-
Chapter 10 Summary
Foundations of Organizational Design
#1# Designing Organizational Structure
Organizing : arranging and structuring work to accomplish
organizational goals
Organizational structure : formal arrangement of jobs within an
organization
Organizational chart : the visual representation of an
organizations structure
Organizational design : creating or changing an organizations
structure
6 key elements in Organizational Design
a. Work specialization
Dividing work activities into separate job tasks
It helps employees to be more efficient
b. Departmentalization
The basis of which jobs are grouped together
The five common forms of departmentalization
1. Functional departmentalization
2. Geographical departmentalization
3. Product departmentalization
4. Process departmentalization
5. Customer departmentalization
Cross functional team : a work team composed of individuals from
various functional
specialties
c. Chain of command
The line of authority extending from upper organizational levels
to the lowest levels, which
clarifies who reports to whom
Authority : the rights inherent in a managerial position to tell
people what to do and to
expect them to do it
Type of Authority :
1. Line Authority : authority that entitles a manager to direct
the work of an employee
2. StaffAuthority : positions with some authority have been
created to support, assist,
and advise those holding the authority
Responsibility - the obligation or expectation to perform.
Unity of Command - the concept that a person should have one
boss and should report only
to that person
d. Span of control
The number of employees who can be effectively and efficiently
supervised by a manager.
-
e. Centralization and decentralization
Centralization - the degree to which decision making is
concentrated at upper levels in the
organization.
This is common in organizations in which top managers make all
the decisions and lower-
level employees simply carry out those orders.
Decentralization - when an organization relegates decision
making to managers who are
closest to the action.
Employee Empowerment : increasing the decision-making authority
(power) of employees
f. Formalization
Formalization - the degree to which jobs within the organization
are standardized and the
extent to which employee behavior is guided by rules and
procedures.
Highly formalized jobs offer little discretion over what is to
be done.
Low formalization means fewer constraints on how employees do
their work.
#2# Mechanistic & Organic Organization
Mechanistic organization : the natural result of combining the
six elements of structure
Organic organization : a highly adaptive reform that is as loose
and flexible as the mechanistic organization is
rigid and stable
#3# Contingency Factors Affecting Structural Coice
Structural decisions are influenced by:
1. Overall strategy of the organization
2. Size of the organization
3. Technology use employed by the organization
4. Degree of environmental uncertainty
Strategy Frameworks:
1. Innovation : pursuing competitive advantage through
meaningful and unique innovations favors an
organic structuring
-
2. Cost minimization : focusing on tightly controlling costs
requires a mechanistic structure for the
organization
Strategy and Structure
Achievement of strategic goals is facilitated by changes in
organizational structure that accommodate and
support change.
Size and Structure
As an organization grows larger, its structure tends to change
from organic to mechanistic with increased
specialization, departmentalization, centralization, and
rules/regulations.
Technology and Structure
Organizations adapt their structures to their technology.
Woodwards classification of firms based on the complexity of the
technology employed:
1. Unit production of single units or small batches
2. Mass production of large batches of output
3. Process production in continuous process of outputs
Routine technology = mechanistic organizations
Non-routine technology = organic organizations
Environmental Uncertainty and Structure
Mechanistic organizational structures tend to be most effective
in stable and simple environments.
The flexibility of organic organizational structures is better
suited for dynamic and complex
environments.
#4# Traditional Organizational Design
Simple structure
Low departmentalization, wide spans of control, centralized
authority, little formalization
Functional structure
Departmentalization by function
Operations, finance, marketing, human resources, and product
research and development
Divisional structure
Composed of separate business units or divisions with limited
autonomy under the
coordination and control of the parent corporation
-
Chapter 11 Summary
Contemporary Organizational Design #1# Contemporary
Organizational Design
A. Team Structure
Team Structure - an organizational structure in which the entire
organization is made up of work teams
B. Matrix & Project Structure
Matrix Structure - an organizational structure that assigns
specialists from different functional departments
to work on one or more projects
Project Structure - an organizational structure in which
employees continuously work on projects
C. Boundaryless Organization
Boundaryless Organization - an organization whose design is not
defined by, or limited to, the horizontal,
vertical, or external boundaries imposed by a predefined
structure
What are the boundaries?
1. External : the boundaries that separate the organization from
its customers, suppliers, and
stakeholders
2. Internal : horizontal ones imposed by work specialization,
and departmentalization ; vertical ones
that separate employees into organizational levels and
hierarchies
To minimize or eliminate these boundaries, managers might use
:
1. Virtual Organization - an organization that consists of a
small core of full-time employees and
outside specialists temporarily hired as needed to work on
projects.
2. Network Organization - an organization that uses its own
employees to do some work activities and
networks of outside suppliers to provide other needed product
components or work processes.
D. Learning Organization
Learning Organization - an organization that has developed the
capacity to continuously learn, adapt, and
change
#2# Organizing for Collaboration
A. Internal Collaboration
Cross-functional team - a work team composed of individuals from
various functional specialties.
Task force (or ad hoc committee) - a temporary committee or team
formed to tackle a specific short-term
problem affecting several departments.
Communities of practice - groups of people who share a concern,
a set of problems, or a passion about a
topic, and who deepen their knowledge and expertise in that area
by interacting on an ongoing basis.
-
B. External Collaboration
Open innovation - opening up the search for new ideas beyond the
organizations boundaries and allowing
innovations to easily transfer inward and outward.
Strategic partnerships - collaborative relationships between two
or more organizations in which they
combine their resources and capabilities for some business
purpose.
#3# Flexible Work Arrangements
Telecommuting - a work arrangement in which employees work at
home and are linked to the workplace by
computer.
Compressed workweek - a workweek where employees work longer
hours per day but fewer days per week
Flextime (or flexible work hours) - a scheduling system in which
employees are required to work a specific
number of hours a week but are free to vary those hours within
certain limits.
Job sharing - the practice of having two or more people split a
full-time job.
#4# Contingent Workforce
Contingent workers - temporary, freelance, or contract workers
whose employment is contingent upon
demand for their services.
-
Chapter 12 Summary
Human Resource Management #1# The Human Resource Management
Process
A. Why is HRM Important
As a significant source of competitive advantage
People-oriented HR creates superior shareholder value
As an important strategic tool
Achieve competitive success through people by treating employees
as partners
To improve organizational performance
High performance work practices lead to both high individual and
high organizational performance
High-performance work practices - work practices that lead to
both high individual and high organizational
performance
B. External Factors That Affect the HRM process
Economys Effect
Labor union - an organization that represents workers and seeks
to protect their interests through
collective bargaining
Legal Environment
Affirmative Action - organizational programs that enhance the
status of members of protected
groups
Work councils - groups of nominated or elected employees who
must be consulted when
management makes decisions involving personnel
Board representatives - employees who sit on a companys board of
directors and represent the
interests of the firms employees
Demographic Trends
#2# Identifying and Selecting Competent Employees
Human resource planning - ensuring that the organization has the
right number and kinds of capable people
in the right places and at the right times
HR planning consists of 2 steps :
1. Current assessment
Job analysis - an assessment that defines jobs and the behaviors
necessary to perform them
Job description - a written statement that describes a job
Job specification - a written statement of the minimum
qualifications that a person must
possess to perform a given job successfully
2. Meeting future HR needs
Determined by organizations mission, goals, and strategies
-
Recruitment & Decruitment
Recruitment - locating, identifying, and attracting capable
applicants
Decruitment - reducing an organizations workforce
Selection
Selection - screening job applicants to ensure that the most
appropriate candidates are hired
Type of Selection Tools :
1. Application form
2. Written tests
3. Performance-simulation tests
4. Interviews
5. Background investigations
6. Physical examination
Realistic Job Preview (RJP) - a preview of a job that provides
both positive and negative information
about the job and the company
#3# Providing Employees With Needed Skills & Knowledge
Orientation - introducing a new employee to his or her job and
the organization
Training : profession, mandatory, management training
#4# Retaining Competent, High Performing Employees
Performance management system - establishes performance
standards that are used to evaluate employee
performance
Compensation & Benefits
Skill-based pay - a pay system that rewards employees for the
job skills they can demonstrate
Variable pay - a pay system in which an individuals compensation
is contingent on performance
-
#5# Contemporary Issues in HRM
Downsizing - the planned elimination of jobs in an
organization
Sexual harassment - any unwanted action or activity of a sexual
nature that explicitly or implicitly affects an
individuals employment, performance, or work environment
Family-friendly benefits - benefits that accommodate employees
needs for worklife balance
Chapter 13 Summary
Groups & Teams
#1# Groups & Group Development
Group - two or more interacting and interdependent individuals
who come together to achieve specific goals.
Formal groups
Work groups defined by the organizations structure that have
designated work assignments and
tasks
Informal groups
Groups that are independently formed to meet the social needs of
their members
Stages of Group Development :
1. Forming stage - the first stage of group development in which
people join the group and then define
the groups purpose, structure, and leadership
2. Storming stage - the second stage of group development,
characterized by intragroup conflict
3. Norming stage - the third stage of group development,
characterized by close relationships and
cohesiveness.
-
4. Performing stage - the fourth stage of group development when
the group is fully functional and
works on group task.
5. Adjourning - the final stage of group development for
temporary groups during which group
members are concerned with wrapping up activities rather than
task performance.
#2# Work Group Performance & Satisfaction
A. Group Structure
Role - behavior patterns expected of someone occupying a given
position in a social unit.
Norms - standards or expectations that are accepted and shared
by a groups members.
Groupthink - when a group exerts extensive pressure on an
individual to align his or her opinion with that of
others
Status - a prestige grading, position, or rank within a
group.
Social loafing - the tendency for individuals to expend less
effort when working collectively than when
working individually.
Group cohesiveness - the degree to which group members are
attracted to one another and share the
groups goals.
Conflict Management
Conflict - perceived incompatible differences that result in
interference or opposition.
Traditional view of conflict - the view that all conflict is bad
and must be avoided.
Human relations view of conflict - the view that conflict is a
natural and inevitable outcome in any
group
Interactionist view of conflict - the view that some conflict is
necessary for a group to perform
effectively.
Functional conflicts - conflicts that support a groups goals and
improve its performance.
Dysfunctional conflicts - conflicts that prevent a group from
achieving its goals.
Task conflict - conflicts over content and goals of the
work.
-
Relationship conflict - conflict based on interpersonal
relationships.
Process conflict - conflict over how work gets done.
#3# Turning Groups Into Effective Teams
Work teams - groups whose members work intensely on a specific,
common goal using their positive synergy,
individual and mutual accountability, and complementary
skills.Multidomestic corporation : one type of MNC
which decentralizes management and other decisions to the local
country (reflects polycentric attitude). E.g.
Nestl
Problem-solving team - a team from the same department or
functional area thats involved in efforts to
improve work activities or to solve specific problems.
Self-managed work team - a type of work team that operates
without a manager and is responsible for a
complete work process or segment.
Cross-functional team - a work team composed of individuals from
various functional specialties.
Virtual team - a type of work team that uses technology to link
physically dispersed members in order to
achieve a common goal
Advantages In Using Teams
Teams outperform individuals.
Teams provide a way to better use employee talents.
Teams are more flexible and responsive.
Teams can be quickly assembled, deployed,
refocused, and disbanded.
Characteristics of Effective Teams
-
Have a clear understanding of their goals
Have competent members with relevant technical and interpersonal
skills
Exhibit high mutual trust in the character and integrity of
their members
Are unified in their commitment to team goals
Have good communication systems
Possess effective negotiating skills
Have appropriate leadership
Have both internally and externally supportive environments
#4# Current Challenges In Managing Teams
Social Network
The patterns of informal connections among individuals within
groups.
The Importance of Social Networks
1. Relationships can help or hinder team effectiveness.
2. Relationships improve team goal attainment and increase
member commitment to the team.
Chapter 14 Summary
Foundations Of Individual Behavior
#1# Focus & Goals Of Organizational Behavior
Behavior - the actions of people.
Organizational behavior - the study of the actions of people at
work.
Focus Of Organizational Behavior :
1. Individual behavior : attitudes, personality, etc
2. Group behavior : norms, roles, team buildings, leadership,
and conflict
-
3. Organizational aspects : structure, culture, HR policies and
practices
Goals Of Organizational Behavior
The goals of OB are to explain, predict, and influence
behavior
Employee productivity - a performance measure of both efficiency
and effectiveness.
Absenteeism - the failure to show up for work.
Turnover - the voluntary and involuntary permanent withdrawal
from an organization.
Organizational Citizenship Behavior (OCB) - discretionary
behavior that is not part of an employees
formal job requirements, but which promotes the effective
functioning of the organization.
Job satisfaction - an employees general attitude toward his or
her job.
Workplace misbehavior - any intentional employee behavior that
is potentially damaging to the
organization or to individuals within the organization.
#2# Attitudes & Job Performance
Attitudes - evaluative statements, either favorable or
unfavorable, concerning objects, people, or events.
There are 3 types made up attitudes :
Cognitive component - that part of an attitude thats made up of
the beliefs, opinions, knowledge, or
information held by a person.
Affective component - that part of an attitude thats the
emotional or feeling part.
Behavioral component - that part of an attitude that refers to
an intention to behave in a certain way
toward someone or something.
A. Job Satisfaction
how satisfied are the employees
B. Job Involvement & Organizational Commitment
Job involvement - the degree to which an employee identifies
with his or her job, actively participates in it,
and considers his or her job performance to be important to
self-worth.
-
Organizational commitment - the degree to which an employee
identifies with a particular organization and
its goals and wishes to maintain membership in that
organization.
Perceived organizational support - employees general belief that
their organization values their
contribution and cares about their well-being.
C. Employee Engagement
Employee engagement - when employees are connected to, satisfied
with, and enthusiastic about their jobs.
D. Attitudes & Consistency
how employees perform their attitudes consistently
E. Cognitive Dissonance Theory
Cognitive dissonance - any incompatibility or inconsistency
between attitudes or between behavior and
attitudes.
F. Attitudes Survey
Attitude surveys - surveys that elicit responses from employees
through questions about how they feel about
their jobs, work groups, supervisors, or the organization.
#3# Personality
Personality - the unique combination of emotional, thought, and
behavioral patterns that affect how a
person reacts to situations and interacts with others.
MBTI popular test of knowing personality
Big Five Model - personality trait model that includes
extraversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness,
emotional stability, and openness to experience.
Additional Personality Insights
Locus of control : the degree of which people believe that they
are masters of their own fate
Machiavellianism - a measure of the degree to which people are
pragmatic, maintain emotional
distance, and believe that ends justify means.
Self-esteem - an individuals degree of like or dislike for
him/herself.
Self-monitoring - a personality trait that measures the ability
to adjust behavior to external
situational factors.
Risk-taking
Other personality traits :
Proactive personality - a trait belonging to people who identify
opportunities, show initiative, take
action, and persevere until meaningful change occurs.
Resilience - an individuals ability to overcome challenges and
turn them into opportunities.
Emotions & EI
Emotions - intense feelings that are directed at someone or
something.
Emotional Intelligence (EI) - the ability to notice and to
manage emotional cues and information.
-
#4# Perception
Perception - a process by which we give meaning to our
environment by organizing and interpreting sensory
impressions.
Attribution Theory - how the actions of individuals are
perceived by others depends on what meaning
(causation) we attribute to a given behavior.
Internally caused behavior: under the individuals control
Externally caused behavior: due to outside factors
Fundamental attribution error - the tendency to underestimate
the influence of external factors and
to overestimate the influence of internal or personal
factors.
Self-serving bias - the tendency of individuals to attribute
their successes to internal factors while
blaming personal failures on external factors.
Shortcuts Used In Judging Others
Assumed similarity - the assumption that others are like
oneself.
Stereotyping - judging a person on the basis of ones perception
of a group to which he or she
belongs.
Halo effect - a general impression of an individual based on a
single characteristic.
#5# Learning
Learning - any relatively permanent change in behavior that
occurs as a result of experience.
Almost all complex behavior is learned.
Learning is a continuous, life-long process.
The principles of learning can be used to shape behavior.
Theories of learning:
Operant conditioning
Social learning
Operant conditioning - a theory of learning that says behavior
is a function of its consequences
Operant behavior: voluntary or learned behaviors
Behaviors are learned by making rewards contingent to
behaviors.
Behavior that is rewarded (positively reinforced) is likely to
be repeated.
Behavior that is punished or ignored is less likely to be
repeated.
Social learning theory - a theory of learning that says people
can learn through observation and direct
experience.
Attentional: the attractiveness or similarity of the model
Retention: how well the model can be recalled
Motor reproduction: the reproducibility of the models
actions
Reinforcement: the rewards associated with learning the model
behavior
-
Shaping behavior - the process of guiding learning in graduated
steps using reinforcement or lack of
reinforcement.
Shaping methods:
Positive reinforcement: rewarding desired behaviors
Negative reinforcement: removing an unpleasant consequence once
the desired behavior is
exhibited
Punishment: penalizing an undesired behavior
Extinction: eliminating a reinforcement for an undesired
behavior
#6# Contemporary Issues
Managing Generational Differences in the Workplace
Gen Y: individuals born after 1978
Bring new attitudes to the workplace that reflect wide arrays of
experiences and
opportunities
Want to work, but dont want work to be their life
Challenge the status quo
Have grown up with technology
Chapter 15 Communication What is Communication?
Communication - the transfer and understanding of meaning.
Transfer means the message was received in a form that can be
interpreted by the receiver. Understanding the message is not the
same as the receiver agreeing with the message.
Interpersonal Communication - communication between two or more
people. Organizational Communication - all the patterns, networks,
and systems of communications within an
organization. Functions of Communication:
Control Formal and informal communications act to control
individuals behaviors in organizations.
Motivation Communications clarify for employees what is to be
done, how well they have done it, and what can be done to improve
performance.
Emotional Expression Social interaction in the form of work
group communications provides a way for employees to express
themselves.
Information Individuals and work groups need information to make
decisions or to do their work. Interpersonal Communication
Communication process - the seven elements involved in
transferring meaning from one person to another. Noise - any
disturbances that interfere with the transmission, receipt, or
feedback of a message. Message - a purpose to be conveyed.
-
Encoding - converting a message into symbols. Channel - the
medium a message travels along. Decoding - retranslating a senders
message.
Nonverbal Communication : communication transmitted without
words.
Body language - gestures, facial configurations, and other body
movements that convey meaning. Verbal intonation - an emphasis
given to words or phrases that conveys meaning.
Barriers to Communication
Filtering - the deliberate manipulation of information to make
it appear more favorable to the receiver. Information overload -
occurs when information exceeds our processing capacity. Jargon -
specialized terminology or technical language that members of a
group use to communicate among
themselves.
Active listening - listening for full meaning without making
premature judgments or interpretations. Formal communication -
communication that takes place within prescribed organizational
work arrangements. Informal communication - communication that is
not defined by the organizations structural hierarchy. Direction of
Communication
Downward communication - communication that flows downward from
a manager to employees. Upward communication - communication that
flows upward from employees to managers. Lateral communication -
communication that takes place among any employees on the same
organizational
level. Diagonal communication - communication that cuts across
work areas and organizational levels.
Organizational Communication Networks
Communication Networks - the variety of patterns of vertical and
horizontal flows of organizational communication.
Grapevine - the informal organizational communication network.
Workplace Design and Communication
-
Open workplaces - workplaces with few physical barriers and
enclosures. Ethical communication - communication that includes all
relevant information, is true in every sense, and is
not deceptive in any way. Current Communication Issues
Managing Communication in an Internet World Legal and security
issues Inappropriate use of company e-mail and instant messaging
Loss of confidential and proprietary information due to inadvertent
or deliberate dissemination or to hackers Lack of personal
interaction Being connected is not the same as face-to-face contact
Difficulties occur in achieving understanding and collaboration in
virtual environments
Communication and Customer Service
Communicating Effectively with Customers Recognize the three
components of the customer service delivery process: The customer
The service organization The service provider Develop a strong
service culture focused on the personalization of service to each
customer. Listen and respond to the customer. Provide access to
needed service information.
Chapter 16 Motivation Motivation - the process by which a
persons efforts are energized, directed, and sustained toward
attaining a goal. Early Theories of Motivation
Maslows Hierarchy of Needs Hierarchy of needs theory - Maslows
theory that human needs physiological, safety, social, esteem, and
self-actualization form a sort of hierarchy. Physiological needs -
a persons needs for food, drink, shelter, sexual satisfaction, and
other physical needs. Safety needs - a persons needs for security
and protection from physical and emotional harm. Social needs - a
persons needs for affection, belongingness, acceptance, and
friendship. Esteem needs - a persons needs for internal factors
(e.g., self-respect, autonomy, and achievement) and external
factors (such as status, recognition, and attention).
Self-actualization needs - a persons need to become what he or she
is capable of becoming.
McGregors Theories X and Y Theory X - the assumption that
employees dislike work, are lazy, avoid responsibility, and must be
coerced to perform. Theory Y - the assumption that employees are
creative, enjoy work, seek responsibility, and can exercise
self-direction.
Herzbergs Two-Factor Theory
-
Two-factor theory (motivation-hygiene theory) - the motivation
theory that claims that intrinsic factors are related to job
satisfaction and motivation, whereas extrinsic factors are
associated with job dissatisfaction. Hygiene factors - factors that
eliminate job dissatisfaction, but dont motivate. Motivators -
factors that increase job satisfaction and motivation.
McClellands Three Needs Theory
Three-needs theory - the motivation theory that sites three
acquired (non-innate) needs (achievement, power, and affiliation)
as major motives in work.
Need for achievement (nAch) - the drive to succeed and excel in
relation to a set of standards. Need for power (nPow) - the need to
make others behave in a way that they would not have behaved
otherwise. Need for affiliation (nAff) - the desire for friendly
and close interpersonal relationships.
Contemporary Theories of Motivation
Goal-setting theory - the proposition that specific goals
increase performance and that difficult goals, when accepted,
result in higher performance than do easy goals.
Self-efficacy - an individuals belief that he or she is capable
of performing a task. Reinforcement theory - the theory that
behavior is a function of its consequences. Reinforcers -
consequences immediately following a behavior which increase the
probability that the
behavior will be repeated. Designing Motivating Jobs
Job design - the way tasks are combined to form complete jobs.
Job scope - the number of different tasks required in a job and the
frequency with which those tasks are
repeated. Job enlargement - the horizontal expansion of a job
that occurs as a result of increasing job scope. Job enrichment -
the vertical expansion of a job that occurs as a result of
additional planning and evaluation
of responsibilities. Job depth - the degree of control employees
have over their work. Job characteristics model (JCM) - a framework
for analyzing and designing jobs that identifies five primary
core job dimensions, their interrelationships, and their impact
on outcomes. Five Core Job Dimensions
1. Skill variety - the degree to which a job requires a variety
of activities so that an employee can use a number of different
skills and talents.
2. Task identity - the degree to which a job requires completion
of a whole and identifiable piece of work. 3. Task significance -
the degree to which a job has a substantial impact on the lives or
work of other people. 4. Autonomy - the degree to which a job
provides substantial freedom, independence, and discretion to
the
individual in scheduling work and determining the procedures to
be used in carrying it out. 5. Feedback - the degree to which
carrying out work activities required by a job results in the
individuals
reception of direct and clear information about his or her
performance effectiveness.
-
Redesigning Job Design Approaches
Relational perspective of work design - an approach to job
design that focuses on how peoples tasks and jobs are increasingly
based on social relationships.
Proactive perspective of work design - an approach to job design
in which employees take the initiative to change how their work is
performed.
High-involvement work practices - work practices designed to
elicit greater input or involvement from workers.
Equity Theory
Equity theory - the theory that an employee compares his or her
jobs input-outcome ratio with that of relevant others and then
corrects any inequity.
Referents - the persons, systems, or selves against which
individuals compare themselves to assess equity. Distributive
justice - perceived fairness of the amount and allocation of
rewards among individuals.
Expectancy theory - the theory that an individual tends to act
in a certain way based on the expectation that the act will be
followed by a given outcome and on the attractiveness of that
outcome to the individual.
Expectancy Relationships o Expectancy (effort-performance
linkage)
The perceived probability that an individuals effort will result
in a certain level of performance.
o Instrumentality The perception that a particular level of
performance will result in attaining a
desired outcome (reward). o Valence
The attractiveness/importance of the performance reward
(outcome) to the individual.
Current Issues in Motivation
Cross-Cultural Challenges
-
o Motivational programs are most applicable in cultures where
individualism and achievement are cultural characteristics.
Uncertainty avoidance of some cultures inverts Maslows needs
hierarchy. The need for achievement (nAch) is lacking in other
cultures.
Collectivist cultures view rewards as entitlements to be
distributed based on individual needs, not individual performance.
Motivating Unique Groups of Workers
1. Motivating a Diverse Workforce o Motivating a diverse
workforce through flexibility:
Men desire more autonomy than do women. Women desire learning
opportunities, flexible work schedules, and good interpersonal
relations. o Compressed workweek
Longer daily hours, but fewer days o Flexible work hours
(flextime)
Specific weekly hours with varying arrival, departure, lunch and
break times around certain core hours during which all employees
must be present
o Job Sharing Two or more people split a full-time job
o Telecommuting Employees work from home using computer
links
2 Motivating Professionals Characteristics of professionals
Strong and long-term commitment to their field of expertise Loyalty
is to their profession, not to the employer Have the need to
regularly update their knowledge Dont define their workweek as 8:00
am to 5:00 pm.
3 Motivating Contingent Workers Opportunity to become a
permanent employee Opportunity for training Equity in compensation
and benefits
4 Motivating Low-Skilled, Minimum-Wage Employees Employee
recognition programs Provision of sincere praise Designing
Appropriate Rewards Programs
Open-book management - a motivational approach in which an
organizations financial statements (the books) are shared with all
employees.
Employee recognition programs - programs based on personal
attention and expression of interest, approval, and appreciation
for a job well done.
Pay-for-performance programs - variable compensation plans that
pay employees on the basis of some performance measure.
Chapter 17
Leadership
Objective 17.1 Define Leadership and Leader
17.1.1
Leader : Someone who can influence others and who has managerial
authority.
Leadership : What leaders do; the process of influencing a group
to achieve goals.
-
Objective 17.2 Compare and Contrasr early theories of
leadership
1. Trait Theories (1920s-1930s) a. Research focused on
identifying personal characteristics that differentiated leaders
from non-leaders
was unsuccessful. b. Later research on the leadership process
identified seven traits associated with successful leadership:
i. Drive, the desire to lead, honesty and integrity,
self-confidence, intelligence, job-relevant knowledge, and
extraversion
2. Behavioral Theories a. University of Iowa Studies (Kurt
Lewin)
Identified three leadership styles: Autocratic style:
centralized authority, low participation Democratic style:
involvement, high participation, feedback Laissez faire style:
hands-off management
Research findings: mixed results - No specific style was
consistently better for producing better performance. - Employees
were more satisfied under a democratic leader than under an
autocratic leader. b. Ohio State Studies
Identified two dimensions of leader behavior: - Initiating
structure: the role of the leader in defining his or her role and
the
roles of group members. - Consideration: the leaders mutual
trust and respect for group members
ideas and feelings.
c. Mixed Result of Ohio State Studies High consideration/high
structure leaders generally, but not always, achieved high scores
on
group task performance and satisfaction. Evidence indicated that
situational factors appeared to strongly influence leadership
effectiveness. d. University of Michigan Studies
Identified two dimensions of leader behavior: Employee oriented:
emphasizing personal relationships Production oriented: emphasizing
task accomplishment
Research findings: Leaders who are employee oriented are
strongly associated with high group productivity and high job
satisfaction.
e. Managerial Grid
Appraises leadership styles using two dimensions: Concern for
people Concern for production
Places managerial styles in five categories: Impoverished
management Task management Middle-of-the-road management
-
Country club management Team management
3. Contingency Theories of Leadership
a. The Fiedler Model Proposes that effective group performance
depends upon the proper match between the leaders style of
interacting with followers and the degree to which the situation
allows the leader to control and influence.
Assumption: o A certain leadership style should be most
effective in different types of situations. o Leaders do not
readily change leadership styles.
Matching the leader to the situation or changing the situation
to make it favorable to the leader is required.
Least-preferred co-worker (LPC) questionnaire o Determines
leadership style by measuring responses to 18 pairs of
contrasting
adjectives High score: a relationship-oriented leadership style
Low score: a task-oriented leadership style
Situational factors in matching leader to the situation:
Leader-member relations Task structure Position power
b. Hersey and Blanchards Situational Leadership Theory (SLT)
Argues that successful leadership is achieved by selecting the
right leadership style which is contingent on the level of the
followers readiness
Acceptance: leadership effectiveness depends on whether
followers accept or reject a leader Readiness: the extent to which
followers have the ability and willingness to accomplish a specific
task
Leaders must relinquish control over and contact with followers
as they become more competent.
Creates four specific leadership styles incorporating Fiedlers
two leadership dimensions: Telling: high task-low relationship
leadership Selling: high task-high relationship leadership
Participating: low task-high relationship leadership Delegating:
low task-low relationship leadership
Four stages of follower readiness: R1: followers are unable and
unwilling R2: followers are unable but willing R3: followers are
able but unwilling R4: followers are able and willing
c. Path Goal Model States that the leaders job is to assist his
or her followers in attaining their goals and to
provide direction or support to ensure that their goals are
compatible with those of the organization
Depending on the situation, leaders assume different leadership
styles at different times: Directive leader Supportive leader
-
Participative leader Achievement oriented leader
4. Contemporary Views of Leadership
a. Transactional Leadership Leaders who guide or motivate their
followers in the direction of established goals by clarifying role
and task requirements.
b. Transformational Leadership Leaders who inspire followers to
transcend their own self-interests for the good of the organization
by clarifying role and task requirements.
c. Charismatic Leadership An enthusiastic, self-confident leader
whose personality and actions influence people to
behave in certain ways. Characteristics of charismatic
leaders:
Have a vision Are able to articulate the vision Are willing to
take risks to achieve the vision Are sensitive to the environment
and follower needs Exhibit behaviors that are out of the
ordinary
d. Visionary Leadership A leader who creates and articulates a
realistic, credible, and attractive vision of the future
that improves upon the present situation. Visionary leaders have
the ability to:
Explain the vision to others Express the vision not just
verbally but through behavior Extend or apply the vision to
different leadership contexts
e. Team Leadership Team Leadership Characteristics:
Having patience to share information Being able to trust others
and to give up authority Understanding when to intervene
Team Leaders Job Managing the teams external boundary
Facilitating the team process
Includes coaching, facilitating, handling disciplinary problems,
reviewing team and individual performance, training, and
communication
17.5 Leadership Issues in The Twenty First Century
a. Managing Power Legitimate power
The power a leader has as a result of his or her position.
Coercive power
The power a leader has to punish or control. Reward power
The power to give positive benefits or rewards. Expert power
The influence a leader can exert as a result of his or her
expertise, skills, or knowledge. Referent power
The power of a leader that arises because of a persons desirable
resources or admired personal traits.
-
b. Developing Trust
Credibility (of a Leader) The assessment of a leaders honesty,
competence, and ability to inspire by his or her followers
Trust The belief of followers (and others) in the integrity,
character, and ability of a leader
Dimensions of trust: integrity, competence, consistency,
loyalty, and openness Is related to increases in job performance,
organizational citizenship behaviors, job satisfaction, and
organization commitment
c. Empowering Employees
Increasing the decision-making discretion of workers such that
teams can make key operating decisions in developing budgets,
scheduling workloads, controlling inventories, and solving quality
problems.
d. Leading Across Cultures
Follower characteristics
Experience, training, professional orientation, or the need for
independence
Job characteristics
Routine, unambiguous, and satisfying jobs
Organization characteristics
Explicit formalized goals, rigid rules and procedures, or
cohesive work groups
CHAPTER 18
Foundations Of Control
Objective 18.1 : Explain the nature and importance of
control
Controlling: the process of monitoring, comparing, and
correcting work performance. The Purpose of Control
To ensure that activities are completed in ways that lead to the
accomplishment of organizational goals.
As the final link in management functions:
Planning Controls let managers know whether their goals and
plans are on target and what future actions to take.
Empowering employees Control systems provide managers with
information and feedback on employee performance.
Protecting the workplace Controls enhance physical security and
help minimize workplace disruptions.
Objective 18.2 : Describe the three steps in the control
process
-
Control process : a three-step process of measuring actual
performance, comparing actual performance
against a standard, and taking managerial action to correct
deviations or inadequate standards. The Process of Control
Measuring actual performance Comparing actual performance
against a standard Taking action to correct deviations or
inadequate standards
Sources of Information (How) Personal observation Statistical
reports Oral reports Written reports
Control Criteria (What)
Employees
Satisfaction
Turnover
Absenteeism
Budgets
Costs
Output
Sales
Taking Managerial Action Immediate corrective action: corrective
action that corrects problems at once in order to get performance
back on track. Basic corrective action: corrective action that
looks at how and why performance deviated before correcting the
source of deviation.
Objective 18.3 : Explain how organizational performance is
measured
Productivity : the amount of goods or services produced divided
by the inputs needed to generate that output.
Organizational effectiveness : a measure of how appropriate
organizational goals are and how well those goals are being
met.
a. Types of Control: Feed forward control : control that takes
place before a work activity is done.
Concurrent control : control that takes place while a work
activity is in progress.
-
Management by walking around : a term used to describe when a
manager is out in the work area interacting directly with
employees.
Feedback control : control that takes place after a work
activity is done.
b. Balanced Scorecard Balanced scorecard : a performance
measurement tool that examines more than just the financial
perspective.
a. Measures a companys performance in four areas: i. Financial
ii. Customer iii. Internal processes iv. People/innovation/growth
assets
c. Information Controls Management information system (MIS) - a
system used to provide management with needed information on a
regular basis.
i. Data : an unorganized collection of raw, unanalyzed facts
(e.g., an unsorted list of customer names).
ii. Information : data that has been analyzed and organized such
that it has value and relevance to managers.
d. Benchmarking of Best Practices Benchmarking : the search for
the best practices among competitors or non-competitors that lead
to their superior performance. Benchmark : the standard of
excellence to measure and compare against.
e. Customers Interactions Service profit chain : the service
sequence from employees to customers to profit. Corporate
governance : the system used to govern a corporation so that the
interests of corporate owners are protected.
Describe tools used to measure organizational
performance Discuss contemporary issues in control