Station M
anagement
04/14/15 VIKAS SINGH BHADOURIA 133
Distribution System
Portal
802.x LAN
Access Point
802.11 LAN
BSS2
802.11 LAN
BSS1
Access Point
802.11 - infrastructure networkStation (STA)
– terminal with access mechanisms to the wireless medium and radio contact to the access point
Basic Service Set (BSS)– group of stations using the
same radio frequencyAccess Point
– station integrated into the wireless LAN and the distribution system
Portal– bridge to other (wired)
networksDistribution System
– interconnection network to form one logical network (EES: Extended Service Set) based on several BSS
STA1
STA2 STA3
ESS
Source: Schiller
04/14/15 VIKAS SINGH BHADOURIA 134
Distribution System (DS) concepts
The Distribution system interconnects multiple BSSs 802.11 standard logically separates the wireless
medium from the distribution system – it does not preclude, nor demand, that the multiple media be same or different
An Access Point (AP) is a STA that provides access to the DS by providing DS services in addition to acting as a STA.
Data moves between BSS and the DS via an AP The DS and BSSs allow 802.11 to create a wireless
network of arbitrary size and complexity called the Extended Service Set network (ESS)
04/14/15 VIKAS SINGH BHADOURIA 136
802.11 - Physical layer 3 versions of spread spectrum: 2 radio (typ. 2.4 GHz), 1 IR
– data rates 1 or 2 Mbps FHSS (Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum)
– spreading, despreading, signal strength, typically 1 Mbps– min. 2.5 frequency hops/s (USA), two-level GFSK modulation
DSSS (Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum)– DBPSK modulation for 1 Mbps (Differential Binary Phase Shift
Keying), DQPSK for 2 Mbps (Differential Quadrature PSK)– preamble and header of a frame is always transmitted with 1
Mbps, rest of transmission 1 or 2 Mbps– chipping sequence: +1, -1, +1, +1, -1, +1, +1, +1, -1, -1, -1
(Barker code)– max. radiated power 1 W (USA), 100 mW (EU), min. 1mW
Infrared– 850-950 nm, diffuse light, typ. 10 m range– carrier detection, energy detection, synchronization
04/14/15 VIKAS SINGH BHADOURIA 140
802.11 - MAC layer
Traffic services– Asynchronous Data Service (mandatory) – DCF– Time-Bounded Service (optional) - PCF
Access methods– DCF CSMA/CA (mandatory)
• collision avoidance via randomized back-off mechanism• ACK packet for acknowledgements (not for broadcasts)
– DCF w/ RTS/CTS (optional)• avoids hidden/exposed terminal problem, provides
reliability– PCF (optional)
• access point polls terminals according to a list
04/14/15 VIKAS SINGH BHADOURIA 141
t
medium busy
DIFSDIFS
next frame
contention window(randomized back-offmechanism)
802.11 - CSMA/CA
– station which has data to send starts sensing the medium (Carrier Sense based on CCA, Clear Channel Assessment)
– if the medium is free for the duration of an Inter-Frame Space (IFS), the station can start sending (IFS depends on service type)
– if the medium is busy, the station has to wait for a free IFS plus an additional random back-off time (multiple of slot-time)
– if another station occupies the medium during the back-off time of the station, the back-off timer stops (fairness)
slot timedirect access if medium is free ≥ DIFS
04/14/15 VIKAS SINGH BHADOURIA 142
802.11 DCF – basic access
If medium is free for DIFS time, station sends data receivers acknowledge at once (after waiting for SIFS) if the
packet was received correctly (CRC) automatic retransmission of data packets in case of
transmission errors
t
SIFS
DIFS
data
ACK
waiting time
otherstations
receiver
senderdata
DIFS
contention
04/14/15 VIKAS SINGH BHADOURIA 143
802.11 –RTS/CTS If medium is free for DIFS, station can send RTS with reservation
parameter (reservation determines amount of time the data packet needs the medium)
acknowledgement via CTS after SIFS by receiver (if ready to receive) sender can now send data at once, acknowledgement via ACK other stations store medium reservations distributed via RTS and CTS
t
SIFS
DIFS
data
ACK
defer access
otherstations
receiver
senderdata
DIFS
contention
RTS
CTSSIFS SIFS
NAV (RTS)NAV (CTS)
04/14/15 VIKAS SINGH BHADOURIA 144
802.11 - Carrier Sensing
In IEEE 802.11, carrier sensing is performed – at the air interface (physical carrier sensing), and– at the MAC layer (virtual carrier sensing)
Physical carrier sensing – detects presence of other users by analyzing all detected
packets – Detects activity in the channel via relative signal strength
from other sources Virtual carrier sensing is done by sending MPDU duration
information in the header of RTS/CTS and data frames Channel is busy if either mechanisms indicate it to be Duration field indicates the amount of time (in microseconds)
required to complete frame transmission Stations in the BSS use the information in the duration field to
adjust their network allocation vector (NAV)
04/14/15 VIKAS SINGH BHADOURIA 145
802.11 - Collision Avoidance If medium is not free during DIFS time.. Go into Collision Avoidance: Once channel becomes
idle, wait for DIFS time plus a randomly chosen backoff time before attempting to transmit
For DCF the backoff is chosen as follows:– When first transmitting a packet, choose a backoff interval
in the range [0,cw]; cw is contention window, nominally 31– Count down the backoff interval when medium is idle– Count-down is suspended if medium becomes busy– When backoff interval reaches 0, transmit RTS– If collision, then double the cw up to a maximum of 1024
Time spent counting down backoff intervals is part of MAC overhead
04/14/15 VIKAS SINGH BHADOURIA 146
Example - backoff
data
waitB1 = 5
B2 = 15
B1 = 25
B2 = 20
data
wait
B1 and B2 are backoff intervalsat nodes 1 and 2
cw = 31
B2 = 10
04/14/15 VIKAS SINGH BHADOURIA 147
Backoff - more complex example
t
busy
boe
station1
station2
station3
station4
station5
packet arrival at MAC
DIFSboe
boe
boe
busy
elapsed backoff time
bor residual backoff time
busy medium not idle (frame, ack etc.)
bor
bor
DIFS
boe
boe
boe bor
DIFS
busy
busy
DIFSboe busy
boe
boe
bor
bor
Source: Schiller
04/14/15 VIKAS SINGH BHADOURIA 148
802.11 - Priorities
defined through different inter frame spaces – mandatory idle time intervals between the transmission of frames
SIFS (Short Inter Frame Spacing)– highest priority, for ACK, CTS, polling response– SIFSTime and SlotTime are fixed per PHY layer (10 µs and 20
µs respectively in DSSS)
PIFS (PCF IFS)– medium priority, for time-bounded service using PCF– PIFSTime = SIFSTime + SlotTime
DIFS (DCF IFS)– lowest priority, for asynchronous data service– DCF-IFS: DIFSTime = SIFSTime + 2xSlotTime
04/14/15 VIKAS SINGH BHADOURIA 149
Solution to Hidden Terminals
A first sends a Request-to-Send (RTS) to B On receiving RTS, B responds Clear-to-Send (CTS) Hidden node C overhears CTS and keeps quiet
– Transfer duration is included in both RTS and CTS
Exposed node overhears a RTS but not the CTS– D’s transmission cannot interfere at B
A B C
RTS
CTS CTS
DATA
D
RTS
04/14/15 VIKAS SINGH BHADOURIA 150
802.11 - Reliability
Use acknowledgements– When B receives DATA from A, B sends an ACK– If A fails to receive an ACK, A retransmits the DATA– Both C and D remain quiet until ACK (to prevent collision of
ACK)– Expected duration of transmission+ACK is included in
RTS/CTS packets
A B C
RTS
CTS CTS
DATA
D
RTS
ACK
04/14/15 VIKAS SINGH BHADOURIA 151
802.11 - Congestion Control
Contention window (cw) in DCF: Congestion control achieved by dynamically choosing cw
large cw leads to larger backoff intervals small cw leads to larger number of collisions
Binary Exponential Backoff in DCF:– When a node fails to receive CTS in response to
its RTS, it increases the contention window• cw is doubled (up to a bound cwmax =1023)
– Upon successful completion data transfer, restore cw to cwmin=31
04/14/15 VIKAS SINGH BHADOURIA 152
Fragmentation
t
SIFS
DIFS
data
ACK1
otherstations
receiver
senderfrag1
DIFS
contention
RTS
CTSSIFS SIFS
NAV (RTS)NAV (CTS)
NAV (frag1)NAV (ACK1)
SIFSACK2
frag2
SIFS
04/14/15 VIKAS SINGH BHADOURIA 153
802.11 - MAC management
Synchronization– try to find a LAN, try to stay within a LAN– timer etc.
Power management– sleep-mode without missing a message– periodic sleep, frame buffering, traffic measurements
Association/Reassociation– integration into a LAN– roaming, i.e. change networks by changing access points – scanning, i.e. active search for a network
MIB - Management Information Base– managing, read, write
04/14/15 VIKAS SINGH BHADOURIA 154
802.11 - Synchronization
All STAs within a BSS are synchronized to a common clock – Infrastructure mode: AP is the timing master
• periodically transmits Beacon frames containing Timing Synchronization function (TSF)
• Receiving stations accepts the timestamp value in TSF– Ad hoc mode: TSF implements a distributed algorithm
• Each station adopts the timing received from any beacon that has TSF value later than its own TSF timer
This mechanism keeps the synchronization of the TSF timers in a BSS to within 4 µs plus the maximum propagation delay of the PHY layer
04/14/15 VIKAS SINGH BHADOURIA 155
Synchronization using a Beacon (infrastructure mode)
beacon interval
tmedium
accesspoint
busy
B
busy busy busy
B B B
value of the timestamp B beacon frame
Source: Schiller
04/14/15 VIKAS SINGH BHADOURIA 156
Synchronization using a Beacon (ad-hoc mode)
tmedium
station1
busy
B1
beacon interval
busy busy busy
B1
value of the timestamp B beacon frame
station2
B2 B2
random delay
04/14/15 VIKAS SINGH BHADOURIA 157
802.11 - Power management Idea: switch the transceiver off if not needed States of a station: sleep and awake Timing Synchronization Function (TSF)
– stations wake up at the same time
Infrastructure– Traffic Indication Map (TIM)
• list of unicast receivers transmitted by AP– Delivery Traffic Indication Map (DTIM)
• list of broadcast/multicast receivers transmitted by AP
Ad-hoc– Ad-hoc Traffic Indication Map (ATIM)
• announcement of receivers by stations buffering frames• more complicated - no central AP• collision of ATIMs possible (scalability?)
04/14/15 VIKAS SINGH BHADOURIA 158
802.11 - Energy Conservation
Power Saving in infrastructure mode– Nodes can go into sleep or standby mode– An Access Point periodically transmits a beacon
indicating which nodes have packets waiting for them– Each power saving (PS) node wakes up periodically
to receive the beacon
– If a node has a packet waiting, then it sends a PS-Poll
• After waiting for a backoff interval in [0,CWmin]
– Access Point sends the data in response to PS-poll
04/14/15 VIKAS SINGH BHADOURIA 159
Power saving with wake-up patterns (infrastructure)
TIM interval
t
medium
accesspoint
busy
D
busy busy busy
T T D
T TIM D DTIM
DTIM interval
BB
B broadcast/multicast
station
awake
p PS poll
p
d
d
d data transmissionto/from the station
Source: Schiller
04/14/15 VIKAS SINGH BHADOURIA 160
Power saving with wake-up patterns (ad-hoc)
awake
A transmit ATIM D transmit data
t
station1
B1 B1
B beacon frame
station2
B2 B2
random delay
A
a
D
d
ATIMwindow beacon interval
a acknowledge ATIM d acknowledge data
04/14/15 VIKAS SINGH BHADOURIA 161
802.11 - Frame format
Types– control frames, management frames, data frames
Sequence numbers– important against duplicated frames due to lost ACKs
Addresses– receiver, transmitter (physical), BSS identifier, sender (logical)
Miscellaneous– sending time, checksum, frame control, data
FrameControl
DurationID
Address1
Address2
Address3
SequenceControl
Address4
Data CRC
2 2 6 6 6 62 40-2312bytes
version, type, fragmentation, security, ...
04/14/15 VIKAS SINGH BHADOURIA 162
framecontrol
durationaddress
1address
2address
4address
3payload CRC
2 2 6 6 6 2 6 0 - 2312 4
seqcontrol
802.11 frame: addressing
Address 2: MAC addressof wireless host or AP transmitting this frame
Address 1: MAC addressof wireless host or AP to receive this frame
Address 3: MAC addressof router interface to which AP is attached
Address 3: used only in ad hoc mode
04/14/15 VIKAS SINGH BHADOURIA 163
Internetrouter
AP
H1 R1
AP MAC addr H1 MAC addr R1 MAC addraddress 1 address 2 address 3
802.11 frame
R1 MAC addr AP MAC addr dest. address source address
802.3 frame
802.11 frame: addressing
04/14/15 VIKAS SINGH BHADOURIA 164
framecontrol
durationaddress
1address
2address
4address
3payload CRC
2 2 6 6 6 2 6 0 - 2312 4
seqcontrol
TypeFromAP
SubtypeToAP
More frag
WEPMoredata
Powermgt
Retry RsvdProtocolversion
2 2 4 1 1 1 1 1 11 1
802.11 frame: moreduration of reserved transmission time (RTS/CTS)
frame seq #(for reliable ARQ)
frame type(RTS, CTS, ACK, data)
04/14/15 VIKAS SINGH BHADOURIA 165
Types of Frames
Control Frames– RTS/CTS/ACK– CF-Poll/CF-End
Management Frames– Beacons– Probe Request/Response– Association Request/Response– Dissociation/Reassociation– Authentication/Deauthentication– ATIM
Data Frames
04/14/15 VIKAS SINGH BHADOURIA 166
802.11 - Roaming
Bad connection in Infrastructure mode? Perform: scanning of environment
– listen into the medium for beacon signals or send probes into the medium and wait for an answer
send Reassociation Request– station sends a request to a new AP(s)
receive Reassociation Response– success: AP has answered, station can now participate– failure: continue scanning
AP accepts Reassociation Request and– signals the new station to the distribution system– the distribution system updates its data base (i.e., location
information)– typically, the distribution system now informs the old AP so it
can release resources
04/14/15 VIKAS SINGH BHADOURIA 167
hub or switch
AP 2
AP 1
H1 BBS 2
BBS 1
802.11 - Roaming within same subnet
router H1 remains in same IP
subnet: IP address can remain same
switch: which AP is associated with H1?– self-learning– switch will see frame from H1
and “remember” which switch port can be used to reach H1
04/14/15 VIKAS SINGH BHADOURIA 169
Coexistence of PCF and DCF A Point Coordinator (PC) resides in the Access Point and
controls frame transfers during a Contention Free Period (CFP)
A CF-Poll frame is used by the PC to invite a station to send data. Stations are polled from a list maintained by the PC
The CFP alternates with a Contention Period (CP) in which data transfers happen as per the rules of DCF
This CP must be large enough to send at least one maximum-sized packet including RTS/CTS/ACK
CFPs are generated at the CFP repetition rate The PC sends Beacons at regular intervals and at the
start of each CFP The CF-End frame signals the end of the CFP
04/14/15 VIKAS SINGH BHADOURIA 171
802.11 - PCF I
PIFS
stations‘NAV
wirelessstations
point coordinator
D1
U1
SIFS
NAV
SIFSD2
U2
SIFS
SIFS
SuperFramet0
medium busy
t1
Source: Schiller
04/14/15 VIKAS SINGH BHADOURIA 172
802.11 - PCF II
tstations‘NAV
wirelessstations
point coordinator
D3
NAV
PIFSD4
U4
SIFS
SIFSCFend
contentionperiod
contention free period
t2 t3 t4
04/14/15 VIKAS SINGH BHADOURIA 173
Throughput – DCF vs. PCF
Overheads to throughput and delay in DCF mode come from losses due to collisions and backoff
These increase when number of nodes in the network increases
RTS/CTS frames cost bandwidth but large data packets (>RTS threshold) suffer fewer collisions
RTC/CTS threshold must depend on number of nodes Overhead in PCF modes comes from wasted polls Polling mechanisms have large influence on throughput Throughput in PCF mode shows up to 20% variation with
other configuration parameters – CFP repetition rate Saturation throughput of DCF less than PCF in all studies
presented here (‘heavy load’ conditions)
04/14/15 VIKAS SINGH BHADOURIA 175
WLAN: IEEE 802.11b Data rate
– 1, 2, 5.5, 11 Mbit/s, depending on SNR
– User data rate max. approx. 6 Mbit/s
Transmission range– 300m outdoor, 30m indoor– Max. data rate ~10m indoor
Frequency– Free 2.4 GHz ISM-band
Security– Limited, WEP insecure, SSID
Cost– 100$ adapter, 250$ base
station, dropping Availability
– Many products, many vendors
Connection set-up time– Connectionless/always on
Quality of Service– Typ. Best effort, no
guarantees (unless polling is used, limited support in products)
Manageability– Limited (no automated key
distribution, sym. Encryption)Special
– Advantage: many installed systems, lot of experience, available worldwide, free ISM-band, many vendors, integrated in laptops, simple system
– Disadvantage: heavy interference on ISM-band, no service guarantees, slow relative speed only
04/14/15 VIKAS SINGH BHADOURIA 176
IEEE 802.11b – PHY frame formats
synchronization SFD signal service HEC payload
PLCP preamble PLCP header
128 16 8 8 16 variable bits
length
16
192 µs at 1 Mbit/s DBPSK 1, 2, 5.5 or 11 Mbit/s
short synch. SFD signal service HEC payload
PLCP preamble(1 Mbit/s, DBPSK)
PLCP header(2 Mbit/s, DQPSK)
56 16 8 8 16 variable bits
length
16
96 µs 2, 5.5 or 11 Mbit/s
Long PLCP PPDU format
Short PLCP PPDU format (optional)
04/14/15 VIKAS SINGH BHADOURIA 177
Channel selection (non-overlapping)
2400
[MHz]
2412 2483.52442 2472
channel 1 channel 7 channel 13
Europe (ETSI)
US (FCC)/Canada (IC)
2400
[MHz]
2412 2483.52437 2462
channel 1 channel 6 channel 11
22 MHz
22 MHz
04/14/15 VIKAS SINGH BHADOURIA 178
WLAN: IEEE 802.11a Data rate
– 6, 9, 12, 18, 24, 36, 48, 54 Mbit/s, depending on SNR
– User throughput (1500 byte packets): 5.3 (6), 18 (24), 24 (36), 32 (54)
– 6, 12, 24 Mbit/s mandatory Transmission range
– 100m outdoor, 10m indoor• E.g., 54 Mbit/s up to 5 m, 48 up
to 12 m, 36 up to 25 m, 24 up to 30m, 18 up to 40 m, 12 up to 60 m
Frequency– Free 5.15-5.25, 5.25-5.35, 5.725-
5.825 GHz ISM-band Security
– Limited, WEP insecure, SSID Cost
– 280$ adapter, 500$ base station Availability
– Some products, some vendors
Connection set-up time– Connectionless/always on
Quality of Service– Typ. best effort, no guarantees
(same as all 802.11 products)
Manageability– Limited (no automated key
distribution, sym. Encryption)
Special Advantages/Disadvantages
– Advantage: fits into 802.x standards, free ISM-band, available, simple system, uses less crowded 5 GHz band
– Disadvantage: stronger shading due to higher frequency, no QoS
04/14/15 VIKAS SINGH BHADOURIA 179
IEEE 802.11a – PHY frame format
rate service payload
variable bits
6 Mbit/s
PLCP preamble signal data
symbols12 1 variable
reserved length tailparity tail pad
616611214 variable
6, 9, 12, 18, 24, 36, 48, 54 Mbit/s
PLCP header
04/14/15 VIKAS SINGH BHADOURIA 180
OFDM in IEEE 802.11a
OFDM with 52 used subcarriers (64 in total) 48 data + 4 pilot 312.5 kHz spacing
subcarriernumber
1 7 21 26-26 -21 -7 -1
channel center frequency
312.5 kHzpilot
04/14/15 VIKAS SINGH BHADOURIA 181
Operating channels for 802.11a
5150 [MHz]5180 53505200
36 44
16.6 MHz
center frequency = 5000 + 5*channel number [MHz]
channel40 48 52 56 60 64
149 153 157 161
5220 5240 5260 5280 5300 5320
5725 [MHz]5745 58255765
16.6 MHz
channel
5785 5805
04/14/15 VIKAS SINGH BHADOURIA 182
WLAN: IEEE 802.11e
802.11e: MAC Enhancements – QoS– Enhance the current 802.11 MAC to expand support
for applications with Quality of Service requirements, and in the capabilities and efficiency of the protocol.
EDCF– Contention Window based prioritization
• Real-time• Best effort
– Virtual collision resolved in favor of higher priority
04/14/15 VIKAS SINGH BHADOURIA 183
Extending DCF: EDCF
EDCF improves upon DCF by prioritising traffic
Each traffic class can have a different contention window
Different traffic classes to use different interframe spaces, called Arbitration Interframe Space (AIFS)
EDCF contention window parameters
VoIP (priority): 7-31 FTP w/o priority: 32-1023 VoIP w/o priority:32-1023
Access to
channel
FTP flows + unprioritised VoIP: larger contention window
Prioritised VoIP calls : smaller contention window
04/14/15 VIKAS SINGH BHADOURIA 184
IEEE 802.11 Summary
Infrastructure and ad hoc modes using DCF Carrier Sense Multiple Access Binary exponential backoff for collision avoidance and
congestion control Acknowledgements for reliability Power save mode for energy conservation Time-bound service using PCF Signaling packets for avoiding Exposed/Hidden terminal
problems, and for reservation– Medium is reserved for the duration of the transmission– RTS-CTS in DCF– Polls in PCF
04/14/15 VIKAS SINGH BHADOURIA 186
Traditional Routing
A routing protocol sets up a routing table in routers
Routing protocol is typically based on Distance-Vector or Link-State algorithms
04/14/15 VIKAS SINGH BHADOURIA 187
Routing and Mobility
Finding a path from a source to a destination
Issues– Frequent route changes
• amount of data transferred between route changes may be much smaller than traditional networks
– Route changes may be related to host movement– Low bandwidth links
Goal of routing protocols– decrease routing-related overhead– find short routes– find “stable” routes (despite mobility)
04/14/15 VIKAS SINGH BHADOURIA 188
Mobile IP (RFC 3344): Motivation Traditional routing
– based on IP address; network prefix determines the subnet– change of physical subnet implies
• change of IP address (conform to new subnet), or• special routing table entries to forward packets to new subnet
Changing of IP address– DNS updates take to long time– TCP connections break– security problems
Changing entries in routing tables– does not scale with the number of mobile hosts and frequent
changes in the location– security problems
Solution requirements– retain same IP address, use same layer 2 protocols– authentication of registration messages, …
04/14/15 VIKAS SINGH BHADOURIA 190
Mobile IP: Basic Idea
Router1
Router3
Router2
S MN
Home agent
Foreign agent
move
Packets are tunneledusing IP in IP
04/14/15 VIKAS SINGH BHADOURIA 191
Mobile IP: Terminology
Mobile Node (MN)– node that moves across networks without changing its IP address
Home Agent (HA)– host in the home network of the MN, typically a router– registers the location of the MN, tunnels IP packets to the COA
Foreign Agent (FA)– host in the current foreign network of the MN, typically a router– forwards tunneled packets to the MN, typically the default router for
MN
Care-of Address (COA)– address of the current tunnel end-point for the MN (at FA or MN)– actual location of the MN from an IP point of view
Correspondent Node (CN)– host with which MN is “corresponding” (TCP connection)
04/14/15 VIKAS SINGH BHADOURIA 192
Data transfer to the mobile system
Internet
sender
FA
HA
MN
home network
foreignnetwork
receiver
1
2
3
1. Sender sends to the IP address of MN, HA intercepts packet (proxy ARP)2. HA tunnels packet to COA, here FA, by encapsulation3. FA forwards the packet to the MN
Source: Schiller
CN
04/14/15 VIKAS SINGH BHADOURIA 193
Data transfer from the mobile system
Internet
receiver
FA
HA
MN
home network
foreignnetwork
sender
1
1. Sender sends to the IP address of the receiver as usual, FA works as default router
Source: Schiller
CN
04/14/15 VIKAS SINGH BHADOURIA 194
Mobile IP: Basic Operation
Agent Advertisement– HA/FA periodically send advertisement messages into their
physical subnets– MN listens to these messages and detects, if it is in
home/foreign network– MN reads a COA from the FA advertisement messages
MN Registration – MN signals COA to the HA via the FA– HA acknowledges via FA to MN– limited lifetime, need to be secured by authentication
HA Proxy– HA advertises the IP address of the MN (as for fixed systems) – packets to the MN are sent to the HA – independent of changes in COA/FA
Packet Tunneling– HA to MN via FA
04/14/15 VIKAS SINGH BHADOURIA 195
Mobile IP: Other Issues
Reverse Tunneling– firewalls permit only “topological correct“ addresses– a packet from the MN encapsulated by the FA is
now topological correct
Optimizations– Triangular Routing
• HA informs sender the current location of MN
– Change of FA• new FA informs old FA to avoid packet loss, old FA now
forwards remaining packets to new FA
04/14/15 VIKAS SINGH BHADOURIA 197
Multi-Hop Wireless
May need to traverse multiple links to reach destination
Mobility causes route changes
04/14/15 VIKAS SINGH BHADOURIA 198
Mobile Ad Hoc Networks (MANET)
Host movement frequent Topology change frequent
No cellular infrastructure. Multi-hop wireless links. Data must be routed via intermediate nodes.
A B AB
04/14/15 VIKAS SINGH BHADOURIA 199
MAC in Ad hoc networks
IEEE 802.11 DCF is most popular– Easy availability
802.11 DCF:– Uses RTS-CTS to avoid hidden terminal problem– Uses ACK to achieve reliability
802.11 was designed for single-hop wireless– Does not do well for multi-hop ad hoc scenarios– Reduced throughput– Exposed terminal problem
04/14/15 VIKAS SINGH BHADOURIA 200
Exposed Terminal Problem
– A starts sending to B.– C senses carrier, finds medium in use and has to
wait for A->B to end.– D is outside the range of A, therefore waiting is not
necessary.– A and C are “exposed” terminals
A B
CD
04/14/15 VIKAS SINGH BHADOURIA 201
Distance-vector & Link-state Routing
Both assume router knows– address of each neighbor– cost of reaching each neighbor
Both allow a router to determine global routing information by talking to its neighbors
Distance vector - router knows cost to each destination
Link state - router knows entire network topology and computes shortest path
04/14/15 VIKAS SINGH BHADOURIA 204
MANET Routing Protocols
Proactive protocols– Traditional distributed shortest-path protocols– Maintain routes between every host pair at all times– Based on periodic updates; High routing overhead– Example: DSDV (destination sequenced distance vector)
Reactive protocols– Determine route if and when needed– Source initiates route discovery– Example: DSR (dynamic source routing)
Hybrid protocols– Adaptive; Combination of proactive and reactive– Example : ZRP (zone routing protocol)
04/14/15 VIKAS SINGH BHADOURIA 205
Dynamic Source Routing (DSR)
Route Discovery Phase:– Initiated by source node S that wants to send packet to
destination node D– Route Request (RREQ) floods through the network– Each node appends own identifier when forwarding RREQ
Route Reply Phase:– D on receiving the first RREQ, sends a Route Reply (RREP)– RREP is sent on a route obtained by reversing the route
appended to received RREQ– RREP includes the route from S to D on which RREQ was
received by node D
Data Forwarding Phase:– S sends data to D by source routing through intermediate nodes
04/14/15 VIKAS SINGH BHADOURIA 206
Route discovery in DSR
B
A
S E
F
H
J
D
C
G
IK
Z
Y
Represents a node that has received RREQ for D from S
M
N
L
04/14/15 VIKAS SINGH BHADOURIA 207
Route discovery in DSR
B
A
S E
F
H
J
D
C
G
IK
Represents transmission of RREQ
Z
YBroadcast transmission
M
N
L
[S]
[X,Y] Represents list of identifiers appended to RREQ
04/14/15 VIKAS SINGH BHADOURIA 208
Route discovery in DSR
B
A
S E
F
H
J
D
C
G
IK
• Node H receives packet RREQ from two neighbors: potential for collision
Z
Y
M
N
L
[S,E]
[S,C]
04/14/15 VIKAS SINGH BHADOURIA 209
Route discovery in DSR
B
A
S E
F
H
J
D
C
G
IK
Z
Y
• Node D does not forward RREQ, because node D is the intended target of the route discovery
M
N
L
[S,E,F,J,M]
04/14/15 VIKAS SINGH BHADOURIA 210
Route reply in DSR
B
A
S E
F
H
J
D
C
G
IK
Z
Y
M
N
L
RREP [S,E,F,J,D]
Represents RREP control message
04/14/15 VIKAS SINGH BHADOURIA 211
Data delivery in DSR
B
A
S E
F
H
J
D
C
G
IK
Z
Y
M
N
L
DATA [S,E,F,J,D]
Packet header size grows with route length
04/14/15 VIKAS SINGH BHADOURIA 212
Destination-Sequenced Distance-Vector (DSDV)
Each node maintains a routing table which stores– next hop, cost metric towards each destination– a sequence number that is created by the destination itself
Each node periodically forwards routing table to neighbors– Each node increments and appends its sequence number when
sending its local routing table
Each route is tagged with a sequence number; routes with greater sequence numbers are preferred
04/14/15 VIKAS SINGH BHADOURIA 213
DSDV
Each node advertises a monotonically increasing even sequence number for itself
When a node decides that a route is broken, it increments the sequence number of the route and advertises it with infinite metric
Destination advertises new sequence number
04/14/15 VIKAS SINGH BHADOURIA 214
DSDV example
When X receives information from Y about a route to Z– Let destination sequence number for Z at X be S(X), S(Y) is
sent from Y
– If S(X) > S(Y), then X ignores the routing information received from Y
– If S(X) = S(Y), and cost of going through Y is smaller than the route known to X, then X sets Y as the next hop to Z
– If S(X) < S(Y), then X sets Y as the next hop to Z, and S(X) is updated to equal S(Y)
X Y Z
04/14/15 VIKAS SINGH BHADOURIA 215
Protocol Trade-offs
Proactive protocols– Always maintain routes– Little or no delay for route determination– Consume bandwidth to keep routes up-to-date– Maintain routes which may never be used
Reactive protocols– Lower overhead since routes are determined on demand– Significant delay in route determination– Employ flooding (global search)– Control traffic may be bursty
Which approach achieves a better trade-off depends on the traffic and mobility patterns
04/14/15 VIKAS SINGH BHADOURIA 217
Impact of transmission errors
Wireless channel may have bursty random errors
Burst errors may cause timeout Random errors may cause fast retransmit TCP cannot distinguish between packet losses
due to congestion and transmission errors
Unnecessarily reduces congestion window Throughput suffers
04/14/15 VIKAS SINGH BHADOURIA 218
Split connection approach
End-to-end TCP connection is broken into one connection on the wired part of route and one over wireless part of the route
Connection between wireless host MH and fixed host FH goes through base station BS
FH-MH = FH-BS + BS-MH
FH MHBS
Base Station Mobile HostFixed Host
04/14/15 VIKAS SINGH BHADOURIA 219
I-TCP: Split connection approach
wireless
physical
link
network
transport
application
physical
link
network
transport
application
physical
link
network
transport
application rxmt
Per-TCP connection state
TCP connection TCP connection
04/14/15 VIKAS SINGH BHADOURIA 220
Snoop protocol
Buffers data packets at the base station BS– to allow link layer retransmission
When dupacks received by BS from MH– retransmit on wireless link, if packet present in buffer
– drop dupack
Prevents fast retransmit at TCP sender FH
FH MHBS
04/14/15 VIKAS SINGH BHADOURIA 221
Snoop protocol
FH MHBSwireless
physical
link
network
transport
application
physical
link
network
transport
application
physical
link
network
transport
application
rxmt
Per TCP-connection state
TCP connection
04/14/15 VIKAS SINGH BHADOURIA 222
Impact of handoffs
Split connection approach– hard state at base station must be moved to new base station
Snoop protocol– soft state need not be moved– while the new base station builds new state, packet losses may
not be recovered locally
Frequent handoffs a problem for schemes that rely on significant amount of hard/soft state at base stations– hard state should not be lost– soft state needs to be recreated to benefit performance
04/14/15 VIKAS SINGH BHADOURIA 223
M-TCP
Similar to the split connection approach, M-TCP splits one TCP connection into two logical parts– the two parts have independent flow control as in I-
TCP
The BS does not send an ack to MH, unless BS has received an ack from MH– maintains end-to-end semantics
BS withholds ack for the last byte ack’d by MH
FH MHBS
Ack 1000Ack 999
04/14/15 VIKAS SINGH BHADOURIA 224
M-TCP
When a new ack is received with receiver’s advertised window = 0, the sender enters persist mode
Sender does not send any data in persist mode– except when persist timer goes off
When a positive window advertisement is received, sender exits persist mode
On exiting persist mode, RTO and cwnd are same as before the persist mode
04/14/15 VIKAS SINGH BHADOURIA 225
TCP in MANET
Several factors affect TCP performance in MANET:
Wireless transmission errors– may cause fast retransmit, which results in
• retransmission of lost packet• reduction in congestion window
– reducing congestion window in response to errors is unnecessary
Multi-hop routes on shared wireless medium– Longer connections are at a disadvantage compared to
shorter connections, because they have to contend for wireless access at each hop
Route failures due to mobility
04/14/15 VIKAS SINGH BHADOURIA 226
Impact of Multi-hop Wireless Paths
TCP throughput degrades with increase in number of hops Packet transmission can occur on at most one hop
among three consecutive hops– Increasing the number of hops from 1 to 2, 3 results in increased
delay, and decreased throughput
Increasing number of hops beyond 3 allows simultaneous transmissions on more than one link, however, degradation continues due to contention between TCP Data and Acks traveling in opposite directions
When number of hops is large enough (>6), throughput stabilizes
04/14/15 VIKAS SINGH BHADOURIA 227
mobility causeslink breakage,resulting in routefailure
TCP data and acksen route discarded
Impact of Node Mobility
TCP sender times out.Starts sending packets again
Route isrepaired
No throughput
No throughputdespite route repair
TCP throughput degrades with increase in mobility but not always
Larger route repairdelays are especially harmful
04/14/15 VIKAS SINGH BHADOURIA 229
• Five key areas (FCAPS):– Fault management– Capacity management
– Accounting(access) management
– Performance management
– Security management
FCAPS at all layers of a stack (network, middleware, apps)
Security is the main area of concern
Network management
04/14/15 VIKAS SINGH BHADOURIA 230
Wireless Network Management
In addition to the wired network issues, wireless network management needs to address some specific issues:
– Roaming.
– Persistence of Mobile Units. – Lack of SNMP Agents in Mobile Units. – Mobile Adhoc Networks.
04/14/15 VIKAS SINGH BHADOURIA 232
Threats
Disclosure of sensitive/confidential data Denial of service (DoS) Unauthorized access to wireless-enabled
resources Potential weakening of existing security
measures on connected wired networks and systems
04/14/15 VIKAS SINGH BHADOURIA 233
Vulnerabilities
Wired Equivalent Privacy (WEP) encryption standard is weak
Radio signals susceptible to jamming and interference
Protocol vulnerabilities allow– Network sessions to be taken over by an intruder– Injection of invalid data into network traffic– Network reconnaissance
Default configurations create “open” network
04/14/15 VIKAS SINGH BHADOURIA 234
Example: The radio signal from a wireless network can spill over from the building where access points are located to neighboring buildings, parking lots and public roads.
Vulnerabilities - 1
04/14/15 VIKAS SINGH BHADOURIA 235
Example: Many wireless networks do not use WEP or other encryption to protect network traffic.
▲ = Access points using encryption▲ = Access points without encryption
Vulnerabilities - 2
04/14/15 VIKAS SINGH BHADOURIA 236
Example: These packet traces show highly confidential data that can be captured from a wireless network
Vulnerabilities - 3
04/14/15 VIKAS SINGH BHADOURIA 237
Wireless security technologies
Applications
Middleware
Wireless Link
•802.11 security (WEP) •WLL link security
•SSL and TLS•Web security (HTTPS, PICS, HTTP Headers) •Proxy server security
•SET for transaction security•S/MIME and PGP for secure email•Java security (sandboxes) •Database security
TCP/IP•IPSEC and wirless VPN •Mobile IP
Can usehigher levelservices to compensate for lower layers
Tradeoffs inperformance and security
04/14/15 VIKAS SINGH BHADOURIA 238
Security and availability The security S is provided at the following levels:
– Level 0: no security specified
– Level 1: Authorization and authentication of principals
– Level 2: Auditing and encryption (Privacy)
– Level 3: Non-repudiation and delegation
Availability A can be represented in terms of replications (more replications increase system availability):
– Level 0: No replication (i.e., only one copy of the resource is used)
– Level 1: Replication is used to increase availability. The resource is replicated for a fail-safe operation
– Level 2: FRS (Fragmentation, Redundancy, Scattering) is used. FRS schemes split a resource, replicate it, and scatter it around the network to achieve high availability and intrusion tolerance
04/14/15 VIKAS SINGH BHADOURIA 239
Being secure
Develop wireless network policies Conduct risk assessments to determine required
level of security Limit access to wireless networks through the
use of wireless security measures (i.e. 802.11i or WPA)
Maintain logical separation between wireless and wired networks
Perform wireless scans to identify wireless networks and applications (on a regular basis)
Enforce wireless network policies
04/14/15 VIKAS SINGH BHADOURIA 241
802.3
Medium
Access
802.3
Physical
802.2 Logical Link
802.1 Bridging
802.4
Medium
Access
802.4
Physical
802.5
Medium
Access
802.5
Physical
802.6
Medium
Access
802.6
Physical
802.11
Medium
Access
802.11
Physical
802.12
Medium
Access
802.12
Physical
802.16
Medium
Access
802.16
Physical
Data
Link
Layer
Physical
Layer
IEEE 802 family
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Purpose: – to enable rapid worldwide deployment of cost-effective
broadband wireless access products
802.16: – consists of the BS (Base Station) and SSs(Subscriber Stations)
– All data traffic goes through the BS, and the BS can control the allocation of bandwidth on the radio channel.
– 802.16 is a Bandwidth on Demand system.
Standard specifies:– The air interface, MAC (Medium Access Control), PHY(Physical
layer)
IEEE 802.16
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The spectrum to be used– 10 - 66 GHz licensed band
• Due to the short wavelength
–Line of sight is required –Multipath is negligible
• Channels 25 or 28 MHz wide are typical
• Raw data rates in excess of 120 Mbps– 2 -11 GHz
• IEEE Standards Association Project P802.16a
• Approved as an IEEE standard on Jan 29, 2003
IEEE 802.16
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IEEE 802.16 MAC layer function
Transmission scheduling : – Controls up and downlink transmissions so that
different QoS can be provided to each user Admission control :
– Ensures that resources to support QoS requirements of a new flow are available
Link initialization:– Scans for a channel, synchronizes the SS with the BS,
performs registration, and various security issues. Support for integrated voice/data connections:
– Provide various levels of bandwidth allocation, error rates, delay and jitter
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Basic services UGS(Unsolicited Grant Service)
– Supports real-time service flows that generate fixed size data packets on a periodic basis, such as T1/E1 and Voice over IP
– The BS shall provide fixed size slot at periodic intervals.
rtPS(Real-Time Polling Service)– Supports real-time service flows that generate variable size data
packets on a periodic basis, such as MPEG video
nrtPS(Non-Real-Time Polling Service)– Supports non real-time service flows that generate variable size
data packets on a regular basis, such as high bandwidth FTP.
BE(Best Effort service)– Provides efficient service to best effort traffic
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FDD based MAC protocol
Downlink – Broadcast phase : The information about uplink and
downlink structure is announced.– DL-MAP(Downlink Map)
• DL-MAP defines the access to the downlink information
– UL-MAP(Uplink Map)• UL-MAP message allocates access to the uplink channel
Uplink– Random access area is primarily used for the initial
access but also for the signalling when the terminal has no resources allocated within the uplink phase.
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MAC Frame MAC Frame MAC Frame
Broadcast Phase Downlink Phase
Movable boundary
DownlinkCarrier
Uplink Carrier Uplink Phase Random Access Phase
Broadcast Reserved
Movable boundary
Reserved Contention
FDD based 802.16 MAC Protocol
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Downlink Subframe
Uplink Subframe
DL-MAP n-1
UL-MAP n-1
Frame n-1 Frame n
Round trip delay + T_proc
Bandwidth request slots
Time relevance of PHY and MAC control information
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Downlink Scheduling
Radio resources have to be scheduled according to the QoS(Quality of Service) parameters
Downlink scheduling: – the flows are simply multiplexed
– the standard scheduling algorithms can be used • WRR(Weighted Round Robin)• VT(Virtual Time)• WFQ(Weighted Fair Queueing)• WFFQ(Worst-case Fair weighted Fair Queueing)• DRR(Deficit Round Robin)• DDRR(Distributed Deficit Round Robin)
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111VCC 1 (Source 1)
22VCC 2 (Source 2)
333VCC 3 (Source 3) 3 3
2
1
3
123111 2 33333
WRR scheduler
Counter Reset Cycle
• It is an extention of round robin schedulingbased on the static weight.
WRR
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VT VT : aims to emulate the TDM(Time Division Multiplexing) system
– connection 1 : reserves 50% of the link bandwidth– connection 2, 3 : reserves 20% of the link bandwidth
Connection 1 Average inter-arrival : 2 units
Connection 1 Average inter-arrival : 2 units
Connection 2 Average inter-arrival : 5 units
Connection 3 Average inter-arrival : 5 units
First-Come-First-Served service order
Virtual times
Virtual Clock service order
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Uplink scheduling: – Responsible for the efficient and fair allocation of the
resources(time slots) in the uplink direction
– Uplink carrier : • Reserved slots• contention slots(random access slots)
– The standard scheduling algorithms can be used
Uplink Scheduling
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Bandwidth allocation and request mechanisms
The method by which the SS(Subscriber Station) can get the bandwidth request message to the BS(Base Station)– Unicast
• When an SS is polled individually, no explicit message is transmitted to poll the SS.
• The SS is allocated, in the UP-MAP(Uplink Map), bandwidth sufficient for a bandwidth request.
– Multicast• Certain CID(Connection Identifier) are reserved for
multicast groups and for broadcast messages.• An SS belonging to the polled group may request
bandwidth during any request interval allocated to that CID in the UP-MAP
– Broadcast
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Bandwidth allocation and request mechanisms
UGS : – The BS provides fixed size bandwidth at periodic intervals to UGS.– The SS is prohibited from using any contention opportunities.– The BS shall not provide any unicast request opportunities.
rtPS– The BS provides periodic unicast request opportunities.– The SS is prohibited from using any contention opportunities.
nrtPS– The BS provides timely unicast request opportunities.– The SS is allowed to use contention request opportunities.
BE– The SS is allowed to use contention request opportunities.
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Bandwidth Request-Grant Protocol
BS
SS1
SS2
1
2.1
2.2
1. BS allocates bandwidth to SSs for transmitting bandwidth request.
2.1 SS1 transmits bandwidth requests.
2.2 SS2 transmits bandwidth requests.
4. BS allocates bandwidth to SSs for transmitting data based on their bandwidth requests. Bandwidth is also allocated for requesting more bandwidth.
5.1 SS1 transmits data and bandwidth requests.
5.2 SS2 transmits data and bandwidth requests.
4
5.1
5.2
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ExampleTotal Uplink Bytes = 100
2 SS and 1 BS
SS1
Demands:
UGS = 20
rtPS = 12
nrtPS = 15
BE = 30
SS2
Demands:
UGS = 10
rtPS = 10
nrtPS = 15
BE = 20
Total Demand Per Flow:UGS = 30rtPS = 22nrtPS = 30BE = 50
Flows: UGS rtPS nrtPS BE 1st Round 40 30 20 10
30 22 20 10Excess Bytes = 182nd Round 30 22 20+12 10+6
30 22 32 16 Excess Bytes = 23rd Round 30 22 30 16+2
30 22 30 18
SS1 Allocation = 20 +12 + 15 + 9 = 56
SS2 Allocation = 10 +10 + 15 + 9 = 44
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Bandwidth and applications
Speed, kbps2G
CDMA 2.5GGPRS, CDMA 2000
EDGEUMTS
Transaction ProcessingMessaging/Text Apps
Voice/SMSLocation Services
Still Image TransfersInternet/VPN Access
Database AccessDocument Transfer
Low Quality VideoHigh Quality Video
9.6 14.4 28 64 144 384 2000
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Band
widt
h Re
quir
emen
tsHigh
LowLow HighLatency Sensitivity
Text e-mail
E-commerceERP
Voice
Terminal Mode
Transactions
Internet/intranet
E-mail with Attachments
Streaming Video Video
Conferencing
Applications: network requirements
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Quality of Service Network-level QoS
– Metrics include available b/w, packet loss rates, etc– Elements of a Network QoS Architecture
• QoS specification (traffic classes)• Resource management and admission control• Service verification and traffic policing• Packet forwarding mechanisms (filters, shapers, schedulers)• QoS routing
Application-level QoS– How well user expectations are qualitatively satisfied– Clear voice, jitter-free video, etc– Implemented at application-level:
• end-to-end protocols (RTP/RTCP)• application-specific encodings (FEC)
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QoS building blocks
What kind of premium services? – Service/SLA design
How much resources? – admission control/provisioning
How to ensure network utilization, load balancing? – QoS routing, traffic engineering
How to set aside resources in a distributed manner?– signaling, provisioning, policy
How to deliver services when the traffic actually comes in?– traffic shaping, classification, scheduling
How to monitor quality, account and price these services?– network management, accounting, billing, pricing
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QoS big picture: Control/Data planes
Internetwork or WANWorkstation
Router
Router
RouterWorkstation
Control Plane: Signaling + Admission Control orSLA (Contracting) + Provisioning/Traffic Engineering
Data Plane: Traffic conditioning (shaping, policing, marking etc) at the edge +Traffic Classification + Claiming Reserved Resources (Per-hop Behavior- PHB),
scheduling, buffer management
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Services: Queuing/Scheduling
Extra bits indicate the queue (class) for a packet High $$ users get into high priority queues, which
are in turn less populated => lower delay and near-zero likelihood of packet drop
Class C
Class B
Class A
Traffic Classes
Traffic Sources
$$$$$$
$$$
$
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QoS and pricing
QoS Pricing– Multi-class network requires differential pricing– Otherwise all users select best service class
Service provider’s perspective– Low cost (implementn, metering, accounting, billing)
– Encourage efficient resource usage– Competitiveness and cost recovery
User’s perspective– Fairness and Stability
– Transparency and Predictability– Controllability
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Multimedia applications
Audio– Speech (CELP – type codecs)– Music (MP3, WAV, WMA, Real)
Video (MPEG –1, 2, 4)
Streaming – using HTTP/TCP (MP3)– using RTP/UDP (Video)
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Multimedia protocol stack
MGCP/Megaco
TCP UDP
IPv4, IPv6
H.323 SDP
SIP
RTSP RSVP RTCP
RTP
H.261, MPEG
PPP AAL3/4 AAL5 PPP
Sonet ATM Ethernet V.34
Signaling Quality of Service
Reservation Measurement
Media Transport
network
linkphysical
Application daem
onkernel
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Session Initiation Protocol (SIP)
Invite users to sessions– Find the user’s current location– match with their capabilities and preferences in order
to deliver invitation
Modify/Terminate sessions
Session Description Protocol (SDP)– Used to specify client capabilities
– Example (client can support MPEG-1 video codec, and MP3 codecs)
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SIP components
User Agent Client (UAC)– End systems; Send SIP requests
User Agent Server (UAS)– Listens for call requests– Prompts user or executes program to determine response
User Agent: UAC plus UAS
Registrar– Receives registrations regarding current user locations
Redirect Server– Redirects users to try other server
Proxy Server
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SIP architecture
1
2
3
45
67
8
9
1011
12
SIP Client
SIP Redirect Server
SIP ProxySIP Proxy
SIP Client(User Agent Server)
Location Service
13
14
Request
Response
Media
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SIP call flow example
USER A USER BPROXY PROXY
INVITE
407 Proxy Authenticate
ACK
INVITE
INVITEINVITE
180 Ringing100 Trying
100 Trying
180 Ringing180 Ringing 200 OK
200 OK200 OK
ACKACK
ACK
BOTH WAY RTP
BYEBYE
BYE
200 OK 200 OK200 OK
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H.323
H.323 is an ITU standard for multimedia communications over best-effort LANs.
Part of larger set of standards (H.32X) for videoconferencing over data networks.
H.323 addresses call control, multimedia management, and bandwidth management as well as interfaces between LANs and other networks.
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H.323 components
Terminals: – All terminals must support voice; video and data are optional
Gatekeeper: – most important component which provides call control services
Gateway: – an optional element which provides translation functions
between H.323 conferencing endpoints (esp for ISDN, PSTN)
Multipoint Control Unit (MCU): – supports conferences between three or more endpoints.
Consists of a Multipoint Controller (MC) and Multipoint Processors (MP)
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H.323 Gatekeeper
Address translation– H.323 Alias to transport (IP) address
Admission control– Permission to complete call
– Can apply bandwidth limits
– Method to control LAN traffic
Call signaling/management/reporting/logging Management of Gateway
– H.320, H.324, POTS, etc.
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H.323 example
1. A sends request to GateKeeper: Can I call B?
2. GK resolves “Bob” to IP address through H.323 registration or external name service
3. GK applies Admission Policy
4. GK replies to A with B’s IP address
5. A sends Setup message to B
6. B checks with GK for authorizing the connection
7. GK acknowledges B to accept call
8. B replies to A and alerts User
9. H.245 connection established
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Media transport: RTP
Transport of real-time data, audio and video RTP follows the application level framing (ALF)
– RTP specifies common application functions
– Tailored through modifications and/or additions to the headers
RTP consists of a data and a control part– The data part of RTP is a thin protocol– The control part of RTP is called RTCP
• quality-of-service feedback from receivers• snchronization support for media streams
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RTP (contd)
RTP services– payload type identification– sequence numbering, timestamping
– delivery monitoring, optional mixing/translation.
UDP for multiplexing and checksum services RTP does not provide
– mechanisms to ensure quality-of-service, guarantee delivery or prevent out-of-order delivery or loss
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3G Network Architecture
Mobile AccessRouter
Mobile AccessRouter
WirelessAccess Network
IPBase Stations
IPBase Stations
GatewayGatewayTelephone Network
Core Network
User Profiles &Authentication
(HLR)
3G AirInterface
Wired Access
802.11
IP Intranet
IP Intranet
ProgrammableSoftswitch
ProgrammableSoftswitch
ApplicationServer
ApplicationServer
802.11
Access Point
Access Point
Access Point
Access Point
Internet
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Overlay Networks - the global goal
regional
metropolitan area
campus-based
in-house
verticalhandover
horizontalhandover
integration of heterogeneous fixed andmobile networks with varyingtransmission characteristics
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Future mobile and wireless networks
Improved radio technology and antennas– smart antennas, beam forming, multiple-input multiple-output
(MIMO)• space division multiplex to increase capacity, benefit from
multipath– software defined radios (SDR)
• use of different air interfaces, download new modulation/coding• requires a lot of processing power
– dynamic spectrum allocation• spectrum on demand results in higher overall capacity
Core network convergence– IP-based, quality of service, mobile IP
Ad-hoc technologies– spontaneous communication, power saving, redundancy
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References A.S. Tanenbaum. Computer Networks. Pearson Education, 2003. J. Schiller, Mobile Communications, Addison Wesley, 2002. Y-B. Lin and I Chlamtac, Wireless and Mobile Network Architectures,
Wiley, 2001.
802.11 Wireless LAN, IEEE standards, www.ieee.org Various RFCs: RFC 2002, 2501, 3150, 3449, www.ietf.org
Others websites:– www.palowireless.com
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Thank You
Other Tutorials at: www.it.iitb.ac.in/~sri
Contact Details:
Sridhar Iyer
School of Information Technology
IIT Bombay, Powai, Mumbai 400 076
Phone: +91-22-2576-7905
Email: [email protected]