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COMPARISON OF SURIMI A N D SOLUBILIZED SURIMI FOR K A M A B O K O PRODUCTION FROM F A R M E D CHINOOK S A L M O N
By
JILL MARIE RICHARDSON
B.Sc, The University of Alberta, 1993
A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL F U L F I L L M E N T OF
THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF
MASTER OF SCIENCE
In
THE F A C U L T Y OF G R A D U A T E STUDIES
(Department of Food Science)
We accept this thesis as conforming to the required standard
I n p r e s e n t i n g t h i s t h e s i s i n p a r t i a l f u l f i l m e n t o f t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r an advanced degree a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a , I ag r e e t h a t t h e L i b r a r y s h a l l make i t f r e e l y a v a i l a b l e f o r r e f e r e n c e and s t u d y . I f u r t h e r a g r e e t h a t p e r m i s s i o n f o r e x t e n s i v e c o p y i n g o f t h i s t h e s i s f o r s c h o l a r l y p u r p o s e s may be g r a n t e d by t h e head o f my department o r by h i s o r h e r r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s . I t i s u n d e r s t o o d t h a t c o p y i n g o r p u b l i c a t i o n o f t h i s t h e s i s f o r f i n a n c i a l g a i n s h a l l n o t be a l l o w e d w i t h o u t my w r i t t e n p e r m i s s i o n .
Department o f Food Science. The U n i v e r s i t y o f B r i t i s h C o l umbia V a n c o u v e r , Canada
Date vTun^ /b. /Qtytf^B) -;
Abstract
The thesis hypothesis of this research was that farmed chinook salmon could be made
into better quality functional kamaboko when made from solubilized frozen surimi than
when made from conventional frozen surimi.
An 84 day storage study compared kamaboko gel quality made from solubilized and
traditional surimi. Fresh farmed chinook salmon (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha) was used
to make both solubilized surimi and surimi (control). Solubilized treatments contained
varying concentrations of calcium chloride, sodium chloride and water. The Random
Centroid Optimization (RCO) program randomly generated concentration values of
additives. All surimi treatments (solubilized and control) contained 8.3%
cryoprotectants. Treatments were taken from storage on days 3, 7, 14, 28, 56 and 84
from an -8°C freezer and made into kamaboko. Solubilized treatments were diluted after
frozen storage and then centrifuged to constant moisture content.
All kamaboko gels had respective moisture, protein, crude fat and ash contents of 74.5 +
5.5%, 13.6 ± 1.7%, 4.4 + 2.4%, and 5.6 ± 3.1%. Salts added to solubilized treatments
influenced ash content. No proximate analysis trends were observed between treatments
during the storage study. Variation in protein and water concentrations within the range
of this study did not appear to affect overall kamaboko quality.
i i
Treatments had similar Hunter "L", "a", "b" values and values remained relatively
consistent over the storage study. The TA-TXT2 Texture Analyzer was used to conduct
punch tests. A 6 point fold test scale was employed to evaluate kamaboko elasticity.
ANOVA suggested that gel strengths and fold test scores did not change over time, but
treatments were significantly different (p < 0.05).
All factors (sodium chloride, calcium chloride, and dilution) proved significant (P < 0.05)
in contributing to the treatment effect using multiple regression. However, sodium
chloride and calcium chloride had a larger impact than the dilution factor on gel strength
and fold test scores. Although, treatments were not significantly different on different
days of the storage study, treatment 7 was clearly the best treatment when compared to
the control and other treatment gel strengths and fold test scores.
Each kamaboko treatment (before cooking) for each storage day was examined by SDS-
PAGE. Variations in gel strength were consistent with degradation in the myosin heavy
chains of the SDS-PAGE Phast gels. Lower gel strengths were observed in treatments
that had more degradation of the myosin heavy chain.
i i i
Table of Contents
Abstract ii
Table of Contents iv
List of Tables viii
List of Figures ix
Acknowledgments x
Chapter 1: Introduction 1
1.1 Definition of surimi 1
1.2 Historical background of surimi 2
1.3 Surimi products 4
1.4 Species used for surimi production 5
1.5 The modern surimi process 6
1.5.1 Sorting and cleaning 7
1.5.2 Filleting 7
1.5.3 Separation of meat 8
1.5.4 Leaching 8
1.5.5 Intermediate dewatering 9
1.5.6 Refiner 10
1.5.7 Final dewatering and the importance of pH 11
Later sucrose and sorbitol replaced glucose at the 8-10% level to improve'stability
and to reduce Maillard browning products (Okada, 1992). This discovery enabled
industry to stockpile surimi. Production efforts moved from onshore to
mechanized offshore production and output dramatically increased (Lee, 1984).
Many more advancements in surimi technology occurred during the early 1970's
(Okada, 1992). Collaborative efforts from the Japanese surimi industry and
various research institutes laid the basis for modern surimi production. These
efforts resulted in the establishment of physical and chemical principles for surimi
production and preservation.
2
Chapter 1. Introduction
More specifically, scientists discovered the following important facts:
i) Solubilization of myofibrillar proteins and crosslinking of the protein gel network is key in producing high quality surimi
ii) Gel forming ability of surimi based products is species dependent and is affected by the freshness, biological state of fish, and frozen storage treatment
iii) Surimi based products are affected by the level and type of salt, pH, and heating schedule
iv) Starches have a strong gel strengthening ability and participate in a dispersed phase, whereas protein functions in a continuous phase (Okada, 1992)
Several processing factors influence the storage stability of surimi based products.
For example, moisture content, packaging material, cooking procedures and the
use of preservatives all have impact on storage stability (Okada, 1992). Figure 1
depicts the dramatic increase in surimi production during the years following
Nishiya's discovery (Sonu, 1986). The rise in surimi production was due to the
rapid growth of the Japanese economy during these times and due to the abundant
supply of frozen surimi. A decline in surimi production began in 1974 due to an
increase in the cost of raw materials and a change in consumer perceptions. From
1974 to the present, surimi prices have almost doubled due to the water pollution
act of 1970, the oil crisis of 1974, and an increase in catch regulations by nations
controlling the pollock resource. Consumers perceptions changed as they became
concerned with food additives such as hydrogen peroxide, and nitrofuran
compounds used in surimi production (Okada, 1992).
3
Chapter 1. Introduction
As the production of surimi has evolved, so has the machinery used to make it.
Equipment advancements include: fishwashers, descalers, large capacity meat
separators, washing tanks, rotary sieves, refiners, screw presses and decanters.
Fishwashers, descalers and meat separators facilitate the cleaning and isolation of
white flesh. Rotary sieves have increased leaching efficiency, while refiners have
replaced batch type dewatering processes. Decanter centrifuges recover fine
muscle particles suspended in the effluent water (Okada, 1992; Lanier et al.,
1992).
1.3 Surimi products
Surimi production peaked during the late 1960's to mid 1970's (Okada, 1992).
Production has since declined due to an increased cost in raw products due to
stricter catch controls and tighter effluent disposal regulations (Okada, 1992;
Marris, 1991). As a result, efforts to produce new products, minimize effluent,
utilize other species, attract new consumers, and find alternate ways to preserve
surimi based products are being made. Examples of surimi based product
development include: crab leg analogs, binding agents, high fiber drinks, meat
flavored analogs, and dehydrated surimi (Morris, 1988; Okada, 1992, Andres,
1987). Figure 2 depicts some of the advancements in surimi production (Okada,
1992)
4
Chapter 1. Introduction
1.4 Species used for surimi production
Presently, the most popular species used for surimi production is Alaska pollock
(Theragra Chalcogramma) (Whittle and Hardy, 1992; Okada, 1992; Mackie,
1993). The volume, availability, subtle flavor, odor characteristics and low cost
of this species makes it optimal for surimi production (Roussel and Cheftel,
1988). However, the recent decline in the Alaska pollock fishery has prompted
studies on the suitability of various other fish species for surimi production (Dora
and Hiremath, 1991; Okada, 1992). Presently, industry is actively seeking more
profitable under-utilized species. Whittle and Hardy (1992) have defined under
utilized species as fish that are:
i) Available, but difficult to catch, process, or market
ii) Caught in quantity or as a by-catch and used for low value industrial products, but which could be upgraded for human consumption
iii) Waste of edible flesh generated because of inefficient handling, processing or distribution
iv) Simple, but technically unjustified loss of quality and value in the handling and sale of fishery products
According to the FAO, (Whittle and Hardy, 1992) future demands for fish will
come from developing countries, particularly Asia. Japan already uses under
utilized species (mackerel and sardine surimi) for its school lunch program (Dora
and Hiremath, 1991). By the year 2000, demand will surpass supplies from
conventional fish sources. Figure 3 lists a variety of traditional and surimi based
products (Sonu, 1986). Therefore, it seems logical economically to use under
utilized fish species as additional resources (Whittle and Hardy, 1992).
5
Chapter 1. Introduction
According to the above definition of under-utilized, farmed salmon may be
classified as under-utilized due to the loss of value incurred when salmon steak
sides are processed into canned salmon. Unfortunately, under-utilized species are
not always easy to process. Examples of processing difficulties include;
migratory patterns of species, seasonality of species, fluctuations in yield,
variability in composition, dark flesh, strong flavors, oxidation and rancidity in
frozen storage, and consumer prejudices (Whittle and Hardy, 1992). However,
there are some methods to overcome these hurdles. For instance, the following
approaches are useful in limiting lipid oxidation. Sodium bicarbonate removes fat
from high fat fish during washing. Super-decanters separate fish oil from meat.
Pressure showers mechanically remove dark muscle, skin and subcutaneous fat
(Putro, 1989). Examples of under-utilized species include; late run pacific chum
salmon, whiting, krill, hoki, hake, herring, and mackerel (Whittle and Hardy,
1992; Marris, 1991). As surimi production grows, so does the list of species used.
No longer are firm fleshed white fish the only raw material used for surimi.
Perhaps, fish protein technology and not the inherent fish characteristics will
eventually determine the usefulness of a species for surimi production (Holmes et
al., 1992).
1.5 The modern surimi process
Regardless of the species, modern production of surimi employs one of two
methods; onshore or offshore processing. Fresh fish makes the best quality
surimi. Therefore factory trawlers produce the highest quality surimi followed by
6
Chapter 1. Introduction
factory mother ships and land based factories (Toyoda et al., 1992). Factory
trawlers process surimi within 24 hours post mortem.
1.5.1 Sorting and cleaning
Target species are separated from other species in the catch before fish are
processed. Typically, this step is manual. Next, fish are sorted by size to increase
final yield. The body temperature of fish should be kept just above the freezing
point, stored in crushed ice or in refrigerated sea water prior to processing
(Ohshima et al., 1993; Lee, 1986).
1.5.2 Filleting
Once sorted, fish are descaled or skinned and filleted. If skins remain on the fish,
they are descaled to prevent clogging of the deboning machine (Toyoda et al.,,
1992). It is important to process fish after rigor, otherwise extreme muscle
contractions result causing unacceptable textural qualities (Mackie, 1993).
Filleting involves heading, deboning, and evisceration. This may be manual or
automatic. Higher grade surimi results from proper viscera removal. Viscera
contains proteolytic enzymes and spoilage microorganisms that are detrimental to
surimi quality (Ohshima et al., 1993). Enroute to the separator via a conveyor
belt, fillets are spray washed to removed excess scales, viscera and manually
inspected for quality. Yield varies depending on season, presence and or absence
of roe and the original size of the fish (Lee, 1986). Figure 4 illustrates a flow
diagram of the surimi process and the processes' typical yield (Lee, 1985).
7
Chapter 1. Introduction
1.5.3 Separation of meat
A meat separator separates fish from bone and skin. Belt drums physically
remove unwanted fish parts while mincing the fish. The relatively soft fish flesh
is pressed through a screen to the belt drums' interior while the bone, skin and
viscera remain on the drums' exterior. The diameter of the screen affects output,
quality and the effectiveness of dewatering and leaching (Ohshima et al, 1993;
Toyoda et al., 1992). Medium size screen perforations are preferable because
they maintain decent yield and quality. Figure 5 depicts a typical design of a meat
separator (Lanier, 1992).
1.5.4 Leaching
After mincing, fresh water is used to leach the fish. Leaching removes
Table 10. Gel strengths (N x mm) of kamaboko gels (n =5)
Day 3 Day 7 Day 14 Day 28 Day 56 Day 84 Total Av. Treatments Gel
strength (std. dev)
Gel strength
(std. dev)
Gel strength
(std. dev)
Gel strength
(std; dev)
Gel strength
(std. dev)
Gel strength
(std. dev)
Gel strength (std. dev)
(n=30)
1 26.28 (3.30)
10.15 (1.27)
5.80 (1.49)
5.38 (1.06)
6.35 (1.14)
6.17 (1.03)
10.02 b c* (7.73)
2 13.02 (2.99)
7.88 (0.63)
4.72 (1.18)
3.63 (0.64)
5.00 (1.33)
6.17 (1.03)
6.29 a b
(3.68)
3 17.59 (3.94)
8.64 2.53)
4.28 (1.27)
7.68 (0.64)
5.72 (1.34)
5.93 (1.63)
8 .31 a b c
(4.88)
4 4.91 (0.83)
3.81 (0.90)
14.69 (2.88)
11.20 (2.41)
8.06 (2.43)
5.51 . (1.08)
8 .02 a b c
(4.28)
5 10.80 (1.73)
4.05 (0.42)
4.88 (1.07)
3.50 (0.76)
7.69 (1.98)
7.07 (1.33)
6 .33 a b
(2.82)
6 3.35 (0.40)
10.05 (1.18)
6.80 (0.84)
3.88 (0.36)
5.23 (1.50)
2.54 (0.65)
5.31 a
(2.70)
7 3.77 (0.61)
12.91 (3.10)
11.75 (3.10)
10.82 (2.57)
12.53 (1.55)
12.63 (2.66)
10.74° (3.93)
8 6.86 (2.14)
9.63 (3.60)
4.91 (2.14)
6.29 (1.62)
6.58 (1.61)
6.10 (2.21)
6 .73 a b c
(2.56)
9 . 34.92 (10.16)
20.14 (4.45)
11.71 (2.94)
15.97 (3.15)
8.74 (1.50)
.84 (0.36)
15.72 d
(11.25)
Control 9.2 (1.58)
7.37 (0.72)
6.57 (1.07)
8.79 (2.33)
6.65 (0.62)
7.23 (1.92)
7.64 a b° (1.71)
Total Av. Gel
13.07°" (10.59)
9.46 b
(4.93) 7 .61 a b
(3.97) 7 .71 a b
(4.22) 7.25 a b
(2.55) 5.95 a
(3.11) strength
(std. dev) (n=50)
*values in a column (treatments) or in a row (days) with different superscripts are significantly different (p < 0.05)
75
Chapter 3. Results and Discussion
Table 11. Multiple R values for gel strengths and treatment factors
Day NaCI CaCI 2 Dilution Multiple
R 2
3 *(+) *(+) n/s 0.69
7 *(-) n/s n/s 0.37
14 *(-) n/s *(-) 0.60
28 n/s n/s *(-) 0.51
56 *(-) *(-) n/s 0.62
84 *(-) *(-) n/s 0.72
* denotes treatment factors that contributed to treatment effects (p < 0.05, n = ) (-) denotes a negative correlation between treatment factors and gel strengths (+) denotes a negative correlation between treatment factors and gel strengths n/s = not significant
76
Chapter 3. Results and Discussion
Table 12. Fold test scores of kamaboko gels (n = 5)
Treatments Day 3 Day 7 Day 14 Day 28 Day 56 Day 84 Total Av. Fold test (std.dev)
Fold test (std. dev)
Fold test (std.dev)
Fold test (std.dev)
Fold test (std.dev)
Fold test (std.dev)
Fold test (std.dev) (n=30)
1 6.0 (0.0)
5.6 (0.0)
5.2 (0.5)
. 4.6 (0.6)
5.2 (0.5)
5.4 (0.9)
5.3°"' (0-7)
2 6.0 . (0.0)
5.8 (0.5)
4.0 (0.0)
4.2 (0.5)
4.4 (0.6)
5.2 (1.1)
4.9b c
(0.9)
3 6.0 (0.0)
5.6 (0.6)
3.0 (0.0)
5.8 •(0.5)
6.0 (0.0)'
5.4 (0.6)
5.3cd
(1.1)
4 3.0 (0.0)
3.0 (0.0)
6.0 (0.0)
6.0 (0.0)
4.6 (0.6)
3.0 (0.0)
4.3 a b
(1.4)
5 3.0 (0.0)
3.0 (0.0)
3.0 (0.0) ;
3.0 (0.0)
5.8 "(0.5)
4.0 (0.0)
3.6a
(11)
6 3.0 (0.0)
6.0 (0.0)
5.6 (0.6)
3.0 (0.0)
3.0 (0.0)
3.0 . (0-0)
3.9a
(1.4)
7 4.4 . (0.6)
6.0 (0.0)
6.0 (0.0)
6.0 (0.0)
6.0 (0.0)
6.0 (0.0)
r 5.7d
(0.6)
8 5.6 (0.6)
5.8 (0.5)
4.8 (0.8)
5.6 (0.9)
4.4 (0.6)
4.4 (0.6)
5.1cd
(0.8)
9 . 6.0 (0.0)
5.8 (0.5)
6.0 (0.0)
6.0 (0.0)
5.4 (0.6)
5.0 (0.0)
5.7cd
(0.5)
Control 3.6 (0.0)
5.4 (0.6)
5.8 (0.5)
6.0 (0.0)
6.0 (0.0)
5.8 (0-5)
5.7cd
(0.5)
Total Treatment
Av. (std. dev)
(n=50)
4.8a* (1.3)
5.2a
(1.2) 4.9a
(1.2) 5.0a
(1.2) 5.1a
(1.0) 4.7a
(1.1)
*values in a column (treatments) or rows (days) with the same superscript are not significantly different (p < 0.05)
77
Chapter 3. Results and Discussion
Treaunent 4 reatinent 5 Treaunent 6
Lane 1 = day 84 Lane 2 = day 56 Lane 3 = day 28 Lane 4 = day 14 Lane 5 = day 7 Lane 6 = day 3
Treatment 7 Mol. Wl
treatments 1, 2, 3 are missing data 1 1 2 3 4 5 6
Treaunent 8 TreaUnent 9
Figure 18. S D S - P A G E Results
78
Chapter 4. Conclusion and future recommendations
Chapter 4 Conclusion and future recommendations
This study shows that it is possible to make high quality kamaboko from
solubilized treatments. Even more promising, this study shows that it is possible
to make solubilized treatments that are significantly better than surimi produced
by traditional methods (p <0.05). However, since this study lacks true replication,
further studies are required to confirm it's validity. For example, treatment 7
should be made again to see if its' results are reproducible. Future studies should
also include sensory panels so researchers can evaluate the marketability of
kamaboko from solubilized surimi.
It would be worthwhile to have a second control that consists of only solubilized
surimi with water and 8.30% cryoprotectants (no salt). Such a control would
allow one to examine the treatment effects of low levels of dilution and salts
compared to dilution alone.
Since no significant change in kamaboko quality was seen over time, future
solubilization studies should be conducted for a longer period of time to establish
a downward trend in storage keeping ability. Furthermore, it would be useful to
have more data points in the earlier stages of the study (day 0-7) in order to
develop meaningful regressions. It appears there are two trend lines on a given
plot when gel strength is plotted against time. However, the first trend line
79
Chapter 4. Conclusion and future recommendations
appears between days 3 and 7. Therefore, more points are needed during this time
period in order to do a spliced regression. ,
Consistency in sample homogeneity would also give credibility to this study.
Sample homogeneity would be facilitated by the use of proper commercial surimi
equipment.
Nevertheless, the results of this study are promising, and with further study,
solubilization may be a viable method for prolonging frozen storage of surimi.
80
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