Complementary Help in English ( Advance & Intermediates)

8/3/2019 Complementary Help in English ( Advance & Intermediates)

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COMPLEMENTARY HELP FOR THE ENGLISH

COURSE

PARTS OF SPEECH

In grammar, to understand the structure of a sentence, it is divided into eightclasses or eight parts of speech.And the very beginning of knowledge of grammar is to know the parts ofspeech. The parts of speech are:

NOUNS PRONOUNSVERBS PREPOSITIONSADJECTIVES CONJUNGTIONSADVERBS INTERJECTIONS or EXCLAMATIONS

I.- NOUNS.

A noun is the name of any object, place, animal, thing or person. Thereare four kinds of nouns:

a.-) COMMON NOUNS: Are the names of objects, creatures or animals.We also say common nouns are the names of classes of objects and thenames are common to all of these objects. Examples: pen, ink, paper,

house, machinery, ship, picture, star, ball.

b.-) PROPER NOUNS: The names of persons and places: and sometimes the specific names of animals, ships, buildings, and so on. We alsosay that a proper noun is the special name of one particular object.Example: James, Mary, February, Buckingham Palace, Washington,New York, Bogot, Peter. Etc

c.-) COLLECTIVE NOUNS: Are the names of collections or group ofthings. One noun referring to a number of individuals collected togetheras a group: example: a heard of cattle, a flack of birds, a crowd of

people, army of soldiers, a fleet of ships, a pack of cards, a choir ofangels.

d.-) ABSTRACT NOUNS: Are names which do not exist except asqualities of persons or things. The name of some qualities or non-material thing. Example; height, beauty, breadth, redness, charity,invisibility.

Nouns have Number, Gender, and Case.

- Number tells us about whether the noun is singular (one object) orplural (more than one object).


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Singular PluralHouse Houses

- Gender tells us whether the noun is masculine, feminine, neuter orcommon (either masculine or feminine).

Masculine Man Neuter chairFeminine Woman Common child

GENDERGender is the classification of nouns according to the sex.

1. Names of Males are of the masculine Gender: man, lion.2. Names of Females are of the Feminine Gender: woman,

lioness.3. Names that can be used of Male or Female are of the

Common Gender: child, fowl.

4. Names of things without life are of the Neuter Gender: table,spade.

- Case shows us the relationship of the noun to the rest of thesentence.

PLURAL OF NOUNS

1. Most English nouns form the plural by adding an s to the singularform.

Cat- Cats; pen - pens; book - books

2. Some nouns ending in f or fe change the f into ve beforeadding the s or es in the plural.

Calf, calves Knife, Knives loaf, loavesHalf, halves leaf leaves thief, thieves

3. Nouns ending in y preceded by a consonant change they intoIbefore addinges.

Lady, ladies cry, cries fly, flies

When the -y is preceded by a vowel, add -s only:

Boy, boys day, days donkey, donkeys

4. Most nouns ending in o preceded by a consonant, add -es to thesingular to form the plural-

Cargo, cargoes hero, heroes tomato, tomatoesEcho, echoes potato, potatoes volcano, volcanoes

5. Nouns which end in a hissing sound usually add es in the plural.

Box, boxes dish, dishes loss, lossesLarch, larches fish, fishes wish, wishes


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Church, churches glass, glasses bush, bushes

6. Some nouns form the plural by changing the vowel sound of the word.

Foot, feet man, men tooth, teeth

Goose, geese mouse, mice woman, women

7. Some nouns have the same for the plural as they have for thesingular.

Deer, deer sheep, sheepSalmon, salmon swine, swine

8. Compound nouns usually change the most important word into theplural.

Brother in law, brothers in lawVice chairman, vice chairmen

Court martial, courts martial

9. Some nouns have an irregular plural form.

Child, children penny, pence (also pennies)Ox, oxen brother, brethren

HELPING LIST OF WORDS (NOUNS) BY GENDER

Masculine Feminine Masculine FeminineBaron baroness host hostessBoy girl husband wifeBridegroom bride Jew JewessDuke duchess king queenLord lady poet poetessLion lioness emperor empressPrince princess fianc fianceHero heroine widower widowWizard witch Mayor MayoressPatron patroness Prophet Prophetess

Priest priestess Master mistress

II. - PRONOUNS

A PRONOUN is a word that stands instead of a noun. Or also we say that apronoun is a word used in place of a noun.

Kinds of PronounsPronouns are classified as fallows:

A.)- PERSONAL PRONOUNB.)- POSSESIVE PRONOUN


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C.)- DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUND.)- RELATIVE PRONPOUNE.)- REFLEXIVE PRONOUNF.)- INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNG.)- DISTRIBUTIVE PRONOUN

H.)- INDEFINAITE PRONOUNI.)- EMPHASIZING PRONOUN

PERSONAL PRONOUNS:The personal pronouns are:

I I have a nameYOU you have a bookHE he has a nameSHE she has a name

IT it has a name

WE we have our homeYOU you have two carsTHEY they have some cows

POSSESIVE PRONOUNThe possessive Pronoun stands instead of the noun.The possessive pronouns are.

MineYoursHisHersIts

OursYoursTheirs

DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS

The demonstrative pronouns are:THISTHATTHESETHOSETHE FORMER: Is used for the first of twoTHE LATER: Is used for the second of twoSUCH: Is used predicatively to mean so great or of that kind.


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RELATIVE PRONOUNS

The Relative Pronouns are WHO (nominative), WHOM (objective), WHOSE(possessive), WHICH, THAT, WHAT, and occasionally AS and BUT. Theyhave the same the same form for singular or plural.

The relative pronoun stands instead of a noun and also joins sentences. Thenoun to which it refers is called its ANTECEDENT.

WHO, WHOM and WHOSE are used of persons. Example:The man who spoke was mi fatherThe man whom you saw was my brotherHe is a writer whose style is most attractive.

WHICH, as a relative pronoun is used only of THINGS or ANIMALS example?

The current, which is very rapid, make the river dangerous.My dog, which was lost, has been found.

THAT is used for persons or things. Example:My brother that is in Bogot has sent me a letter.This is the house that Jack built.

THE REFLEXIVE PRONOUN

The Reflexive Pronouns are:

SINGULAR PLURALMyself himself ourselvesThyself herself yourselvesYourself itself themselves

Oneself

The reflexive pronouns show that the action performed by the doer passes backto him; so the subject and the object of the sentence are the same person.

THE INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNThe interrogative Pronouns are: Who, whose, which and what. They are usedto ask questions.Who and whose are used for persons, e.g. Who are you?Whose is this book?

Which is selective; it can be used for persons or things when one or more outof as number is referred to, e.g.

Which of these words is the right one to use?Which of these men did you see?

What is general in meaning, e.g. What did he say?. What are you doing?


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THE DISTRIBUTIVE PRONOUNThe distributive pronouns are each, either, and neither.They are very similar to the distributive adjectives. The difference is that when

they stand instead of the noun, they are pronoun; when they qualify the nounsthey are adjectives,

Each of the men received a reward. (Pronoun)Each man received a reward. (Adjective)

THE INDEFINAITE PRONOUN

The indefinite Pronouns are: all, some, any, one, they, something, nobody,etc.They refer to things or people in a vague or general way.

All, some, any, one, can also be used as adjectives.

III. - VERBS

A VERB is a doing word. A verb expresses an action or a state. Is a word bywhich we make a statement or ask a question.A verb is one which has person, number, and tens.A verb is a word with which we can make an assertion (statement). What is

asserted is either an ACTION or a STATE. Example:

I hit the ball . (Action)He is asleep . (State)

SUBJECTS and PREDICATESThe person or thing about which we make the statement is called the SUBJECTof the verb, and what we say (or predicate) about the subject is called thePREDICATE. A Predicate must contain a verb; in fact the verb is often referredto as the predicate of a subject.

SUBJECT PREDICATEThe clouds moved across the sky.Nelson was a great sailor

That you are late is not my fault,My brother open the door

A verb agrees with its subjects in numberand person.

1. - Number .. Singular or Plural2. - Person . First, second, or third3. - Tense .. Present, past or future


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4. - Voice .Active or passive.5. - Mood infinitive, indicative, imperative or subjunctive.

1. - NUMBER

Refers to the number of people or thing that make up the subject of a verb,either one (singular) or more than one (plural). A verb agrees with it subject innumber: that is if the subject is singular, the verb must be in singular, and if thesubject is plural the verb must be plural. Example:

James runs fast. (Singular)John and James come home. (Plural)The voters elected him. (Plural)

2. - PERSONThe Person speaking is the first person (I, We), the person spoken to is in the

second person (you), and the person or object spoken about is in the thirdperson (he, she, it, and they). A verb agrees with its subject in number andperson. Example:

James runs fast (third person singular)You are not working (second person singular)We cannot come (first person plural)

3. TENSETense shows the time at which the action of the verb takes place.Action may take place in the present, the past or the future, and may be simple,continuous or perfect (that is, completed) example:

Simple Continuous PerfectPresent I work I am working I have workedPast I worked I was working I had workedFuture I shall work I shall be working

4. VOICEVoice tells us whether the subject does the action or suffers the action.

A verb is in the active voice when the subject when the subject performs theaction and in the passive voice when the subject has the action done to it.

I chose the book. (Active)He and John carried the bag. (Active)The book was chosen by me. (Passive)The bag was carried by them. (Passive)

5. MOODMood is the way in which the verb describes different kinds or moods of action.There are four moods: Infinitive, Indicative, Imperative, and Subjunctive.


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LIST OF REGULAR VERBS

Present Past Past ParticipleAwake awoke awoke or awakedAbide abode abode

Arise arose arisenAwake awoke awokeBe was beenBear bore borne, bornBecome became becomeBeat beat beatenBegin began begunBehold beheld beheldBend bent bentBid bade, bid bidden, bidBind bound bound

Bite bit bittenBleed bled bledBlow blew blownBreak broke brokenBreed bred bredBring brought brought

Build built builtBurn burnt burntBurst burst burstBuy bought boughtCast cast castCatch caught caughtChoose chose chosenCling clung clungCome came cameClothe clothed clothedCost cost costCreep crept creptCrow crew, crowed crowedCut cut cut

Deal dealt dealtDo did doneDig dug dugDraw drew drawnDream dreamt dreamtDream dreamed dreamedDrink drank drunk, drunkenDrive drove drivenDwell dwelt dweltEat ate eatenFall fell fallen

Feed fed fed


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Present Past Past ParticipleFeel felt feltFight fought foughtFind found foundFlee fled fled

Fling flung flungFly flew flownForbid forbade forbiddenForget forgot forgottenForgive forgave forgivenForsake forsook forsakenFreeze froze frozenGet got got, gottenGive gave givenGo went goneGrind ground ground

Grow grew grownHang hung, hanged hung, hangedHave had hadHide hid hidden, hidHit hit hitHear heard heardHold held heldHurt hurt hurtKeep kept keptKneel knelt kneltKnow knew knownKnit knit, knitted knit, knittedLay laid laidLead led ledLean leant, leaned leant, leanedLeap leapt leaptLearn learnt, learned learnt, learnedLeave left leftLend lent lentLie lay lainLet let let

Light lit, or lighted lit, or lightedLose lost lostMake made madeMean meant meantMeet met metMistake mistook mistookMow mowed mowedOutdo outdid outdidOvercome overcame overcameOverdo overdid overdidOverdraw overdrew overdrew

Overhear overheard overheardPartake partook partook


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Present Past Past ParticiplePay paid paidPut put putRead read readRid rid rid

Ride rode riddenRing rang rungRise rose risenRot rotted rotted. RottenRun ran runSaw sawed sawnSay said saidSee saw seenSeek sought soughtSell sold soldSend sent sent

Set set setSew sewed sewnShake shook shakenShave shaved shaved, shavenShear sheared sheared, shornShed shed shedShine shone shoneShoe shod shod (To shoe the horse)Shoot shot shotShow showed shownShrink shrank shrunk, shrunkenShrive shrove shrivenShut shut shutSing sang sungSink sank sunkSit sat satSlay slew slainSleep slept sleptSlide slid slidSling slung slungSlink slunk slunk

Slit slit slitSmell smelt smeltSmite smote smitten (golpear)Speak spoke spokenSow sowed sownSpeed sped spedSpell spell spellSpend spent spentSpill spilt spiltSpin span, or spun spunSpit spat spat

Split split split


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Present Past Past ParticipleSpoil spoilt, spoiled spoilt, spoiledSpread spread spreadSpring sprang sprungStand stood stood

Stave stove, or staved stove, or stavedSteal stole stolenStick stock stuckSting stung stungStink stank stankStrew strewed strewnStride strode striddenStrike struck struck, strickenString strung strungStrive strove strivenSwear swore sworn

Sweep swept sweptSwell swelled swelled or swollenSwim swam swumSwing swung swungTake took takenTeach taught taughtTear tore tornTell told toldThink thought thoughtThrive throve, thrived thriven, thrivedThrow threw thrownThrust thrust thrustTread trod troddenUndergo underwent undergoneUnderlie underlay underlainUnderstand understood understoodUndertake undertook undertakenWake woke wakedWare wore wornWeave wove wovenWeep wept wept

Win won wonWind wound woundWithdraw withdrew withdrawnWithhold withheld withheldWithstand withstood withstoodWring wrung wrungWrite wrote written

The Participle = Participio

The Participle is a VERBAL ADJECTIVE and is the form of the verb that isused:


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a. - To help to form a tense, example: I am speaking. He had written.

B.- As an adjective qualifying a noun or its equivalent, example: thesinging bird; the broken bottles; being tired of work, the men went home.

THE GERUNDThe gerund is a VERBAL NOUN ending in ing.A gerund is a word ending in ing which is made from a verb but is used as anoun. Example:

Swimming keeps you fit.Seeing is believing.

When is necessary a gerund can have some of the qualities of a verb. Forexample:

It can take an object: He likes eating pineapple

We can use gerunds in the fallowing ways:a. - As the object of a verb: I like playing footballb. - After a preposition: He is good at drawing peoplec. - As the subject of a verb: smoking is bad for youd. - After certain verbs: This shirt needs repairing

IV. - ADJECTIVESAn adjective is a word which describes or qualifies a Noun or a Pronoun.It adds to its meaning, but limits its application. Example: the new book, theblack sheep.

An adjective tells us more about a noun. Example: a purple tie. It gives usmore additional information about the tie.

Kinds of Adjectives

We can mention the fallowing kinds of adjectives:

ADJECTIVES OF QUALITY: Which show what kind; e.g. a brave boy; aGerman student.

ADJECTIVE OF QUANTITY: Which tell how many or how much. Thesemay be :

a) Definite, e.g. one, two, etcb) Indefinite, e.g. all, some, several, half, no

POSSESIVE ADJECTIVES: which show possession, ex: My, her, its,our, their, etc.


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DISTRIBUTIVE ADJECTIVE: which show that the persons or thingsdenoted by the noun are taken singly or in separate lots, e.g each,every, either,

Each is used for one of two, or one of many number exciding two, e.g

each one of the two boys gained a prize.

DESCRIPTIVE ADJECTIVES: These adjectives show what kind ofnoun, by describing quality or state. E.g.

A brave soldier. A hot day. The blue seaA large town A lazy boy A lovely flower

QUANTITATIVE ADJECTIVES: These show how much or how many

are referred to. In this group, you may find:a. - Indefinite numerals. Tell us of number or quantitywithout saying exactly what the number is.

All, some, enough, none, many, few, several, sundry(diversos)

b. - Definite numerals. Tell us an exact number. E.g.One, two, three first, second, Twofold, double,Four, etc. Third, fourth, threefold, triple,

Fifth, etc. Treble, etc.

INTERROGATIVE ADJECTIVES. These introduce a question.Which train must I take?

What money shall I require?

DISTRIBUTIVE ADJECTIVES. These adjectives show what that thethings referred to are to be taken separately.

The boys and girls each brought a pen and a pencil.The prisoner would answerneither question.Let every body speak for him self.

POSSESIVE ADJECTIVES. These adjectives show that a thing ispossessed or owned by a particular person.

Singular Plural

First person my our Second person thy your Third person his, her, its their

DEMONSTRATIVE ADJECTIVES. These adjectives point out theperson or thing referred to. This, that, yonder, certain, another,other.

Do this work

Who is that man?Go into yonderfieldA certain man spoke to me


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I will come anotherdayI prefer the othershirtI will not put up with such treatment.

COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES

There are three degrees of comparison of adjectives: POSITIVE,COMPARATIVE, and SUPERLATIVE

An adjective in its first form is in the positive degree:Warm, large, frightful

COMPARATIVE. When we are comparing two things. The adjective is inthe comparative degree. It is formed:

a. - by adding -er to the positive, e.g. clear, clearer; warm,warmer; large, larger; big, bigger.

b. By using more with the positive degree. e.g more beautiful;

SUPERLATIVE. When we are comparing more than two things, the adjective isin the superlative degree.

a. - by adding -est.; clear, clearest; war, warmest; large, largestb. - by using most. Beautiful, most beautiful; benevolent, mostbenevolent.

For adjectives of more than two syllables, we use the word more before theadjective to form the comparative, and most to form the superlative.

Positive Comparative SuperlativeBeautiful more beautiful most beautifulBenevolent more benevolent most benevolent

SOME IRREGULAR COMPARISON

There are some exceptions in forming the comparative and superlative inadjectives. Please take a look of the fallowing adjectives below.

Positive Comparative Superlative

Good better BestBad worse worstFar farther farthestLittle less leastMuch more mostMany more mostLate later latestLate latter last

FORMING ADJECTIVE

Adjectives can be formed by adding -y to some words.


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Rust Rusty Greed Greedy Wealth WealthyStorm Stormy Dirt Dirty Filth Filthy

Adjectives can also be formed by using the suffix able, ible, adding them to

verbs or nouns, example.Adapt adaptable rely reliableDebate debatable use usablePay payable fashion fashionableLike likeable advise advisableDefine indefinable

V. ADVERBS

Adverbs are words that describe or attach themselves to a verb.Adverbs tell HOW, WHEN, and WHERE a thing is done and so are calledAdverbs ofManner, Time and Place.Adverbs also describe or modify other parts of speech, as Adjectives andadverbs.An adverb can modify, or add to the meaning of , a verb, an adjective, oranother adverb.

Adverbs have three uses:

a. - To modify a verb: He reads quickly.b. - To modify an adjective: The work was very hard; an extremely sad case.

c. - To modify another adverb: He spoke very slowly

Adverbs can be:

1. - Of Time, saying when the action happened.He visits his motherweekly

2. - Of place, saying where the action happenedLet him lie there.

3. - Of manner, saying how the action happened.

The boys ran quickly

4. - Of degree, saying how much,The girl was nearly late for school.

5. - Interrogative, asking when, where, how.Where have you put my fountain pen?

6. - Of cause or consequence: therefore, so, consequently. Such words aresometimes clearly adverbs qualifying a verb.

He worked hard and so deserved to succeed.

MAKING ADVERBS.


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Most Adverbs end in ly, ily, ically, although there are many which do not.Example:

Here, there, seldom, almost, sometime, very, well, worse, often, etc,do not take the endings mentioned above.

ExerciseForm Adverbs from the words given below:

Punctual punctually efficient efficientlySkilful skillfully tragic tragicallyEntire entirely day dailyLogic logically democratic democratically

The place of the adverbs1. The adverb is generally placed before adjectives, other adverbs and past

participles, e.g., He was very clever, and was exceedingly well

educated2. With a transitive verb, it generally comes after the object, e.g. he

banged the door noisily But if the object is an infinitive, it may comebefore, e.g. They kindly asked me to stay at their house

3. The adverbs never, often, always, seldom, sometimes, usuallyprecede the principal verb, e.g. I always Do that; I have often done that,They will never Do that; But with the verb To Be, they fallow the verb,e.g. He is never at home.

4. Adverbs of DEFINITE TIME, e.g. yesterday, today, tomorrow, areplaced at the end of the sentence; or if we wish to emphasize the time, t

the beginning, e.g. I went to his house yesterday, or yesterday I went tohis house.5. If an adverb of time and an adverb of place are used together the latter

precedes the former, e.g. we went there yesterday.

VI, - THE PREPOSITION

A preposition is a word which is used with a noun or pronoun to show itsrelation to some other word in the sentence.We also say that a preposition is a word which is used to show the way in which

other words are connected. Prepositions may be single words such as: by,from, over under, or they may be more complex and composed of severalwords such as: apart from, in front of, in spite of, instead of.

Where are Prepositions used?

Prepositions are usually fallowed by a noun or a pronoun, a verb withing or awh- clause. In the fallowing sentences, in is a preposition:

Write your name in the bookThis tea is too sweet; there is too much sugarin itThere is absolutely no point in complainingIm very interesting in what you have just said


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Prepositions are not used in front of infinitives or clauses beginning with that:I was astonished at the newsHe was astonished by the news

What do prepositions mean?

In English we make frequent use of prepositions to express basic relationshipsbetween words. They can be relationships oftime and place, reason, manner,means, and reaction. Examples:

Reason I did it because ofmy father/ formy mother/ out ofdutyManner She spoke with a smile/ in a soft voiceMeans I came by bus/ on foot/ in a taxi

A particular preposition can often be used to express more than one kind ofrelationship, for example by.

Time by next weekPlace by the windowMeans by working very hard

Principal prepositions,

The fallowing are some of the principal prepositions with sentences to illustrate

their use:

ABOUTHe looked about himShe tolled me every thing about the caseI shall see you about six oclock.This melon is about the biggest in the farmThe children quarrel about the foodIs Peter anywhere about?He is honest about it

ABOVE

He is above cheatingThe price of this car is above ten thousand dollarsSara lives on the floor above PeterThe above examples

ACROSSPlease go across the roadPeter mother came across him at the mollThe horse is trying to go across the riverLorna lives across the road

AFTERI have had one trouble after another


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He came after dinerThe boy was called after his grand fatherHe is after somethingCharles will go after lunchBrenda is sick; look after her

I will go home after the gameShe finished her home work after all

AGAINTSIts no use running your head against a stone wallI do it against my willWe vote against staying lateSmoking in the room is against the lawI have warned you against this danger

AHEAD

Tom is ahead of CarlLorna will get ahead in her English classPlease drive with care. There is danger ahead on the cornerWhen you ride your bike, look ahead to see where you are goingHe drove the car full speed ahead

ALONGYou walk along the roadFrancis says he can get along with youThere are many houses all along the road sideHe knew it all alongThe launch is along -side

AROUNDThey are always hanging around the streets cornerHe likes to travel around the countryI wrap the towel around my waist

ATThere are many ways to use the preposition at-(Place): He is at home now

(Time). He came on Saturday at 4 oclock in the after noon.(Verbs of motion). We arrived at Victoria station.(Verbs of emotion) He was amused at me

I am at work The teacher is at schoolWe come at once He will start at once playing basket ball.The bank will lend money at any rateThe oranges were sold at fifty pesos each.These apples are soled at one thousand pesos each

OTHER IMPORTANT PREPOSITIONSThere are many other prepositions used in English:


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Away, back, before, behind, below, between, beyond, by, down, except,for, forth, from, in, into, near, of, off, on, opposite, out, over, per, round,through, to, together, towards, under, up, with, without, etc.All the above words are preposition, and are frequently used in English.

VII. - THE CONJUNCTION

A conjunction is a word that joins words or sentences together.Conjunctions are words which join together two or more similar parts of speech,or two or more phrases or clauses.

Here are some examples:Joining similar parts of speech;

I will eat fruit orfish orbread.

Joining phrases:

He laughed and he danced and he sang.

There are two kinds of conjunctions:

1. Coordinating conjunctions, which join together equivalent parts ofspeech, phrases, or clauses, as in the above examples. The coordinatingconjunctions can join sentences by replacing full stops, question marksand exclamation marks. The main coordinating conjunctions are:

And, but, or, either, neither, for, yet, moreover.

2. Subordinating conjunctions, which introduce a clause of lessimportance than the main clause. Common subordinating conjunctionsare:

If, unless, as, because, since, although, after, before, except,that, though, toll, until, while, whether, than, as well as, assoon as, (etc), seeing that, in order that, so as, and yet.

ExamplesI shall speak the truth, though the heavens fall.As you are here, we may as well discuss our plans.This is the worst accident that has happened since the railway

was constructed.I will do the work ifI have time.He said that he could go

3. Some conjunctions are used in pairs and are known as correlativeconjunctions.

Money can be both a blessing andaccurse.We must choose eitherbus ortaxi to go home.As the twig bends, so the tree grows.Not onlyare they heavy butthey are also bulky.

Whetherthey leave orstay, the result will be the same.


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VII. - INTERJECTIONS

The interjection is used to express some sudden feeling, but does not enter intothe construction of the sentence. These are words which are thrown in toexpress a feeling or an attitude but which do not form an essential part of the

grammatical structure of the sentence. The most usual interjections orexclamations are; O! Oh! Ah! What! Well done! Dear me! Good heavens!Wow! Sh! Bravo! Ha! Hush! Hooray! Hurrah!Etc,Please note the exclamation mark after the interjections.

SENTENCES

Now that the parts of speech have been specified above, now we can think

about forming sentences and to learn more in grammar.

When we want to express our thoughts we use a group of words. A group ofwords that makes complete sense is a sentence.A sentence is a group of words that makes complete sense. It must contain afinite verb. It is used for three purposes: To make a statement, to make aquestion, and to express a wish or command.

Statement: The drug pusher was arrested while drinking in the bar.John can speak French.The boy will do the work.

That is Marys bicycle.

Question: Is your taxi discomposed?Is that Marys bicycle?Can John speak French?Will the boy do the work?Have you had your lesson?

Command: Catch that man!Be quiet!Please come hereCome here please

Jane, answer the questionPlease close the door

Commands, questions and statements can be structured as simple orcompound or complex sentences.

SIMPLE SENTENCES

A simple sentence has just one finite ver. A finite verb is a verb that has a

subject.Catch that man. (You catch that man.)


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The drug pusher was arrested while drinking in the bar.A long sequence of simple sentences would be very monotonous but if they areused sensitively they can be very effective.

ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES

To analyze a sentence is to break it up into its separate parts and to show howthose parts are related to one another.

Every sentence is made up of two parts.(1) What we speak about.(2) What we say about it.

What we speak about is the SUBJECT.. The word or group of words that wespeak about in a sentence is called the subject. The subject is the doerof the action.

What we say about it is the Subject is the PREDICATE. The predicate of asentence is the word or group of words that tells us something about thesubject.

Birds flyIn this sentence we speak about birds, and, therefore, birds is the SUBJECT.

We say they fly, therefore, fly is the PREDICATE.

The SUBJECT consists ofNAMING WORD.The PREDICATE consists ofDOING WORDS.

There is generally a noun or a pronoun in the subject.

There is always a verb in the predicate.

TABULAR ANALYSIS

SUBJECT PREDICATE

Birds Fly

Some beautiful birds fly in and out of our barn

SUBJECT PREDICATE

Some beautiful birds Fly in and out of our barn


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The farmers son is a very big boy.

SUBJECT PREDICATE

The farmers son Is very big

Note. When there are more nouns than one in a sentence, we must be perfectlyclear which noun is the subject.

COMPOUND SENTENCES

Two or more simple sentences joined by coordinating conjunctions form acompound sentence.If a sentence contains two or more principal clauses, it is called a compound

sentence

A sentence that is made of two or more simple sentences joined by a

conjunction, or conjunctions, is called a compound sentence.Examples:

The boy opened the doorand walked into the roomJohn works hard but Richard is lazyShall I write to him orwill you telephone?John went to the bakers shop for a loaf and Ellen helped her mother inthe house but Margaret sat listening to the radio.

Each of the sentences in a compound sentence makes complete sense by itself, but we dont always repeat the subject of the first sentence.For example; the boy or he is left out of the second part in the sentence:

The boy opened the door and walked in the room.

The sentences in a compound sentence are all of the same importance. The joined sentences of a compound sentence are sometimes calledcoordinating clauses. The coordinated clauses of a compound sentencecould stand by themselves (sometime with the subject supplied).

The boy opened the door. He walked into the room.

Exercises (to do home works)

RULES

Rule 1.- A verb must be of the same Person and Number as itsNominative.

The man sings. I am. She is. We are.


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EXERCISECorrect the following:

The hills was covered with snow

We was in the garden at the time.

Some streets is very dark

A man with his dog were at the door. There is five books here, not four

There were a man here asking for you.

Rule 2.- Two or more Singular Nominatives connected by And, require averb in plural. Example: James and Mary often sing together.

EXERCISECorrect the Following sentences

The Captain and the mate was washed overboard. You and he was in the same class.

These men and I am going to the meeting.

The man and his wife was taking a walk.

Rule 3. - Two or more Singular Nominatives connected by OR or NORrequire a verb in singular.

Note.- If the nominatives differ in person, then the verb agrees with thenearest one.

If one Nominative is plural, then the verb is plural.

Exercise

Correct the following sentences:

Either my brother or I has regularly visited him.

The King or his collaborators has betrayed the people.

Either Robert or William have taken it.

Neither the Captain nor the crew was saved.

Either George or the gardener have pulled the flowers.

Each, every, either, neither, everyone, every body, nobody, no one, take asingular verb.Example.- Every body loves a sailor

No one tells me the truth.

Rule 4.- The verb To Be require same case after it as it has before.Example. It was she who was to blame.

Correct the following:

It was him you saw at the window. You new quite well it was me


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Whether was it her or her sister who sang?

If I were him I would not reply.

I believe it was her that caused the trouble.

Do you know whom I was broke the jug?

Rule 5.- The Past Participle is used after the verbs, Have and Be.

ExerciseCorrect the following:

She has tore her new book

He has went away an hour ago

They have did it again

The pipe were froze last week

You should have came sooner

He has drank all the milk

RULE 6.- Two negatives must not be used to express the same thing.Example: I do not want no more tea, The correct way should be: I do notwant any more tea.

EXERCISECorrect the following:-

She could not speak no louder

We have never seen none of them since.

The hens have not had no more meat today.

After the accident he couldnt remember nothing.

We never saw no food for two days.

.

WORD BUILDINGA word in its simplest form is called a ROOT orPRIMARY WORD, as black,board, saw, dust, bed, room.Now if we combine two of those primary words we get a COMPOUND WORD,blackboard, sawdust, and bedroom.

NounsEXERCISEa. - Form compound Nouns from the following words:-

House, wives, foot, ball, table, cloth, life, belt, door, tomb, out, boot,black, stone, gentle, grand, man, mother, father, water, maid, shed, song,school, servant, bird, master, milk, motor, pick, tooth, cart, cup, pot, tea,egg, light, post, sky, lamp, yard, time, church, piece, car.

b. - Make sentences using these compounds.Give some additional examples.

Adjectives


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Adjectives may be formed by combining two words:Example:.- Lion-hearted, everlasting.

EXERCISE:Form compound Adjectives from the following words:

Head, world, in, strong, wide, land, hot, lasting, purse, white, ever, proud,making, health, money, skill, giving, fashioned, full, blue, right, red,spectacled, well, up, ill, old, deserved, hill.

Make sentences using these compounds.Give additional examples.

VerbsForm compound Verbs from the following words:-

Take, full, flow, over, fill, wit, out, draw, strip, hold, under, with, bid, say,up, mine, for, gain, run, wash, safe, white, guard, stand.

Make sentences using these compounds.Give additional examples.

FORMATION OF NOUNS, ADJECTIVES AND VERBS FROMEACH OTHER,

Words are formed from each other in three ways:-1. - By a CHANGE IN THE WORD ITSELF, as grieve, grief.2. - BY A PREFEX, as come, income.

3. - BY a SUFFIX, as wise, wisdom.Note :- Prefix is a syllable placed before a word.

Suffix is a syllable placed aftera word.

NOUNS FORMED FROM NOUNS1. - By a change in the word

NOUN NOUN

Arc arch

Bank benchDale dell

2. - By a PrefixNOUN NOUNCycle bi-cycleRest un-restJustice in-justiceNoon after-noon

3. - By a Suffix.

NOUN NOUN


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EXRECISEForm Nouns from the following Verbs:- Feed, sail, explain, judge, excel, repent,study, attend, preside, serve, abound, amuse, depart, agree, rebel, conquer,manage, beg, occupy. Oppress, invent, inspect, create, prove, move, let, sing,

come, act.

- Make sentences containing these new nouns.

ADJECTIVES FORMED FROM NOUNS1. - By a change in the word.

NOUN ADJECTIVE NOUN ADJECTIVEHeat hot pride proud

2.- By a prefix.NOUN ADJECTIVEDoor out- door

3.- By a suffix.NOUN ADJECTIVE NOUN ADJECTIVEVoice voice-less gold gold- denPeril perilous skill skillfulWealth wealthy autumn autumn-al

EXERCISEForm Adjectives from the following Nouns:- Home, victory, joy, mountain,people, anxiety, glory, fool, horror, ocean, guilt, toil, affection, courage, single,circle, splendor, majesty, honour, wool, wool, poet, health, war, fate, leather,nation, voice.

Make sentences containing the new formed adjectives.

ADJECTIVES FORMED FROM ADJECTIVES

1.- By a prefix.ADJECTIVE ADJECTIVE ADJECTIVE ADJECTIVEHappy un- happy secure un- secureAgreeable un- agreeable responsible ir - responsible

2.- By a suffix.ADJECTIVE ADJECTIVEMany mani- fold

EXERCISE


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Make adjectives from the following adjectives:-Capable, legal, glad, ripe, blue, wise, honest, pure, regular, possible, noble,true, agreeable, proper, holy, fair, safe, passable, religious.

b. - Make sentences containing the new formed adjectives.

ADJECTIVES FORMED FROM VERBS

By a suffix

VERB ADJECTIVE

Forget forget-fullTire tire-some

EXERCISEa) Form adjectives from the following verbs:- Read, allow, eat, move,

meddle, elect.b) Ma sentences containing the new formed adjectives.

VERBS FORMED FROM NOUNS

In forming verbs from nouns, there are three ways to form verbs.

1.) By a change in the word.NOUN VERBGlass glazeDrop dripCloth clotheKnot knit

2.) By a Prefix.NOUN VERBRoll en-rollFrost de-frost

3.-) By a SuffixNOUN VERBLength length-enMagnet magnet-ise

EXERCISE

a) Form Verbs from the following Nouns:- frost, life, gold, knee, game, roll,head, blood, knot, strength, danger, camp, prison.


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b) Make sentences containing the new formed verbs from noun.

VERBS FORMED FROM ADJECTIVES

Verbs can be formed from adjectives in the following ways:

1.- By a change in the word.ADJECTIVE VERBFull fillHale heal

2.- By a prefix.ADJECTIVE VERBFine re-fineAble enableDim be-dim

Large en-large3.- By a suffix

ADJECTIVE VERBSimple simplifyClear clarifyDark darkenCivil civilize

EXERCISEa) Form Verbs from the following adjectives:- pure, light, dark, calm, large,

numb, fine, full, clear, fertile, simple, just, rich, dim, feeble.

b) Make sentences with the new verbs formed from adjectives.

VERBS FORMED FROM VERBSVerbs can be formed from verbs, by three ways:

1.- By a change in the word.

VERB VERBSit setWake watch

2.- By a PrefixVERB VERBBid for-bidSpell misspell

3. - By a SuffixVERB VERB

Beat batter Shove shuffle


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EXERCISEa) Form Verbs from the following Verbs:- Rise, tie, do, believe, chat, lead,

behave, sprinkle, fallb) Make sentences containing the new formed verbs.

Prepared by:

Hidalgo May Garcia

Tutor

Bibliography

This document has been prepared consulting several text books, asfollowed:

The Students English CompanionG. Hielden HugesCollins London and Glasgow

The students CompanionCaribbean EditionWilfred D. Best

Longman CaribbeanPort of Spain Trinidad & Tobago

Brighter Grammar Book 1, 2 and 3New edition,C.E. EckersleyLongman Editors. U.K.

A Guide To better GrammarAngela Burt

Stanley Thornes (Publishers) ltd.Lechamton, U.K.

The Basic GrammarRobert GibsonRobert Gibson & Sons, Glasgow, Ltd. Scotland, U.K.

Good EnglishBy George W. Davidson

Chambers, Edinburgh, New York


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