COMPETENCY AND THE 'NEW' MANAGER IN CENTRAL EUROPE.

COMPETENCY AND THE 'NEW' MANAGER IN CENTRAL EUROPE

Dr Monica LeeDirector, Management Teacher Development Centre

Department of Management LearningLancaster University

Introduction

The views I express here are based upon qualitativeresearch conducted whilst working with Central Europeanteachers of Higher Education in a variety of roles, butparticularly as coordinator of the Central EuropeanManagement Teacher Development Programme (CEMTDP),jointly funded by EC: TEMPUS and the Austrian Ministry.The debate, therefore, will take the perspective of therole of the management teacher in creating competentmanagers within the context of Central Europe. Outlinedetails of CEMTDP are given below in order to establishthe basis of the data pool. Further details can be foundin Lee (1992b; 1993b).

This programme involved an international partnership, haslinked more than 45 institutions across Europe, 14nationalities and 130 management academics (many of whomalso held managerial positions in small and medium sizedenterprises). It was designed to help faculty fromUniversities across Central Europe critically evaluate(and re-design if required) their management teachingprovision in the light of a range of different Westernexperiences within an atmosphere of open academicinvestigation, networking and the sharing of experiences.It was based upon the philosophy of action learning andthe majority of resultant projects have focused upon thegeneration of alternative approaches to existingprovision, or the creation of new provision, and rangeacross the full spectrum of management education. Someimmediate results were: the high degree of cross-schoolnetworking; the publication of a series of books ofPolish materials, the first of which contained a varietyof Polish case studies springing directly from theprogramme (Bednarski, 1991); and the early implementation

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of whole- or parts of the projects, and the effects thosewere already having on the respective institutions andtheir staff and students.

In essence this programme adhered to Prolopenko's (1992)assertion that "A fundamental improvement in the qualityof management is the key to a successful transition to amarket economy and to dynamic technological and socialchange." It was designed by change agents (taking theperspective that management education is a form of socialengineering) to create change and develop other changeagents in the area of management teaching by offering theopportunity for collaborative learning and explorationwhilst avoiding some of the pitfalls of educationalimperialism. In doing so the programme implicitlyaddressed issues of change at the strategically-relatednational and institutional level, at the structurally-related institutional and departmental level, at thedesign-related departmental and course level, and at themethodological and value-related course and individuallevels. Much of the basis for debate, therefore,revolved around individual perceptions of the nature androles of management and the manager in the presentsituation, ways of influencing these, and alternativeviews of an appropriate future as created by suchinfluence. The intention of this chapter is to reviewthese debates in so far as they address the implicationsof working as 'change agents' in transitional economiesin which the understanding of 'competency' as adopted bysuch change agents is central to the product of change.The main focus of this chapter is upon 'managerialcompetence' or 'what should a manager do to be able todo? (Letiche, 1994). However this cannot be adequatelyexplored without addressing what it is that the CentralEuropean manager needs to be able to do, and whose needssuch 'doing' will be meeting. In order to contextualisethe debate, therefore, it is first necessary to paint abroad brush picture of the effects of changes in CentralEurope, and to examine what the end result of 'doing'might be - thereby addressing the distinction betweenopportunistic development and sustained development.

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Management in Central Europe

Prior to the cultural revolution Central Europe could bedescribed as a centrally planned product oriented commandsystem, with economies heavily skewed towards old smoke-stack industries. The focus on supply lead to avertically integrated structure, with a large gap betweensupply and demand and consumers having little marketpower, leading to the production of low-quality products(Dubini & Cardini, 1991). The reliance upon centralplanning lead to the unification of principles ofmanagement of the state-owned companies - focusinglargely upon 'scientific' management (work studies, timeand motion etc.) with 'development' linked to re-organisation of work, redesigning plant lay-outs, etc.There was no need, within the administered socialisteconomy, for strategic management skills such asmarketing, financial development strategies, andpersonnel policy (Otta & Gorynia, 1991). The Ministry ofNational Education used to state the educationalrequirements in central curricula, which tended to benormative and based upon theoretical model speculation.Management was not a discipline (these being science,engineering, medicine, law and social sciences), andteaching methods were traditional: lectures, seminars andclasses based upon text books.

Under this system managers appear to have developed alimited entrepreneurial attitude, being strongly averseto risk, and knowledge being valued more highly thanskill (Jankowicz & Pettitt, 1993) with a consequentvaluing of expertise and the 'right' solution. There isevidence that this might be changing. Stachowicz (1991)found that in 1988 the orientation of organisationalvalues within 789 large Polish enterprises was skewedtowards power, with a diminishing focus upon roles, tasksand people (in that order), whilst a repetition of theresearch in 1990 showed a strong shift towards a taskoriented culture. He cautions, however, thatauthoritarian cognitive orientations might well prove astrong barrier to change. Previously, successfulinnovation had low value to the individual, with the

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system benefiting, whilst failure was focused on theindividual. Trust and confidentiality are hard won andeasy to lose and self-motivation is an elusive concept.Beset by other difficulties, education and health carebudgets have been cut dramatically, with much of thedemand for management education being limited andspecific (focusing on short courses with elements ofproblem solving and crisis management), leading to theaccusation that Central European governments seem unableto appreciate the long-term intangible effects ofinvestment in education (Obloj, 1991).

Initially, to 'western' management educators, CentralEuropean management education appears outdated and poorlydeveloped, with some writers, such as Obloj, presenting aparticularly gloomy picture. Others, such as McNulty(1992), argue that there exists an excellent managementinfrastructure, with managers at all levels holdinguniversity degrees and undergoing regular re-qualification education and assessment, and education forpromotion. Senior posts are appointed after openelection. Previously such appointments were also vettedby the Party. Now, the need for 'political' approvalseems to be no greater than in the West. Equally, allmanagement educators are highly qualified in aspects ofmanagement (or that which would be termed 'management' inthe West) and are required to have had 'practical'experience - thus presenting some similarity to Japanesemanagement education which is seen as a formal adjunct tothe processes that are already well rooted inorganisations and in general education (Storey, 1991).Although experience under the old system does little toprepare management educators for working with the marketeconomy, the mandatory experiential element in theprevious training of Central European managementeducators contrast positively with the lack of practicalexperience in the training of Western managementeducators.

The process of re-educating Polish management teachers,therefore, might in part be about the provision of 'know-how' - the acquisition of strategic, financial and

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marketing knowledge in particular, but, increasingly,writers are focusing upon the need for 'attitude change'- the development of teachers/students andmanagers/workers who have the values appropriate forworking in a capitalist system. The values thought to bemissing, such as the shouldering of responsibility, self-motivation, initiative, resourcefulness, creativity andendurance, were demonstrated under the previous system bythe reformers, co-operatives and small enterprises, manyof whom succeeded in 'illegal' entrepreneurial work. Lee(1993a) found these values evidenced once trust wasgained, but not apparent whilst the outsider wasperceived to represent the 'system'. Thus the commandeconomy has left a heritage of particular sensitivity toauthority, power, knowledge and expertise, such that thechallenging of these within the managerial andeducational process is both vital and very difficult.

This assertion is supported by evidence arising fromCEMTDP, quoted at length because of the relevance to thediscussion. In the words of a participant on completingthe programme

"Until recently I only had theoretical knowledge ofsuccessful motivation acquired from foreignliterature. My students are in a similar position.They have very little practical experience and whenthey start work in a business they meet people broughtup in the socialist concept of motivation.

Nowadays people no longer believe that a manager cansit in seclusion and expect all members of hiscollective to carry out joyfully their allotted tasksfor the benefit of society. We have been persuadedthat activity, initiative and enthusiasm cannot beattained by force, nevertheless stereotyped phrasesrepeated for years have been deeply rooted in ourpeople. For years we were told that there was onlyone reality - the one proclaimed officially. Weceased to look at the world with our own eyes andthought that people with a different view of thingswere wrong, or even wanted to do us harm. Now we are

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surprised that one and the same think can be seen byeverybody in his own way and that a lot of so calledindisputable facts were only presented as such. Apre-condition for understanding the needs andaspirations of other people is to realise that therealso exist other realities which are to be taken intoconsideration. One should find out what the realityis for other people and be ready to accept that is avalid point of view - to accept diversity as a normalphenomenon ...

The existence of a discrepancy between the two groups(those who manage and those who are managed) wasminimised or even denied for years. All of us had towork for the attainment of equal aims, the aims thatwere assigned for us. However, it was wrong tosuppose that each employee would work to obtain thesame objectives. We should not be surprised that someinterests get into conflict with others. Fromeconomic and political points of view thesediscrepancies are a sign that the system isfunctioning. We have to get rid of the idea that onlycooperation is normal and correct whereas conflictsand opposition are a pathological, incorrectphenomenon ...

The most serious motivation problem is evidentlyunreadyness for self-motivation. We are used towaiting for somebody to come and bid us to work. Ifwe intend to motivate other people, we have toestablish our own positive attitudes. Since today itis very important to do away with the barrier ofnegotiation based on anxiety, fear, and suspicion.Our overall life attitudes have been affected in anegative way under the former conditions and broughtabout resignation. Positive thinking means first ofall putting emphasis on all positive aspects, ... andbelief that success can be achieved and is desirable."

It was evident from CEMTDP that Westerners are oftenseen to embody free market philosophy - prosperous,entrepreneurial, free to speak and act, unhindered by

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bureaucratic or authoritarian structures, able to takerisks and make mistakes, and to find enjoyableemployment rather than working to live (Lee 1992b).They are often thought to be, and perceive themselvesto be, further 'along the line' in some way, embodyinga desirable culture in which personal worth, jobsatisfaction, quality of living, and competitiveadvantage are causally related to the free market.Management education is perceived to contribute tothis by generating a well qualified workforce who havefrequent engagement in an educational process that isstimulating, uses a wide range of methods andtechnology, is essentially creative and relevant, andwhich also contains a discrete and accepted body ofknowledge that creates competent managers within thecapitalist system, is transferable, and that, initself, provides the 'right' way of doing things.

These perceptions are unfortunate for three reasons.Firstly, a variety of writers such as Binsted & Snell(1976) and Easterby-Smith & Tanton (1988) have documentedthe international need for management teacher developmentand whilst there is an increasing focus upon this need(Easterby-Smith, 1989; Ryder & Easterby-Smith, 1992;Swan, Aspin, Holloway, Lee & Perica, 1993) this area isstill in its infancy in both research and practice.Further, Perica (1993) shows that, if anything, Westernmanagement education is being forced to move away fromflexible needs-related provision. She found that whilstthere is an increasing demand (from organisations andindividuals) for such provision (human resource skills,strategy, systems, short modular/in-company courses, andre-training) at the expense of generic knowledge-basedqualifications, a reduction in education budgets andincrease in student numbers is leading to a focus uponknowledge and didactic methodology at the expense ofother forms of learning.

Secondly, there is little agreement in the West aboutwhat 'management' and the nature of managerial workreally are (Darmer, 1991), and this lack of agreement isreflected by the furious and at times vitriolic debates

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about the identification, development and assessment of'competency'.

Thirdly, Nikolajew (1992) suggests that the developmentof transitional economies presents unique issues thatcannot be addressed appropriately within traditionalparadigms, yet at the same time it offers the opportunityfor such economies to move to a stage of development thatchallenges the whole World - namely one of higher socialawareness and ecological sustainability. If so, itfollows that the West is not in a position to offeradvice in so far as it is tied to traditional paradigms,and would thus be better seen as a co-learner/developer.

If we accept Nikolajew's assertion that there is theopportunity to move to a further stage of development weneed to step out of this reactive cycle in an informedmanner. Not only will the way in which managerial'competency' is understood at this stage effect whatmanagers are able to 'do' in the future, but also theform of future we are working towards will effect what weconsider to be acceptable 'competencies' at the presenttime. Therefore any discussion of competency, needs, atsome level, to acknowledge the strategic implications ofchoosing particular competencies over others.

Looking to the future

As Lee (1994a) notes, futurists argue, with a degree ofsynergy, for: sustainable economic growth in which realgross national product per capita is increasing over timewithout threat of feedback from biophysical (pollution orresource problems) or social impacts (social disruption)(Pearce, Markandaya & Barbier, 1989); SustainableDevelopment, in which "the needs of the present (are met)without compromising the ability of future generations tomeet their own needs" (Bruntland Report, 1987), and; ascenario of creative advantage in which each nationconcentrates on its unique qualities and offers these toothers (Gorz, 1989; Henderson, 1989; Pedlar, Burgoyne &Boydell, 1991; Stuke, 1990) as opposed to Porter's (1990)view of competitive advantage (Rowe, 1990).

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Wierzbicki (1991) summarises a prognostic report of thePoland 2000 Committee of the Polish Academy of Scienceswhich analyses the potential impact of three forms ofsocietal aspiration in Poland, He concludes thatinformed educational reform, in which students areprepared for a broad professional life in a way thatstimulates adaptability and entrepreneurial attitudes,and closer research and development links with industryand enterprise, alongside a scepticism about a wholesalereliance upon market forces, are areas of criticalimportance to the achievement of greater civilisationdevelopment. He also sees educational reformcontributing to a redressing of environmental damage anda radical decrease in energy and material consumptionrates, but considers that the recent focus upon short-term free market mechanisms is likely to hinder thedevelopment of the necessary infrastructure. Hetherefore calls for the creation of a structuraldevelopment policy that is not only realised by thegovernment but perceived and pursued by the entiresociety. Support for this view can be found in Northcott(1991:348). This report sketches general scenarios withregard to the way that government policies might affectbusiness and management in the UK, possible economicimplications of each having been tested with the use ofthe Cambridge Econometrics model. As with Wierzbicki,the report is nation specific. However, the similaritybetween the two reports is notable, and the delineationand predictive testing of what could be seen asarchetypal futures merit further discussion.

The first scenario addressed is that of a market-orientedapproach, with lower income tax, reduced governmentspending and supply side chagnes to improve theefficiency of the market and raise labour productivity.This would be likely to give a fast rise in consumers'expenditure, a slow fall in unemployment, and an earlyimprovement in the balance of payments. The secondscenario illustrates an interventionist approach, withhigher income tax, higher government spending on social

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services, and expansion of R&D and training schemes toincrease productivity. This would be likely to give aslow rise in consumers' expenditure, a fast fall inunemployment, and an early improvement in the balance ofpayments. The third scenario is an environment-orientedappraoch, with higher prices for water, electricity,petrol, gas and coal, but lower prices for amny othercategories of expenditure, particularly less energydependent ones such as health,education and mostrecreational services. These price changes would bringmajor shifts in demand, and output, but whilst structuralshifts would be considerable, the deflationary effect ofthe carbon tax would be broadly offset by reductions invalue added tax, and the declines in the energy-intensivesectors by increases elsewhere. Total economic growth,therefore, would be much the same as with the otherforecasts, whether adopted unilaterally ormultilaterally.

Despite the different political and ideologicalprinciples upon which they are based, the projectedconsequences of the three approaches are similar ineconomic terms. This conclusion is supported by Meadows,Meadows & Randers (1992) and by the World DevelopmentReport (1992:178) which finds a 'growing consensus thatpolicies for economic efficiency and for environmentalmanagement are complementary'. It can be argued,therefore, that although the short-term economic futureof transitional economies might well be effected by thealliances they choose to make, their long-term economicfuture will probably be little altered whatever theychoose to do. Taking a global view of the future andworking towards sustainable development is a feasibleoption. Choice of future, therefore, is linked more tosocietal (political) aspiration than 'scientific'criteria.

However, there is evidence, both from the UK (Bate, 1990)and the Slovak Republic (Papula, 1993) that societalaspiration is not indicative of organisational form.Both studies found that whilst individual membersreported preference for a culture that met 'human' needs,

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the organisation was moving, in reality, from ahierarchical, centrally planned system, towards an uneasyintegration of specialisations, typified byinterdependence and the embracing (rather than avoidance)of change. Similarly, as indicated at the start of thischapter and elsewhere in this book (****) CentralEuropean nations - their economies, the media, and therhetoric - are becoming increasingly focused upon smalland medium sized enterprises, the free-market, and thenotion that the world is an oyster for those with thetalent for pearl fishing. Regardless of academic andgovernmental concerns to establish a sustainable andenvironmentally aware economy, societal aspiration issearching for the skills and competencies associated withthe entrepreneur ... and the nouveau riche can afford topay for those who offer the magic formula.

Competencies of the 'new' manager

The above discussion suggests that in reality 'societalaspiration' is working upon a model of short-termopportunistic development whilst the longer-term rationalview might favour sustainable development. These lead totwo different notions to what appropriate 'competencies'might be, as illustrated in Figure 1, and demonstratesome of the complexity of the competency debate.

----------------------------------Insert Figure 1 about here.

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The things that the Central European manager needs to beable to DO to act effectively in a form of free-marketeconomy are strikingly different from the activitiesrequired under central planning. There is, however,little difference between opportunistic development andsustainable development in forms of measurable action,apart from the ability to use different forms of powerand channels of communication. It this were translatedinto competency based training, in which assessment islinked to evidence of the ability to perform certainskills, then the forms of provision and assessment would

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be very similar.

There is, however, a growing recognition that thedemonstrable ability to DO is only one aspect ofmanagerial competence. Evidence for this can be gatheredfrom sources presented above, such as the reflectivepersonal account presented previously and the increasingfocus that Central European wirters place upon the needfor attitude change as well as skills and know-how. Itis also apparent in recent discussions about the natureof management and the managerial role.

Freedman (1992) suggests that managerial problems areirredeemably complex and unpredictable, and that economicadvantage will come to those who are best able to spotopportunities, to learn rapidly, and to createappropriate commitment amongst colleagues. This notionofcomplexity, tied to that of the interdependent nature oforganisations situated in a universe that is itself amassively integrated self organising system (Jantsch,1980) are a fundamental part of the holistic systematicco-evolutionary view propounded in recent publications(Davis, 1990; Lessem, 1990, 1991: Lievegood, 1991;Norgaard, 1991; Senge, 1990), and developed in new areasof research such as soft-system methodology (Checkland,1981). This entails a shifting view of organisations(Clegg, 1990) and the nature of management (Dobson,Borucki & Byosiere, 1992; Dumain, 1990) and hasimplications for the managerial role. For example, Handy(1985:335) states that "organisation theory would suggestthat more trust and less control, more diversity and lessuniformity, more differentiation and less systematisationmight be the ways that organisations should move."

More recently, and as a product of a suite of researchprojects conducted in the UK for the Institute ofManagement, the Cannon and Taylor Working Parties (1994),and the Watson Consultation Document (1994) present apicture of an increasing number of organisations who arebecoming 'aware of the importance of developing theirmost important asset - people'. Organisations arespending more on management training and development, and

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there is an increasing focus upon management developmentas life-long learning rather than periodic training. Theresearch found that in order to survive in the changingworld, managers of the future will need key skills, butthe most important 'competencies' will be attitudinal.They will need organisational sensitivity as well as aholistic sense of the external environment; task skills(such as problem analysis, prioritising and benchmarking) as well as process skills (such as empathy,facilitation, influencing, coaching and counsellingskills); to be able to act and think on their feet aswell as able to reflect and think strategically and inthe long-term, and; to be able to take on responsibilityfor their own development whilst collaborating in teamsand with people from a wide range of disciplines intemporary and non-hierarchical terms.

The competent manager (in these terms) is one who cancreate a business environment in which people canflourish spiritually and emotionally by nourishingcreative tension generated by a balance between a focuson human resources and personal well being on one hand aclear, hard, management on the other (Pascale, 1990), andinvolves the 'knowledge and acceptance of a widerrepertoire of ways of being' (Kinsman, 1990). Thisrepertoire includes awareness of the impact of crosscultural, ethical, environmental, race and gender issuesupon the role of the manager, as well as a reflective andholistic understanding of self development and theempowerment of others. Education takes the form ofmulti-disciplinary flexible pathways of development andlife long learning that benefit all the stakeholders, whotogether shape a 'learning organisation' (Pedlar,Burgoyne & Boydell, 1991) that is able to adapt andchange in response to a changing environment and in whichlearning is a new form of labour and knowledge theresource (Drucker, 1993) and distinctions betweenmanagers and managed are eroded with organisationsstructured around human beings and the relationshipsbetween them (Zuboff, 1989).

These concepts do not deny the use of directive power

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under appropriate circumstances but recognise thedilemmas faced by 'leaders' who hold a position ofresponsibility and at the same time wish to encourageindividual action and maximise individual strengthswithin a group focus (Lee, 1991b; 1994b). Similarly,these concepts do not deny the manager's need forexpertise and 'know how', nor the necessity for 'street-wise' social skills (Lee, 1992a). These can be likenedto politically wise behaviour, shown by the individualwho is able to balance integrity and political awareness,and thus is both able to 'read' or understand themachinations of the external world, and to 'carry' orutilise the appropriate skills whilst maintainingintegrity and lack of 'game-playing' (Baddeley & James,1987; Harris, 1973). This approach has been termedholistic agency (Lee 1994a), and reflects the role of themanager as an agent of change, development, andorganisational commitment whilst working in a holisticmanner in which all aspects of the individual arecombined (i.e. the human side of attitudes and values aswell as expert knowledge or skill).

In conclusion to this section it can be argued thateducation, in itself, is a form of social engineering,therefore the attitudes underlying skills-basededucational provision will be transmitted, even if theproviders attempt to avoid attitudinal issues. Inlooking to the West for precedents in the delineation ofmanagerial competencies Central European managementeducators (along with those from the rest of the globe)are being presented with fundamental decisions about theform of future they wish to create (i.e. opportunistic orsustained development) through the enactment of theattitudes they wish to influence.

Competency and management education provision

In looking to the West for precedents in the design ofprovision that will foster the chosen competencies,Central European management educators are presented withfurther challenges. Working towards competency is apolitically sensitive notion in the West, where attempts

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have been made to assess competent behaviour, as measuredagainst national standards developed by an understandingof the existing managerial role (Lee 1994a) leading to astrong focus upon the accreditation of prior achievementand hence the recognition of experience, work-basedlearning and flexible forms of assessment. The manager,therefore, becomes a stakeholder in his or her owneducation and development, alongside both theorganisation and the provider. These notions are aliento Central European management education under theprevious command economy and present strategic,structural, design and methodological challenges, as wellas those related to the individual value base.

In theory, the construction of a uni-focused multi-disciplinary product, such as integrated competency basedprovision with measurable outcomes might best meet thewidely differing needs of the stakeholders (Binsted,1988; Constable & McCormick, 1987; Handy, Gow, Gordon,Randlesome & Moloney, 1987; Powers, 1983). In practice(as evidenced by Smithers, 1993), it is hard to reconcilethe underlying value systems of the differentstakeholders. The elements that appear most threateningto providers of higher education are those linked toaccess (the extent to which skills based experience isseen as both necessary and sufficient for access),assessment (raising issues of how to accredit priorexperience for entrance, and how to assess development onexperientially based provision) and provision (in whichpotential providers are assessed for their suitabilityand accredited as providers under a system that isseparate and potentially inimicable to that of highereducation). A positive view would encourage the beliefthat, with flexibility and communication, these problemsare surmountable, however there are other issues that areless easily resolved. Deeper concern focuses upon thedrive for standardisation which is seen to reducediversity at a time when flexible structures are neededto facilitate the meeting of changing needs and shifts ofnational policy (Porter & McKibbin, 1988), and doubtabout generalisability of skills (Thorpe, 1990). Thenature of the assessment processes, which threatens the

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ideal of holism and does not reflect the variable natureof the managerial role (Burgoyne, 1989, 1990), also givesconcern, as do the cultural and political ramificationsof choice of membership of a 'standardising body'(Nespor, 1988). The focus upon measurable outcomes (theassessment of being able to DO) forces standardisation,and thus presents a dilemma to those who wish to movefrom central planning towards provision that allows moreindividual freedom, whether it be focused uponopportunistic or sustainable development.

An alternative way of meeting these challenges, and inkeeping with the wider view of 'competency', and indefence of individuality, is to work across the differentapproaches, leading to a multi-focused product. Morgan(1993) noted that co-operation between proponents ofdifferent approaches is rare, and the supremacy of oneview over another is more a product of internal politicsbetween academic departments than of disinteresteddebate. However, evidence from the UK (Swan, Aspin,Holloway, Lee & Perica, 1993) and from Western andCentral European nations (Lee, 1994a; Ryder & Easterby-Smith, 1992) indicates that programmes designed to bringtogether those who would normally have little contactwith each other (crossing discipline and institutionalbarriers) are successful in helping participantsacknowledge, understand and build upon this diversity bylocating their own approach and adopting what they see as'good practice' in other approaches. Such programmesprovide 'breathing space' for such debate, but in doingso they challenge faculty to become interdisciplinary(Mudroch, 1992), question whether the business schoolenvironment is the most appropriate setting for managersto learn in, and challenge the assumed expertise of themanagement teacher. They are complex and politicallysensitive. They bridge the stakeholders and thus need tobe established within the macro-structure, but in so faras they question and challenge, they cannot easily beinstitutionalised.

In conclusion, based upon developments in the West, wecan see that educational systems that focus upon the

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development on clearly defined, skills based competencies(the narrow definition of the ability to DO), also focus,by necessity, upon the delineation, standardisation, andassessment of measurable outcomes. This leads, again bynecessity, to standardising something about our situation- a positive approach to life, and is based upon trustand confidentiality (McGill and Beaty, 1992).

Action learning offers the potential to facilitatechange, both as the methodological choice of WesternEuropean educators, and as a way of working withinCentral European provision. It also offers manychallenges (Lee 1993a; 1994b). As an educationalphilosophy many of the values it is based upon are aliento ways of working under the command economy - thus itsadoption as a methodology, in itself, is challenging toCentral European participants at the individual level.Further, the educational systems are not geared toalternative forms of methodology, thus adoption of theserequires strategic and structural change in theorganisation, as well as changes in course design andprovision.

On a more philosophical level, adherents of ActionLearning would see it as a way of life, yet it lendsitself to hypocritical implementation such that anappearance of change is generated, but overlays a failureto explore and evaluate the basic educational principlesof practice. Finally, we should not ignore the ethicaland moral dimensions of the part played by education inattitude change and societal refocussing (Lee, 1991a,b;Snell, 1988, 1992) and the individual's role within this.As a holistic methodology action learning lends itself touse/misuse in societal refocussing. The role of thefacilitator/tutor in this process is a complex andchallenging one, but is perhaps a necessary part ofworking as a holistic change agent - one which supportsthe individual in continually re-analysing their role inthe creation and development of the processes they arepart of, and in doing so also confronting their ownideas, unsurfaced assumptions, biases and fears (Argyris,1990), thereby addressing the development of themselves

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and others from an ethical standpoint.

Central to this discussion is the notion that long termand stable change cannot be imposed, but must be whole-heartedly championed by those it effects, thus, followingfrom Nickolajew's assertion, the West is not in aposition to offer advice, but is better seen as a co-learner/developer. This does not deny the existence ofspecific short term areas of educational need andupdating that can be supported by the West, in particularthe acquisition of strategic, marketing, financial andlegal knowledge; the establishment of small and mediumsized enterprises, entrepreneurship and the complexitiesof public administration, and; the up-dating of technicalskills and re-training to meet a changing market.However the longer-term implication for managementeducation in Central Europe is the need for CentralEuropean self-development, taking the Rogerian (1959)view that true development is fostered by helpingindividuals to help themselves.

In conclusion, it has been argued that whilst there arespecific short term needs in Central European managementeducation that can be addressed by collaboration with theWest using traditional educational approaches, these donot meet the longer term needs of Central Europeannations. Longer term needs are not specific to CentralEurope but are shared by all nations, and are epitomisedby the need to move towards an environmentally andsocietally aware scenario. Central Europe and the Westare co-learners in this change, though the associatedneed to address ways of working and promote managerialcompetence in line with holistic agency is marginallystronger in Central Europe, where this approach had beensuppressed under the command economy. It is suggestedthat traditional educational approaches cannot addressthese changes, and that action learning, whilstproblematic, offers one way of creating long-term andstable change.

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OpportunisticDevelopment: Moving From:

SustainableDevelopment:

The charismatic manager: All-knowing,all-powerful manager:

Manager as learner,developer and mentor:

ABLE TO: ABLE TO: ABLE TO:

* design and function in flexible organisational structures;

* use charisma and resource power to maximise upon informal channels of power and communication;

* create islands of order amidst chaos and combineelements in new ways that embrace transition;

* turn ideas into action, take risks and experiment and work withstress and ambiguity;

* follow set routines and work within a fixed and stable organisational structure;

* use formal channels ofpower and communication;

* delegate responsibility for acting on ideas, defray responsibility for risks and look forprecedent before experimenting;

* systemise, reduce ambiguity and maintainsimplified order;

* design and function inflexible organisational structures;

* use personal power andfacilitation skills torelate to others and use both informal and formal channels of communication;

* accept paradox of order amidst chaos andcombine elements in new ways that embrace transition;

* turn ideas into action, take risks andexperiment and work with stress and ambiguity;

APPROACH TO ETHICALITY

* manipulate ethics to meet task-related needs;

* question profit and achieving the 'best solution';

* devolve ethical responsibility to superiors;

* operate as if believing the organisational rhetoric;

* operate with a high degree of personal integrity and honesty;

* question implications and ethicality of decisions;

ATTITUDES TOWARDS OTHERS

* care for close associates and the task,but remain alone;

* be competitive, but collaborate with others

* care for institution and the role;

* be competitive and remain alone at top;

* care for, develop and contribute to institutions, groups and individuals;

* enter into trusting

when necessary; alliances;

APPROACH TO LEARNING

* learn in a reactive and task focused manner, andtransmit knowledge sporadically;

* use knowledge as power, and transmit iton a need-to-know basis;

* learn through others and self, and transferknowledge openly within the organisation;

STRATEGIC APPROACH

* intuit the short-term future;

* identify problems and possible solutions;

* maintain short-term goaloriented vision and influence others to accept own vision;

* predict future from the past;

* dictate goals and methods;

* maintain domestic vision and impose own vision on subordinates, accept vision of superiors;

* intuit the long-term future;

* specify and work with process;

* envision and implementthe strategy of thinking globally, acting locally, and facilitate vision of others;

PSYCHOLOGICAL FLEXIBILITY

* accommodate cultural diversity in so far as it meets organisational aims;

* make self understood in other languages;

* maintain both high mobility and an ethno-centric approach;

* reject cultural diversity in that it challenges stability, order and accepted values;

* remain monolingual;* maintain low mobility and an ethno-centric view;

* manage cultural diversity, and be adept with cross-cultural influences;

* be an excellent communicator, normallymultilingual;

* maintain high mobilityand a stateless perception of the world;