Comparison of Prov and Amenemope

Comparison of the Theologies of Prov 22:17-24:22 and Amenemope

Philip Pang

Introduction

While Israel’s wisdom tradition is closely tied to Solomon, the wisdom in the East and particularly Egyptian wisdom tradition is clearly compared and contrasted to that of Solomon in 1 Kgs 4:30. As the Egyptian princess moved into Jerusalem to become Solomon’s wife, it is inevitable for a direct interface of the two traditions. Since the discovery of the Rosette stone, the ancient Egyptian world is made accessible to us. We now receive the benefits of two centuries worth of knowledge to the Hieroglyphic Ancient Egyptian.

When the wisdom tradition of Solomon is properly compare and contrast with that of its ANE parallel, it unlocks some of the difficult passages and provides valuable theological as well as exegetical insights. First Kings 4:30 informs us that Solomon was well aware of “the wisdom of all the sons of the east and all the wisdom of Egypt,” only his wisdom surpassed them all. The wisdom of Egypt is singled out probably because of its wide influence in Israel and perhaps its comparable quality with that of Solomon’s. Since the discovery of the striking similarity between the “Instruction of Amenemope” and Prov 22:17-24:221 more than 80 years ago, there has been enormous interest on various theories on the literary dependence of the two works.2

1 Proverbs 22:17-24:22 is subsequently referred to as “Wisdom Book” and abbreviated as WB in this paper. Amenemope is abbreviated to Amn and references are made not by chapter but by the convention of section and line number. The translation of Amenemope follows Lichtheim unless otherwise stated. Miriam Lichtheim, Ancient Egyptian Literature: a Book of Readings: The New Kingdom, vol. 2 (Berkeley,: University of California Press, 1976), 146-164.2 With regard to the direction of dependence, there are three major positions. There are few followers to Kevin’s suggestion of Amenemope’s dependence on Proverbs. The common source theory of Oesterley has been greatly challenged and Erman’s proposal for the dependence of Proverbs on Amenemope is being referred to as “the Erman consensus” by Black, who designates an entire chapter in his dissertation for a thorough survey on the history of major works done in the study of these two works. James Roger Black, “The Instruction of Amenemope : A Critical Edition and Commentary Prolegomenon and Prologue” (Dissertation, University of Wisconsin, 2002), 294-422, Glendon E. Bryce, A Legacy of Wisdom : the Egyptian Contribution to the Wisdom of Israel (Lewisburg Pa.: Bucknell University Press, 1979), Marion Hiller Dunsmore, “An Egyptian Contribution to the Book of Proverbs,” Journal of Religion 5 (1925), John A. Emerton, “The Teaching of Amenemope and Proverbs xxii 17-xxiv 22: Further Reflections on a Long-Standing Problem,” Vetus Testamentum 51, no. 4 (2001), Adolf Erman, “Eine agyptische Quelle der 'Spruche Salomos',” in Sitzungsberichte der Preussischen Akademie der Wissenschaften (Berlin: Philosophisch-Historische Klasse, 1924), Hugo Gressmann, “Die neugefundene Lehre des Amen-em-ope und die Vorexilische Sprunchdichtung Israels,” Zeitschrift fuer die Alttestamentliche Wissenschaft 42 (1924), Robert Oliver Kevin, “The Wisdom of Amen-em-apt and its Possible Dependence upon the Hebrew Book of Proverbs” (Dissertation, University of Pennsylvania, 1931), James M. McGlinchey, The Teaching of Amen-Em-Ope and the Book of Proverbs (Washington: Catholic University of America Press, 1939), W. O. E. Oesterley, The Wisdom of Egypt & the Old Testament in the Light of the Newly Discovered 'Teaching of Amen-em-ope', vol. viii (London Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge: New York, 1927), Paul Overland, “Structure in the Wisdom of Amenemope and Proverbs,” in "Go to the Land I will Show You" (Winona Lake, Ind : Eisenbrauns, 1996), John Ruffle, “The Teaching of Amenemope and its Connexion with the Book of Proverbs,” Tyndale Bulletin 28 (1977), Gilbert Soo Hoo, “Prov 22:17-24:22 and The Instruction of Amenemope: Literary dependence?” (Thesis (Th. M.), Capital Bible Seminary, 1996), Roger N. Whybray, “The Structure and Composition of Proverbs 22:17-24:22,” in

The dating of Amn is generally taken to be during the Ramesside period,3 which is earlier than the Solomonic period. With regard to dependence theories, the direct dependence and translation theories are to be rejected for the following reasons. 1) For the argument of similarity in structure and form, such pattern is not exclusively unique to these works but a common structural element. 2) While it is entirely possible that the reading “thirty” using the consonant of the Qere ים Kיִׁש Kִל Nִׁש in Prov 22:20 is the original reading, 4 it provides little to argue for the direct dependence theory. 3) Regarding the identification of the thirty units in Proverbs, Mercer follows Grassmann and argues against Erman that the thirty units in the WB should include the introduction and begin from 22:17.5 Murphy points out that there is a general lack of consensus in the division of the thirty sayings.6 Soo Hoo takes up this task and performs a detail analysis in proper section identification based upon linguistic cues.7 He identifies 31 units in addition to the introductory unit of 22:17-21.8 The issue of exact division of subunits is actually not as bad as it looks for there are only a few instances where division is unclear.9 4) If one were to consider dependence on subject matter, only a few subjects correspond and their order differs.10 5) There is no parallel between the two works after 23:11 and the remaining chapters of Amn finds parallels outside WB. 6) The similarity in content can be explained as a general debt as Fox explains that, “the relation between the similar proverbs may in fact be only that of the general debt of Israelite to Egyptian wisdom.”11 In light of the above reasons, a more moderate and better position would be an indirect dependence with adaptation of WB on Amn.12

The objective of this paper is to study the theological relationship between Amn and the WB to see whether there is any theological dependence between the two. The first part of this paper discusses the theology of Proverbs in general and that of the WB in particular. In a similar fashion, the study of the theology of Amn is conduced in light of the theology of Egyptian Wisdom Literature in general. In the third part of this paper, theologies of parallel passages of the two are compared and contrast to explore the common and unique theological themes of the two works.

Theology of Proverbs

Theology of Wisdom literature is challenging in how it fits with the rest of the Canon. The apparent incompatibility of Yahwehism and Wisdom has led some to the conclusion that biblical wisdom is theologically irrelevant. Murhpy rejects such dichotomy and argues that wisdom is “a basic attitude toward God and the world in which the people of Israel lived… received without any hesitation as being part of the broader revelation to the people of God…. The most obvious area in which one might expect a theological contribution from Old Testament wisdom, and from Proverbs in particular, is that of ethics… fear of the Lord; a biblical attitude towards the created world; an evaluation of riches and poverty.”13 In addition to Murphy’s list of theological contribution of Proverbs, one needs to include the concept of wisdom and folly in Proverbs. The excursus below attempts to survey their basic ideas in Proverbs.

Introduction and Structure of WB

The introduction in Prov 22:17-21 states the objective of this section quite clearly – so that the readers may gain knowledge (v.17, 21a) and benefit from it (v.18, 21b). The effect of imparting wisdom (v. 17b, 18b) into one’s life is that his “trust may be in the Lord” (22:19a). With regard to the structure, Garrett sees the first ten sayings as instructions dealing with the

Crossing the Boundaries (Leiden : E J Brill, 1994, 1994).13 Roland Edmund Murphy, Proverbs (Nashville, Tenn.: T. Nelson Publishers, 1998), 273.

1

desire for wealth through various means (22:22-23:11). From saying eleven to seventeen (23:12-28), it follows the theme of parental instruction and the remaining sayings are miscellaneous in nature.14

Theology of WB

The tetragrammaton appears five times (22:19, 23; 23:17; 24:18, 21) in this section where two of them forms an inclusio to WB exhorting one to trust and fear Yahweh. In 22:23, Yahweh is the protector and deliverer who plead for the oppressed. In 23:17, one is to fear Yahweh and put his hope on him despite seeing the prosperity of sinners. In 24:18, it is a prohibition against rejoicing over Yahweh’s judgment on the sinner lest Yahweh terminate his penalty. In the first and third instances, Yahweh plays the role of maintaining justice of helping the poor and punishing the wicked. There is a strong sense of omniscience in these texts. Yahweh is portrayed as an omniscience observer who knows about the oppression (22:23) and takes initiative to carryout the justice. In 24:18, God is the one who can see through the emotion of a person.

The advice in Prov 24:10-12 regarding the duty of rescuing those who are on the death row is significant.15 This is more an ethical command than an advice for wisdom. This section is relatively expanded, as in the case of 23:29-35, a series of rhetorical questions are used to make the case (24:12). The primary issue here is the divine concern for judicial justice. This section ends with a stern warning suggesting divine intervention and retribution will occur for when

3 Lichtheim, AEL: New Kingdom, 146.4 One must realize that the Qere reading basically lacks external support because it is only partially supported by the LXX, Syriac, Targum, and Vulgate. The LXX reading of “threefold” was followed by the Syriac, Targum and Vulgate. The external evidence is considered weak here for two reasons. First, the LXX reading is not “thirty” but “threefold.” Second, strictly speaking LXX is the only support because of the dependence. 5 Gressmann, “Die neugefundene Lehre des Amen-em-ope und die Vorexilische Sprunchdichtung Israels,”: 274, Samuel A. B. Mercer, “A New-Found Book of Proverbs,” Anglican Theological Review 8 (1926): 239.6 He identifies 30 units including the introduction. Roland Edmund Murphy, Wisdom Literature: Job, Proverbs, Ruth, Canticles, Ecclesiastes, and Esther (Grand Rapids, Mich.: W.B. Eerdmans, 1981), 74. Since the discovery of Amenemope, it is possible that scholars are biased to subdivide this section into thirty units one way or another. The fact that commentators before Amenemope, such as Toy and Delitzsch, do not agree on the subdivision may suggest that subunit boundaries are at time ambiguous.7 He identifies boundaries of sections by observing markers such as la plus jussive for admonitions and introductory markers such as , …etc. Soo Hoo, “Prov 22:17-24:22 and The Instruction of Amenemope: Literary dependence?”, 82-94.8 His identification is in agreement with Murphy except that Murhpy includes 24:10 as belonging to 25:11-12. Murphy, Wisdom Literature: Job, Proverbs, Ruth, Canticles, Ecclesiastes, and Esther, 181. Soo Hoo concludes his study that there is no literary dependence of Wisdom Book on Amenemope.9 There are generally four occasions where it is uncertain whether that verse should stand alone or included in the previous or following section. They are 23:19, 26; 24:7, 10.10 Overland manages to list 17 parallels between the two because he fragments one saying in Proverbs into multiple units and finds parallels from different places. He has four parallels in the introduction. Some of his parallels are forced. For example, Prov 22:23a, “For the LORD shall argue their case” parallels Amen 4:19, “Thou Moon, bring forward his crime!” This parallel is problematic for two reasons. First, the content bears resemblance only remotely at best. Second, Amen 4:19 is no longer addressing the one who robs the poor because the subject has already switched to the “heated man” in 4:17. Overland, “Structure in the Wisdom of Amenemope and Proverbs,”. 11 Michael V. Fox, “Two Decades of Research in Egyptian Wisdom Literature,” Zeitschrift fuer aegyptische Sprache und Altertumskunde 107 (1980): 131.12 Ruffle’s proposal of the memory theory is entirely plausible. Ruffle, “Amenemope and its Connexion,”.14 Duane A. Garrett, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, Song of Songs, vol. 14, The New American Commentary (Nashville, Tenn.: Broadman Press, 1993), 193. Mercer sees the break between the second and third section at 23:18. Mercer, “A New-Found Book of Proverbs,”: 244.

2

judicial justice is not maintained. No excuse will be accepted (v. 12a) for failure to maintain justice. From all these passages, God is portrayed as omniscience and cannot be cheated for He knows the heart (human intention). He also guards life, both the accused and the accuser. He will step in to uphold justice when the human system fails.

Wise and Fool in WB

In Proverbs, the fool is primarily placed in a practical social context without connection to any religious context.16 Unlike wisdom, the fool is not personified but is being referred to as a real person. In WB, only three different terms for “fool” are used: יִל Kִס Vיִל), 23:9 (ְּכ Kִו Y24:7,9 (ֱא( , and

ץ )24:9 (ִל\ .17

WB seems to have a rather negative portrayal of the fool. There is no mention of the terms ( ב ִ̀סר־ִל\ aי, ֲח Kִת dֶּפ ) used for a corrigible fool. The readers are advice against speaking in the ears18 of the יִל Kִס V23:9 (ְּכ( because it would be a waste of effort.19 The term יִל Kִס Vְּכ for a marginally corrigible fool is used only once in WB but in the sense that he is incorrigible. The יִל Kִו Y24:7,9 (ֱא( is placed in contrast with wisdom as done elsewhere in Proverbs. In v. 7, wisdom is unattainable or too high for him.20 The problems with the יִל Kִו Yֱא are his pride, his speeches, and his stirring up contention. Nowhere else is the יִל Kִו Yֱא directly associated with sin21 in Proverbs except for 24:9. He is placed in parallel with the ץ )24:9 (ִל\ . In the previous verse, he is the one who devises evil. There are a few instances where the description fits quite well with a fool yet there is no mention of either of the two terms for a corrigible fool. In 23:13-14, one needs not be overly concerned with being too severe when it comes to discipline. But such a rod is only fitting for a fool described elsewhere in Prov 10:13; 14:3; 22:15; 26:3; 29:15. In 23:22b, “do not despise your mother when she is old,” the child being referred to here is found in its parallel in 15:20, “a fool (יִל Kִס Vְּכ) despises his mother” where the term fool is used.

Wine is identified with the mocker (ץ in 20:1a and “whoever is intoxicated by it is not (ִל\wise” (20:1b). Except for this definition and 21:17, elsewhere in Proverbs non-figurative use of wine is basically positive (3:10; 9:2,5; 31:4-7). The primary passages where wine is extensively discussed and prohibited in Proverbs are 23:19-21, 29-35; 31:4-7. In 23:19-21, the son is warned against association with heavy drinkers but when the topic is revisited subsequently in vv. 29-35 the admonition has shifted to the heavy drinker himself.22 Again, one may expect an association of the heavy drinker with some type of fool yet there is no mention of folly here.

It seems that the concept of a fool in this section is entirely negative with the emphasizing his rejection and inability to acquire wisdom.

Egyptian Religion

22 This is by far the most lengthly discussion on a single topic within 22:17-24:22. The literary structure is unmistakable. It begins with 6 rhetorical questions (23:29), pointing out the negative side effects of wine and closes with six more negative effects (23:33-35) to form a nice inclusio. In both descriptions, there is a movement from the mental towards the physical. The introduction moves from the psychological and emotional problems (sorrow, contention and complaints) to the physical problems (wounds and redness of eyes). The conclusion moves from the mental illusions (seeing strange things) to the physical harm (beaten). The final statement of the section sums up the alcoholic problem quite nicely. There is no end and no solution to it. The concluding remark informs us that the sober moment is short because of indulgence. The central section (vv. 30-32) points out the reality of wine, as deceptive and damaging as a serpent.

3

The Egyptian religion is marked by cultic rituals rather than creed, dogma or belief. This is not to say that they are only concern with meaningless rituals. Rather, there is spirituality lying behind mythic symbols as well as the experience in the cultic myth. Tobin states well that, “Egyptian religion appears as a system or systems of cult and ritual constituting a mythic and mystical experience which constantly re-affirmed and positively affected the power and indestructibility of the life of the individual.”23 Pharaoh, the ruler, is the god incarnate and part of the mythic system. The Nile and fertile land are the gifts of god to sustain life and the Sun is the creative life power, standing in opposition to the desert – the opposite of life order.

Monotheism in Amn

With regard to the long standing debate of monotheism and polytheism of the Egyptian religion, the predominant view in the nineteenth century was that of a monotheism, more or less manifest or hidden. Rouge and Renouf proposed a henotheistic thesis that the unique deity was chosen by the individual. By the end of the century, with the discovery of the totemistic societies24 and the Pyramid Texts, it was revealed that the Old Kingdom had been polytheists. The pragmatic polytheism school championed by Adolf Erman maintains that the basic thought of the Egyptian Religion was built upon the sentiment of fear in face of nature. The archaic deities eventually evolved towards a monotheistic concept along with the civilization in the 18th Dynasty. By the mid-twentieth century, Frankfort introduced the notions of deities as animating forces of nature. This concept was then popularized by Erik Hornung and is now enjoying a rather large consensus.25

Both the Pyramid text and the Coffin Texts show deities holding nets in their hands using magic to protect the sungod. Egyptian magic is an energy, which does not require a medium to transmit, that the gods use as a weapon to strike their enemies. Hornung argues that the most powerful weapon is the creative energy of magic available only to the gods. It is through this magic that the gods impose his will on the land.26 In Amn 19:16-17 it states, “The words men say are one thing, the deeds of the god are another.”27 Based upon this passage, Hornung argues that this magic later comes to be used by mankind, who acts independently and against the gods. But only the will of the gods can produce lasting achievements.28 Despite the energy or magic of a god, man is a created being and he is neither immortal nor omnipotent. There is always room for human initiative. Since evil is inherent in the nonexistent,29 it is older than the gods and the gods are not responsible for injustice. Though theodicy is not an issue, the power of the deities is responsible for combating evil driving it out of the existent world.30

Primary purpose of the Egyptian religion is to live in accordance to with Maat – the divine cosmos order. Maat is the goddess, the abstract principle and personification. Since Maat is static and unchanging, perfect as introduced at creation, there is no Egyptian eschatology for a final goal to human history – for the goal is to maintain that order – to renew and revitalize the cultic ritual, which affirms such order. The universe was held together by such myth and cultic expression.

The polytheistic nature of the Egyptian religion is certainly one of its primary characteristics. Sauneron sees the most characteristic feature of the Egyptian religion as polytheism. Hundred of gods and goddesses were worshipped from Memphis to Aswan taking the forms of various animals such as cow, crocodiles, rams, dogs, lions, ibises, … etc., called by different names in different locations.31 Since god is often mentioned in wisdom literature without specification, this leads Sauneron to argue for monotheism in the Egyptian religion.32

4

He sees monotheism always present itself alongside the polytheistic material cults in terms of the concept of divine power applicable to all deities regardless of their limitation. The only justification for any Egyptian “monotheism” is perhaps the Akhenaten movement. Such attempt to force a foreign monotheistic concept to the Egyptian mentality has been proven to be a failure.33

According to Lichtheim’s translation of Amn, “god(s)” is used 15 times without the definite article34 and 20 times with it.35 There are occasions where a proper name of a particular god, such as Amun, Osiris, Re …etc. is expected when there is none. This leads some to conclude that Amn is monotheistic.

Mercer points out that the use with the definite article is a characteristic polytheistic expression where examples are also found in other Egyptian literatures. The definite article only suggests that a particular god is in mind.36 If Amn is monotheistic, it would be difficult to explain the mentioning of a variety of deities by name from various Egyptian pantheons.37 In many instances, “god” is used side by side with a named deity (3:1; 5:4,7; 11:2, 5…etc). Hornung writes, “Amn, whose Instruction has been dated to the Ramessid period by recent research, makes clear and frequent allusions to Thoth, the god of writing and hence of literature and wisdom, but names him only once; in the other cases he designates him indirectly by invoking his manifestations, such as the ibis, baboon, or moon.”38 Tobin rejects both the terms, ‘monotheism’ and ‘polytheism’ maintaining that they are essentially irrelevant to the Egyptian mind in the Old Kingdom.39 Hornung explains the mixed terminology saying, “[The mixed terminology] does not permit one to speak of any properly defined ‘monotheism’ in their texts, for there is never the exclusivity that must be part of any definition of monotheism.”40 In conclusion he argues for a “wild card” concept meaning “whichever god you wish” for the indefinite use of “god.” He writes, “Sometimes this is a particular god, such as Amun, Re, Ptah, and so on, in which case a demonstrative pronoun is often added… In other cases ‘god’ is used when the hearer or reader may himself choose to put a particular proper name in place.”41 Similarly, Frankfort takes the “god” to be one that fits the circumstances.42

Maat in Amn

In light of the Egyptian understanding of Maat,43 Egyptian Wisdom Literature can be viewed as a sapiential attempt to provide essential guidelines to observe, evaluate and maintain the cosmos order governed by Maat. Perdue suggests that Egyptian Wisdom is the means by which one can avoid the disastrous pitfalls of Maat violation.44 He writes, “According to this idea, a particular act or thought sets into motion a force which eventually will lead to a particular result. Therefore, a wise/righteous act leads to a beneficial result, whereas a foolish/wicked action leads to the punishment and possibly the destruction of the perpetrator… Yet retribution is not a self-generative, self-perpetuating force, but rather is regulated and overseen by the Urgott who blesses society and the individual for the maintenance and perpetuation of Ma’at.”45

The term “Maat” only appears once in chapter 20 of Amn saying, “As for Maat, a great gift of god, he gives it to whom he wishes” (21:5). Based upon this text, Brunner argues that god’s free will is unpredictable and Maat has been set aside.46 Assmann goes further and argues for the disappearance of the concept of Maat due to its replacement by the wisdom piety.47 However, the context of 21:5 does not support such idea.48 Lichtheim rejects such interpretation stating that, “thinking about Maat was linked to thinking about the will of the gods. That will was not viewed as hidden, or unpredictable, or arbitrary; quite the contrary. The texts affirm over

5

and over that a man knew what the god wished him to do… Maat thinking – the core of Wisdom – functioned in close alliance with piety. Wisdom and piety were partners in the endeavor to formulate and teach the right kind of living.”49

Concept of Egyptian Wisdom

From the 6th dynasty text of Ptahhotep in the Old Kingdom, wisdom is acquired through the ancestors who have listened to the gods (Ptahhotep 5:17). A few dynasties later, Merikare seems to affirm that wisdom is born with rather than something that can be acquired. In the Middle Kingdom text of the Story of Sinuhe (12th dynasty), the king / god seems to be the sole possessor of wisdom and knowledge (Sinuhe 45-50). By the New Kingdom, Any 10:5 clearly states that wisdom comes from god.

In later Egyptian Wisdom Literatures, wisdom belongs to the pious man who follows the way of god and wins his rewards (Insinger 29:3-5). Lictcheim summarizes well, “In the teaching of P. Insinger morality and piety have been completely fused and they are exemplified in the character of the ‘wise man,’ who is capable of enduring reversals of fortune and remains confident of vindication. His counterpart is the ‘fool’ or ‘impious man’ whose disregard of the divine commands makes him commit crimes which, inevitably, result in his punishment.”50 Shupak is of similar opinion seeing no distinction between the intellectuality and morality in Egyptian concept of wisdom.51

Unlike Proverbs, wisdom in Egyptian Literature is never personified. Rather, “wisdom” is represented by the “wise man” in Insinger. Egyptian wisdom is essentially descriptive. Frequently, when the “wise man/woman” is discussed, the concern is the description of his character (Insinger 2:23; 5:15-18; 7:10; 8:5) or his abilities / deeds (Insinger 3:19; 6:8; 10:1-3). There is only one text in Ankhsheshonq that has a direct exhortation to acquire wisdom. It states, “Do not say ‘I am learned’; set yourself to become wise. Do not do a thing that you have not first examined. Examining makes your good fortune. If you examine three wise man about a matter it is perfect; the outcome lies with the great god.” (Instruction of Ankhsheshonq 8:3-6).52 Apparently, the means to acquire wisdom is by examination and observation of how the wise handles the matter.

To conclude, from the Old Kingdom there seems to be a shift of wisdom being acquired from wise tradition to the acknowledgement that god bestows wisdom to selected individuals. Subsequently, the ultimate source of wisdom is acknowledged to be from god. In later period, along with the shift to personal piety, the means to acquire wisdom seems to have shifted back to the observation of the “wise man.”

In Amn 22:5//23:8, “Indeed you do not know the plans of god,” wisdom of god is so high that it is beyond the reach of human. From Shupak’s study of the Egyptian words in the semantic field of wisdom, “know” (si3, know) in these verses is the only “wisdom” word that occurs in Amn. Its basically meaning is “to know someone thoroughly.” Shupak sees a double sense, “of an abstract quality – perception, sagacity – and that of endowed, charismatic wisdom, possessed by gods and kings but never by ordinary mortals.”53 The focus here is on the incomprehensibility of god or wisdom, which belongs to the realm of god beyond the reach of human. Perhaps Amn lies in the transition between the ideas of the Old Kingdom of acquiring wisdom directly or indirectly from the gods to that of getting wisdom through man. That man can no longer acquire wisdom from gods in Amn may explain the shift to gaining wisdom through man.

6

Concept of Folly in Egyptian Literature

In her word study of Egyptian words in the semantic field “foolishness,” Shupak identifies seven terms relating to the semantic field of foolishness in Egyptian wisdom literature and classifies them into a scale with regard to social morality. Though all the words in the semantic field of “foolishness” are related to the intellectual ability of various capacities, foolishness in Egyptian wisdom is not merely a mental inability but also a moral deficiency. When the wise son who listens is contrasted with the foolish son who does not listen, the issue is not the lack of means for acquiring knowledge but the deliberate refusal to social norms. More frequently are those who fail to listen and obey not because of their lack of intelligence but because of their wicked nature. Less frequently are those who are ignorant because of intellectual deficiency. She proposes four levels of intellect in the semantic field of foolishness in Egyptian wisdom literature. In descending order of severity, they are: 1) intentional unwillingness to know 2) unwillingness to know 3) objective ignorance and 4) mental inability.54 In the conclusion, she writes, “Wisdom does not distinguish between intellectual and the moral aspects. In the sage’s view, the individual is part of the community, and his acts are evaluated in terms of good and ill they cause others. ‘Foolishness’ is therefore not merely a mental but also a moral deficiency.”55

Among all the related lexemes for the concept of foolishness, there is no mention of a fool in Amn except for the term hm (‘to be ignorant’ or ‘not to know’) in the epilogue. This term is classified as “good fool” in Shupak’s classification according to the moral criterion. The Egyptian believer often presents himself as “an ignorant” before his god for the expressions of his obedience and devotion.56 Apparently, the use of “ignorant” here is not intended for a character trace but a general humbling reference for a pious believer. Thus, it is clear that the prominent concept of “folly” is basically absent in Amn. This seems to be in drastic contrast with WB, where a fool is cast under a rather negative light.

The Heated and Silence Man in Egyptian Literature

Chapter four of Amn is distinct from the rest of the book in that it does not open with an admonition and it does not introduce a new subject matter.57 Perdue identifies a two strophes contrasting between the “passionate man” of ch 1-3 with the “silent man” of ch 4-7.58 A few observations regarding the tree illustrations are in place here. Though with a slightly different order, the contrast between the two trees is shown in the table below.

Heated Man’s Tree Truly Silent Man’s Tree

a. Growing in the Temple59 a’. Keeps apart60… Growing in the meadow61

7

b. Its growth of shoots last for a moment b’. Double yield, Green

d. Floated far from it place c’. In front of its lord

e. Flame is its burial d’. Provides sweet fruit and shade

c. Its end in woodshed62 e’. Its end in the garden

In contrast with the heated man, silent man places himself outside and not pushes his way to where he does not belong. The heated man is in the temple, out of place since trees are normally not grown indoors and therefore not knowing what he is doing there. He dies

62 This seems to indicate a kind of useful end but the point is not whether he is useful or not but that his life is cut short by taking away from his natural surrounding. Ibid., 480.15 This passage is difficult in the text of v.10, which is literally, “If you slack in the day of distress, narrow is your strength.” Both Toy and Murphy suggests a textual corruption here but it is better to see ַ̀צר (narrow) as a paronomasia to underscore the point of the distress (ה Nר Nַצ), as the NET Bible Prov 24:10 tn. 16 suggests. Scholars are not in agreement whether v. 10 stands alone (Garrett, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, Song of Songs, 198, Crawford Howell Toy, A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on the Book of Proverbs (New York: C. Scribner's Sons, 1899), 444-5.) or introduces vv. 11-12 Murphy, Proverbs, 181. Regarding the identification of those who are destined to death in v. 11, there are a few suggestions. Toy suggests that they may be the POW’s or innocent men wrongfully condemned to death. Garrett suggests that they are those stumbling toward death because of their moral and spiritual blindness. Murphy argues convincingly that those who are condemned must be unjust otherwise there is no reason for the command to deliver them out of the death row. It seems that the wrongfully accused view is more probable. Murphy, Proverbs, 181.16 In Shupak’s more extensive and thorough study including the entire wisdom corpus in the Hebrew Bible, she concludes that there are two levels a fool is being described – the social and the religious level. She identifies two frameworks – the familial (in the context of the father and the mother) and the community. And she sees two major character flaws of a fool – refusal to accept education / instruction and sin in speech. Nili Shupak, Where can Wisdom be Found? the Sage's Language in the Bible and in Ancient Egyptian Literature, vol. 130 (Gottingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1993), 211-12. 17 Please refer to the excursus for the discussion of these terms and arguments for their use for corrigible and incorrigible fools.18 This expression probably means conscious effort to draw attention of the listener so to ensure that the words spoken are being heard. Toy, Proverbs, 431. Prov 23:8, sn. 17 (NET).19 A similar advice is given with a different reason in 26:4. One is not to answer a fool less we become like a fool.20 The meaning of this verse is unchanged whether one make the emendation of the MT (corals) to ִתmמר Nר (high).21 Toy translates this phrase as, “Sin is folly’s intrigue.” He states, “the plan of folly is sin, in which plan may be taken as subject, and folly will then be defined as sin.” Toy, Proverbs, 444.23 Vincent Arieh Tobin, Theological Principles of Egyptian Religion (New York: Peter Lang, 1989), 5.24 The nomes were ancient clans, each with its totem.25 This is a summary of Traunecker’s brief survey to the development of the monotheism and polytheism discussion regarding the Egyptian Religion. Claude Traunecker, The Gods of Egypt, 1st English language ed. (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 2001), 9-11.26 Erik Hornung, Conceptions of God in Ancient Egypt : the one and the many (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1982), 209.27 The concept of the “will of god” appears in Amn 19:16-17; 21:14; 22:5//23:8; 24:16. In 21:14; 22:5//23, the idea is that the will (or plan) of God is beyond reach by human and 24:16 suggests that the will of god is not only sovereign but also arbitrary. No attempt for human reasoning is seen from these texts. 28 Hornung, Conceptions of God, 210.29 For the Egyptian concept of non-existence, please consult Ibid., 172-85.30 Ibid., 212-13.31 Serge Sauneron, “God,” in Dictionary of Egyptian Civilization, ed. Georges Posener, trans. Alix MacFarlane (New York: Tudor Pub. Co., 1959), 108.

8

prematurely because he is cut off from both sunlight and water, factors key to its survival.63 On the other hand, the silent tree is in the meadow, under the sun64 and where water is readily available. The focus on the silent man is his inner calmness and state of being. He is doing the right thing at the right place and time.65 Israeli makes an interesting suggestion that the heated tree needs to shoot out long roots deep into the ground in order to reach the water source because he is so remote and alone. As a result he bears no fruit because all his energy is spent on mere survival.66 Alternately, Perdue offers his interpretation stating, “the sage is prescribing the preferred behavior of the ‘silent man’ who in his decorum of discretion and his control of his passions behaves in the same manner in the cultic sphere, while by contrast the ‘passionate man,’ whose demeanor lacks self-control even in cultic activities, falsely believes that it is proximity to the divine that results in blessing, when actually, because of his overzealous and boisterous

32 Sauneron cited these examples to support his argument, ‘It is not the will of man which is realized by the plan of god’ (Ptahhotep, Old Kingdom), and ‘God knows who is working for him’ (Marikare, 11th Dynasty). Ibid., 109.33 Tobin, Theological Principles of Egyptian Religion, 169.34 3:1, 8:11; 11:2, 5; 14:2; 18:2, 5; 19:14; 21:5, 14, 15; 22:5; 23:8; 24:4; 26:13.35 2:3; 5:5, 7, 17; 6:16; 8:19; 9:5; 13:16; 14:1; 15:21; 18:11; 19:17, 20, 22; 22:7; 23:10; 24:11, 14, 20; 26:20.36 Samuel A. B. Mercer, “The Wisdom of Amenemope and Monthesim,” Egyptian Religion 2 (1934): 18.37 The names of the gods mentioned are Re, Thoth, Shu, Tefnut, Khnum, Shai, Reneit, Iahw, Min, Horus, Min-Kamephis, Apophis, Uraeus and Nebertcher. Hornung, Conceptions of God, 52, Mercer, “Amenemope and Monthesim,”: 19.38 Hornung, Conceptions of God, 54.39 Tobin, Theological Principles of Egyptian Religion, 11-12.40 Hornung, Conceptions of God, 53.41 Ibid., 59.42 Henri Frankfort, Ancient Egyptian Religion, An Interpretation (New York: Columbia University Press, 1948), 67.43 Please refer to the excursus for the development of the concept of Maat.44 Leo G. Perdue, Wisdom and Cult : A Critical Analysis of the Views of Cult in the Wisdom Literature of Israel and the Ancient Near East (Missoula, Mont.: Published by Scholars Press for the Society of Biblical Literature, 1977), 20.45 Ibid., 21.46 Hellmutt Brunner, “Der Freie Wille Gottes in der Aegyptischen Weisheit,” Les Sagesses du Proche-Orient Ancien (1963): 109.47 Jan Assmann, “State and Religion in the New Kingdom,” in Religion and Philosophy in Ancient Egypt, ed. James P. Allen, vol. 3, Yale Egyptological Studies (New Haven, Conn.: Yale Egyptological Seminar, Dept. of Near Eastern Languages and Civilizations, the Graduate School, Yale University, 1989), 72-77.48 In light of the context in 20:10-21:4, warning against favoritism to the wealthy and bribery in the law court, “Maat, a great gift of god” is best taken as referent to the fact that not everyone is able to judge fairly and honestly according to the principle of Maat. Miriam Lichtheim, Maat in Egyptian Autobiographies and Related Studies (Freiburg, Schweiz: Universitätsverlag, 1992), 100.49 Ibid.50 Miriam Lichtheim, Ancient Egyptian Literature: a Book of Readings: The Late Period, vol. 3 (Berkeley,: University of California Press, 1980), 185.51 Shupak, Where can Wisdom be Found? , 221.52 Lichtheim, AEL: Late Period, 166. Shupak dates the composition of this text to about 4th century BC. Shupak, Where can Wisdom be Found? , 23.53 Shupak, Where can Wisdom be Found? , 226.54 Ibid., 183-99.55 Ibid., 197-8.56 Ibid., 185.57 Chapter 8 is only other chapter that does not begin with an admonition. Shlomit Israeli, “Chapter Four of the Wisdom Book of Amenemope,” in Studies in Egyptology Presented to Miriam Lichtheim, ed. Sarah Israelit-Groll, vol. 1 (Jerusalem: Magnes Pr., 1990), 464.58 Perdue, Wisdom and Cult, 55.

9

behavior, he is quickly destroyed for disrupting the silence, order, and sanctity of the divine sphere. The ‘silent man’ in his religious piety continues to be characterized by discretion and a submissive faith.”67

With regard to the virtue of the silent man, Shupak concludes her study stating, “In the early period social behavior stood very much in the forefront, as is evident in the didactic instruction and the pessimistic wisdom of the First Intermediate Period and the Middle Kingdom. During this period all the positive attributes of social morality were attached to the figure of the ideal man, the ‘silent’ one. Later, when the emphasis shifted to the relationship between man and his god and with the growth of personal piety – the first signs being evident in The Instruction of Amenemope – the ‘silent man’ began to appear in religious context. The ‘silent man’ now bore the sense of ‘pious man.’”68 In Amn 7:8-10, the silent man is the one who blesses Re in the temple and anyone who clings to the silent man will find life.

Li sees the primary distinction between the heated and the silent man is one’s ability to control his temper. When dealing with a specific situation, the ability for self-control becomes a passive act to maintain Maat.69

Relationship of the Heated Man and the Fool

It is interesting to note that the central figure of Egyptian Wisdom literature, the heated man, is not associated with the fool.70 Shupak sees the general absence of the more negative term (wh3)71 from instructions in the New Kingdom. As a result of the pious motive to earn favor from the deity, it is unlikely that one would present himself as a fool. Without further elaboration or justification, she states that, “The wh3 is similar in his behavior and manners to the ‘heated’ man,’ the smm (and synonymous terms), who ‘play the role’ of the wh3 in The Instruction of Amenemope.”72 Theologically, the heated man is the focus in Amn because of his potential disturbance to the overall social morality and thus the Maat. It seems better to explain the absence of “fool” in Amn through the nature of the problem caused by the heated man and the fool. The fool primarily hurts himself and his family without jeopardizing the order of the society and therefore not being discussed in Amn.

The wise believed that the cult was an important sphere of the world order, and therefore cultic devotion should be of concern to the pious scribe. Perdue writes, “Once more we find a sage who criticizes foolish, overly zealous cultic participation by the ‘heated man’ who regards cultic participation as a guarantee of divine favor, regardless of the manner of life he leads both inside and outside the cultic realm. In contrast, he depicts the discreet behavior of the ‘silent man’ that characterizes his actions even within the sphere of the holy, and it is this behavior that achieves beneficent blessings from the divine, both within the sphere of cultic religion and without.”73

59 Israeli points out nine different translations for hnti, 1) fore-court of temple 2) outside 3) in the open 4) indoors 5) an enclosed space 6) forest 7) orchard 8) prematurely 9) frontier, front, southern part. Israeli, “Chapter Four,”, 474.60 Holding oneself apart is not a rejection to cultic duties, but rather the opposite of boisterous behavior of the fool who wrongly believes that proximity to the temple alone would negate retribution and bring blessings. Perdue, Wisdom and Cult, 58.61 Various translations for this are: 1)plantation 2) meadow 3) garden 4) a pit with a raised rim to retain water 5) area exposed to sunlight 6) canal. Israeli, “Chapter Four,”, 474.

10

Comparison of Prov 22:17-24:12 and Amn

Among the numerous alleged parallels between Prov 22:17-24:12 and Amn, many of the parallels are superficial resemblance of terminology where the contexts is clearly distinct.74 The discussion below is selective and therefore limited to those which have genuinely parallels as well as theological significance.

Comparison of the Prologues

In the prologue of Amn, the purposes for the instruction as stated are: well-being, good relation and conduct towards the magistrates, wisdom in responding to authority, walking in the right path of life, personal prosperity on earth, protection of evil by his god,75 protection from slander of others, and honor from people. Obviously, the focus here is personal prosperity and benefit. There is no statement regarding maintaining the Maat and there is no mention of any deity. It is clear that the orientation is purely humanistic, without any mention of any personal relationship between man and God.76 Waltke writes well that, “It is instructive to note that in the introduction to the “Thirty Sayings of the Wise,” which bears such a strong resemblance to chapter one in the Instruction of Amen-em-Ope, the Israelite sage uniquely adds that his purpose is that his readers’ ‘trust may be in the LORD’ (Prov 22:19, NIV). In that unique addition the essential theological relevance and distinctiveness of the biblical book stands out. That demand for faith informs the whole book (cf. Prov 3:5–6 and the recurrent expression, ‘Fear the LORD’ [1:7], which is the motto of the book).” In Amn, wisdom is the means for personal prosperity and divine protection but in Proverbs it is the means to place one’s trust in God. The theology of WB, the very core of the theology of Proverbs, stands in stark contrast with Amn.

Oppression to the Poor

In Prov 22:22-23, “Do not rob the poor because he is poor, or crush the afflicted at the gate; For the LORD will plead their case and take the life of those who rob them” (NET). The snare to rob the poor is stated as, “because he is poor” and such oppression includes social injustice and the perversion of the legal system.77 A fear tactic is used here to stop people from committing this sin. The retribution is rather severe for two reasons. First, the penalty is capital punishment. Second, Yahweh himself is the both the protector and the avenger.78 This is exactly what the Mosaic Law demands in Exod 22:20-26 (Deut 24:14-15). In Exod 22:23, one condition is required before Yahweh would intervene and carry out his judgment, it is when the oppressed cries out to him.

In Amn 4:4-9, no disincentive is given to deter oppression and the oppressed is elaborated and classified into three categories: the wretch, the cripple and the poor. Instead of fear tactic, the solution is to avoid befriending with the oppressors, perhaps suggesting oppression is contagious. The immediate section 4:10-11 prohibits the oppressed to raise an outcry or to take matters into his hand (4:10). This is exactly opposite to what is expected in Exod 22:23, where the crying out is the very means to receive deliverance from Yahweh. The reason behind the prohibition in Amn is that natural disasters will befall the oppressor. The implied judgment here is also death. Without any specific reference to any deity, it seems best to see Maat as the reason for maintaining justice for the poor.

The Heated and Silent Man

The only command ever given in Proverbs in dealing with the heated man is to stay away from them in Prov 22:24. This verse is also the only verse which provides a rationale for it - to

11

avoid being influence by him and become like him. All the remaining passages in Proverbs reference to the angry man in a descriptive manner. The angry man in Proverbs is associated with strive (15:18; 30:33) and sin (29:22) but not with a fool. The silent man, however, is associated with the quality of the sage (11:12; 17:28). In Prov 26:20, “when there is no whispering, contention quiet down,” quietness is referred to as antidote for strife. Similarly, quietness is presented in contrast to strife in 17:1. Despite the association of the heated man with strife and the silent man with subsiding strife, the heated man and the silent man are never placed antithetically together as in the case of Amn. From the relatively few occurrences of these terms, it is clear that neither the heated man nor the silent man occupies any central role in Proverbs. Apparently, the Proverbs equivalent for the heated and silent man is the wise and the fool.

The heated man in Amn is also the “hot-mouthed” man (5:10) and there are severe warnings against associations with him. One is to withdraw from him (5:15-16), not to befriend with him, not even to talk with him (11:13), not feel obligated even to greet him (13:11). Leaving him alone is equivalent to leaving him to the hands of the god (5:4). The Moon will “declare his crime” (4:19) and carry out the deserved sentence. Similarly, one is to withdraw from the hot-mouthed man so that the god can answer him. Both the heated man and silent man in Amn are placed in a temple. The heated man forces himself into it (6:1) while the other praises Re for his blessings (7:8). To conclude, both Proverbs and Amn offer the same advice of staying away from the heated man but with very different motivations. When comparing the heated man and robbing the poor, the reasons seemed to have interchanged. The god-fearing motive used in Proverbs for robbing the poor is used in the heated man in Amn and the “contagious” influence of the heated man in Proverbs is used for robbing the poor in Amn.

Admonition Not to Seek Riches

In Prov 23:4-5, the warning is against seeking wealth. Verse 4b, ִל Nָד aָך ֲח Vִת Nיָנ Kִּב Kמ is literally, “from your understanding, cease.” The term ָך Vִת Nיָנ Kִּב Kמ can be understood as “from your plan, purpose”79 or “from your wisdom / sense.”80 Gressmann’s emendation of the Hebrew to read (from your unlawful gain) without any textual evidence is clearly an attempt to harmonize Proverbs with Amn and such attempt should be rejected.81 The context seems to suggest that one should be wise enough to stop wearing oneself to again wealth. Unlike the Amn counterpart (ch 7), the issue of gaining wealth is not the means of acquisition since there is no elaboration of how one becomes rich. The reason given is plain – wealth is fleeting and no one is able to hold on to it (v. 5). Also, the lost of wealth is not viewed as divine judgment, rather it merely points out the nature of wealth acquisition.

It has frequently been pointed out the use of the Egyptian “geese” in Amn 10:4 were changed into an eagle” in Prov 23:5 for cultural adaptation.82 Theologically, they seem to be independent of each other without any sign of adaptation. The theology of Amn ch 7 needs to be read in light of ch 6, which starts with warning against greed, such as moving landmark.83 The rest of ch 6 discusses legitimate means of gaining wealth. In 8:13 it states, “Desire, then, to make yourself prosper”84 and a few lines later, “Plow your fields and you’ll find what you need, You’ll receive bread from your threshing-floor. Better is a bushel given you by the god, than five thousand through wrongdoing. They stay not a day in bin and barn” (8:17-20). It is quite clear that gaining wealth with legitimate means is not an issue in Amn. The issue is the means as states clearly in 9:16, “If riches come to you by theft, They will not stay the night with you” and again in 10:6, 10, “Do not rejoice in wealth from theft… The boat of the greedy is left in the mud.” Theologically, wealth is in the hand of Aten and one should only pray to him for the needs of his

12

life as given in 10:12-14, “You shall pray to the Aten when he rises, Saying: ‘Grant me well-being and health’; He will give you your needs for this life.” Likewise, the lost of wealth is seen as a judgment by nature as states in 9:20-10:4, “Earth opened its mouth, leveled them, swallowed them, And made them sink into dat. They made a hole as big as their size, And sank into the netherworld.”

Issues with Landmarks

The issue of ancient boundary was addressed in both Prov 22:28 and 23:10. In 22:28, the command is an isolated straight forward command without elaboration or explanation. It is essentially the same prohibition as in Deut 19:14; 27:17. In 23:10b, the condition of 22:28 is narrowed to boundary of widows and the motivation for not committing the offense is the pleading of the redeemer on her behalf (v.11). Here, the reader is assumed understanding of the procedure of land redemption by the nearest kinsman (Lev 25:25ff; Num 5:8). The implication here is that when no human redeemer is available, Yahweh himself will be the strong redeemer.85

The command seems to be motivated by concern for the defenseless widow. This is consistence with the special concern for the property of the widows (Prov 15:25b).

In Amn, the widow is also singled out as the primary victim (7:15). With more details in the context of Amn, the focus is clearly on the offender. Not only the motivation for the crime is given, the process is also described with specific details, “Do not be greedy for a cubit of land, Nor encroach on the boundaries of a widow. The trodden furrow worn down by time, He who disguises it in the fields, When he has snared (it) by false oaths” (7:14-16). Rather severe fear tactic is used here. The Moon will certainly discover the crime and will avenge the life of the offender with graphic description that, “his wealth will be seized from his children’s hands; his possessions will be given to another” (8:7-8).

Eating before Nobles

The warnings of Prov 23:1-3 for proper table manner when dinning with a ruler are threefold. First, one must eat with conscious awareness of the social status of the diner (v. 1b). Second, one must control one’s appetite (v2).86 Third, watch out for the intention behind the free meal (v. 3).87 As these warnings are given, no reason or explanation is provided. In Amn 23:13-18, instead of a warning it is a prohibition, “Do not eat” (23:13). Instead, one is to pretend chewing and satisfy oneself with the looking at the bowl (lines 15-18). Without details or reasons for such prohibition, little theological significance can be attributed to either passage. The contrast between the two passages, however, is obvious. Proverbs deals with deceptive food but Amn teaches deceptive eating.

Conclusions

The theology of Amn is clearly the maintenance of Maat. The fundamental purpose of Amn is prosperity and good life. Whybray writes, “good life is something which can be taught, communicated by one man to another without any need for divine revelation. It is basically no more than common sense.”88 The frequent claim for monotheism based upon the frequent use of “god” or “gods” in Amn is not justified for the book is clearly polytheistic with a variety of named Egyptian deities. Theologically, Amn is fully compatible with other Egyptian Wisdom Literatures.

Despite of its brevity, the theology of Proverbs 22:17-24:12 is demonstrably consistent with the rest of Proverbs and particularly so with the theology of the wise and the fool. In this

13

section, knowledge of the Mosaic Law in the Pentateuch is assumed. This section starts out with a clear purpose of assisting the reader to trust Yahweh for a godly and wise living. When its theology is compared with that of Amn, it is quite clear the two are incompatible despite their similarities in various sayings.

Mercer writes, “Hebrew writer did not copy mechanically but changed the form and content to suite his purpose”89 If Proverbs is theologically dependent upon Amn, one would expect that the named Egyptian deities in Amn would either be adapted to “Yahweh” or “god” accordingly. However, “god” never appears in Prov 22:17-24:12 and none of the five occurrences of the divine name finds any parallel to Amn. From all the Amn and WB parallels, none of them make any mention of “god.”90 From the thirty plus passages where “god” or “gods” are mentioned, many of them are theologically compatible with Yahwehism in Israel but none of them is used in WB.91

In light of the above discussion of the passages from the two works, their theology seems to contrast each other even in their parallels passages. Theologically speaking, instead of adaptation, it is possible that the author/collector of Proverbs intentionally avoids the Amn passages whenever “god” or the name of a deity is present. Regardless whether the Egyptian theology is intentionally rejected, it is clear that there is no substitution of Yahweh for the Egyptian deity, named or unnamed. Regardless of whether the dependence of WB is direct or indirect, there seems to be no direct or indirect theological relationship between the two works. With regard to the temple cult, Keimer writes, “the Jewish author completely eliminates the frequent references in Amen-em-ope to the temple-cultus (chaps. 4, 5, 8) as well as the echoes of a reward after death (chaps. 8, 25) because in the pre-Exilic period there was no belief in a judgment of the dead nor in a life after death. Herein is seen constantly a conscious rejection of that which did not correspond to the religion of the Jewish proverb-writer.”92

14

Excursus 1: Wisdom and Folly in Proverbs

Folly in Proverbs

The discussions on wisdom and folly in Proverbs are substantially more frequent than the remaining wisdom literature added together. There are 7 different roots in Semantic field of foolishness used in Proverbs.93 The nuances of each of the other five major terms are discussed below. The term ב ִ̀סר־ִל\ aֲח (one who lacks sense) is used about 10 times and mostly refer to a youth being vulnerable to social evil because of his lack of experience or education. He is tempted by “strange woman” (Prov 6:32; 7:7), gullible (17:18) and poor because of his laziness (24:30). His words are offensive (11:12) and he goes after worthless pursuits (12:11).

The י Kִת dֶּפ (simple man) is used 14 times and derives from the root פִתה meaning “open.”94 The basic idea is “be open, spacious, or wide.” It is frequently referred to the naive and immature youth unable to resist enticement. He is unaware of danger (22:3) and ended up destroying themselves by their own folly (1:32). It stands in synonymous parallel to the ב ִ̀סר־ִל\ a7:7 (ֲח( . He is the primary candidate to receive instruction for wisdom (1:4; 19:25). Apparently, both ב ִ̀סר־ִל\ aֲח and י Kִת dֶּפ are corrigible. Shupak classifies them as the first two candidates at the beginning of her spectrum labeled as “positive fool.”95

The term יִל Kִס Vְּכ is the most frequent term for a “fool” in Proverbs. It is only used three times in Psalms (49, 92, 94) outside Proverbs and Qohelet. This term refers not to mental deficiency but to the dull and obstinate person with the propensity to make wrong choices.96 He is often portrayed as a youth still within the family framework (10:1; 15:20; 17:21; 19:13). He is not the worse kind of fool but is certainly a step further than the previous categories. On the positive side, there is still hope for him for Lady Wisdom still calls out to him for wisdom and understanding (8:5). He has more hope than those who are wise in their own eyes (26:12). He is marginally corrigible, teachable only through the hard way by means of severe discipline (17:10; 19:29; 26:3). Naturally, he has no desire to learn wisdom (17:16; 18:2), incapable of learning wisdom (26:7,9), hates knowledge (1:22; 23:9), lacks concentration (17:24) and self-control (29:11), repeats his follies (26:11) and his mouth publicizes his follies (12:23; 15:2; 26:4-5). On the negative side, he sins with his speeches (10:18; 18:6-7; 19:1); he is arrogant and over confident (14:16; 28:26); he enjoys doing evil (10:23; 13:19) and has no fear for the Lord (1:29). The suggested approach to deal with the יִל Kִס Vְּכ in Proverbs is to avoid them because they are prone to cause harm or damages (13:20; 14:7; 17:12; 23:9).

The term יִל Kִו Yֱא is found 19 times in Proverbs and it is probably derived from the root ֱאִוִל, which means “to congeal” or “to thicken.”97 This may suggest the stupidity is caused by the “thick-brain.” This type of fool is not corrigible (27:22) and therefore a stronger term for the description of a fool. This term stands in antithetic parallel with ם Nָכ N98 ֲח A יִל Kִו Yֱא despises wisdom and instruction (1:7; 15:5) and therefore he makes wisdom unattainable to him (24:7). His mouth brings destruction (10:14) and he often suffers consequences of his own folly (7:22; 10:8, 10, 21; 16:22). He sins with his mouth (10:14; 17:28). He is right in his own eyes (12:15), prideful (14:3) and stir up contention and vexation (12:16; 20:3; 27:3). In Prov 24:9, his scheme is sinful (taking the ִת dִל dֶּו Kַּ̀מִת ֱא Kִז as the genitive of source meaning the plan coming out of a fool). It is impossible to remove his folly (27:22) and there is no hope to settle matters with him (29:9).

The term ץ appears 14 times in Proverbs and two times (1:22; 29:8) as (ליץ ,Qal ptcp) ִל\noun (ַצֹון Nִל). A ץ ַצֹון /ִל\ Nִל is “a mocker or a man of scorning” and the basic meaning of the root ִלִוץ

15

is “to speak boastfully.”99 He is worst than the יִל Kִו Yֱא because not only is he incorrigible (15:12) one gets humiliated in attempt to correct him (9:7-8). Proverbs 19:25a, “Flog a mocker, and the simple will learn prudence,” informs us that the mocker should be flog not that he will be corrected as a result, rather the י Kִת dֶּפ, the simple and easily persuaded fool may benefit from him. The same idea is expressed in 21:11. A mocker will receive the penalties prepared for him (19:29). His primary characteristic seems to be his delight in his mockery (1:22) and his rejection and resentment to any effort to point out or correct his follies (9:7-8; 13:1; 15:12). Perhaps the root cause to his follies is his excessive pride (21:24). He is placed in antithetic parallel with the humble (3:34).100 (Naturally, it is impossible for such a person to find any wisdom or knowledge (14:6). He is abominable to all (24:9) and his influence is analogous to wine (20:1), leading others astray. Since there is no hope to change them nor any remedy to undo the effect of their destruction, the drastic measure of expelling him from the community is recommended (22:10).

To conclude, Proverbs seems to outline a spectrum of folly with the corrigible ones on one end and the incorrigible ones on the other end. These terms are discussed above in the order of increasing severity of foolishness. As the spectrum moves further down to the incorrigible end, there seems to be an accumulating effect with additional features of folly. The characteristics of the fool are frequently illustrated in contrast to the wise. For the corrigible fool, there is no statement regarding wisdom in dealing with them because there is still hope for them. From the marginally corrigible fool to the incorrigible fool, the measure against them increases according to their follies. We are told to avoid the יִל Kִס Vְּכ for our own benefit and there is no hope to settle disputes with the יִל Kִו Yֱא. For the ץ the only solution is to expel them from the ,ִל\community.

Wisdom in Proverbs

With regard to the lexemes belonging to the field of wisdom, there are 9 key terms.101 Apparently, it is beyond the scope of this paper to discuss these terms in details. Their theological significances of the terms that appear in Proverbs 22:17-24:22 are summarized below. The term ָמ�הָח�ְכ (wisdom) is the most generic and common term for wisdom. It is a polysemic word referring to practical wisdom, cleverness / wit, and divine wisdom.102 The adjective ם Nָכ Nֲח (wise) is someone who has acquired knowledge in everyday life and is ready to impart to others.103 The wise is often contrasted with the fool both in terms of intellectual faculties (21:20; 14:24) and morality (3:35; 9:8; 14:8; 15:20). Such contrast is applied in the area of self control in emotion (29:9,11).

The term ת ַע� refers to the knowledge imparted by the teacher. Wisdom (knowledge) ַּדplays the role of the teacher to educate the fool who rejects knowledge (1:22-23, 29). The fear of the Lord is not only the beginning of ת ַע� )1:7 (ַּד but is also the means which the ת ַע� of God can ַּדbe obtained. This term is used in synonymous parallel with ָמ�ה30:3; 10, 2:6 (ָח�ְכ( and used interchangeably with it (1:7 and 9:10). Knowledge is to be sought (15:14; 18:15) and gained through learning (21:11; 22:17, 20-21; 23:12). It is analogous to choice gold or treasures (8:9-12; 20:15; 24:4) and is in possession by the wise and prudence (12:1; 12:23; 13:15; 14:6, 18; 15:2, 7; ). It has the power (24:5) to deliver the righteous (11:9).

The term ה Nיָנ Kִּב (understanding) occurs 13 times in Proverbs refer primarily to the very human faculty and mental ability to understand.104 On one hand people are encouraged to seek such understanding (2:3; 4:1, 5, 7) yet on the other hand one is not to rely on such understanding (3:5). On the positive side, such understanding can protect us from “strange woman” (7:4-5) and

16

its value is compared with silver (16:16). Never should one let it go easily (23:23). Negatively, one is warned against using such understanding/wisdom as a means to gain wealth (23:4). It is personified (8:14) in the same way wisdom is personified. The personified wisdom exhorts one to live on such understanding (9:6), which is equated to the knowledge of Yahweh (9:10). Similar to the above terms, there is an emphasis on acquiring ה Nיָנ Kִּב. The new element here is that such wisdom could potentially be dangerous and subject to misuse.

The term ִל dָכ occurs six times in Proverbs. This term can be used (prudence, insight) ֵׂש\both in the positive (prudence) or negative sense (cunning) but is never used negatively in Proverbs.105 It is the foundation of life to the wise (16:22) but utterly rejected by the fool (23:9). The possessor of ִל dָכ is able to control his anger (19:11) and will receive praises (12:8). It is ֵׂש\gained through close attention to the instruction of the father and such success is recognized by both human and divine (3:4). Similar to ה Nיָנ Kִּב, this term is not for purely human wisdom. Unlike ה Nיָנ Kִּב, it is not related to the fear of Yahweh and it seems to describe the positive effects of gaining wisdom.

Based upon the above analysis, wisdom is something to be acquired through receiving instructions (often from the parents) as well as from the fear of Yahweh. The emphasis lies more on the moral and spiritual aspect than the intellectual aspect. The results of living a life by wisdom is often contrasted with the fool. Some terms of wisdom are limited to human wisdom only.

Excursus 2: Brief History of Development of the Egyptian Concept of Maat

The earliest statement about Maat is found in tomb inscriptions by the end of 5th dynasty. Lichtheim suggests a standard autobiographical tripartite declaration with 1) the introductory formula, “I come from my town,” 2) I have spoken or done Maat and 3) specification of what doing Maat is – a list of good deeds such as not hurting others and doing good.106 In its earliest stage, Maat is virtues performed by doing or speaking needed to stand well with the gods and his virtues are evaluated in retrospect from the burial. Lichtheim defines Maat as, “loving the good, hating wrongdoing, and obtaining a state of honor with the king and with the god.”107 The motivation for doing Maat is to do what the gods desire – men, as incumbent on earth, must live the principle of right order by which the gods lived.108

In later period, the second element in the tripartite declaration is absent because Maat has become associated with public service and with rank thus becoming weighty and solemn. By the 11th dynasty, with the discovery of the sources of selfhood and the inner directedness of the heart and the character, the second element is replaced by “having done what people love and gods praise” or “am one who made his character, one beloved of people each day.”109 Lichtheim writes, “Inner-directness left room for divine or human guidance, even though a hardy soul might attribute all his competence to his own good natural endowment, unaided by parental teaching, as did the minor Abydene priest Mentuhotep.”110

During the New Kingdom, the connection between Maat on earth and a blessing in the afterlife as its reward is clearly established. Rather than a blanket term for good behavior, Maat refers specifically to truth and fair dealing. Along with the realization that the moral qualities and evil inclination are both born with (as opposed to a matter of education), the paradigm of “foolish and evil son” and “the wise and the virtuous son” is developed. Subsequently, Maat is applied to kingship referring to truth telling of honest administrators when carrying out the laws justice and benevolence for all. 111

17

The major innovation in the 18th Dynasty autobiographies is that men and women are depicted as worshipping gods. When gods are invoked more directly and frequently the realm of personal afterlife is also expanded to the celestial regions where gods dwells. The statements from Paheri that, “I knew there is a god in man” (Urk. IV. 119.15) and “whoever will bend the hand will be in the condition of Maat” (121.12) suggests an increasing sense of divine presence along with the piety development. The essence of Maat now encompasses in doing what people love and gods praise, which is essentially loyal service to the king and god.112 The individual focus is seen from the asking for a blessed afterlife as a reward for the earthly righteousness in the prayer to Osiris. Near the end of the 18th dynasty, Amenhotep declared that there is none beside the sudgod Re. Lichtheim writes, “Akhenaten’s revolutionary disavowal of all gods except the sungod drastically reduced the scope of autobiographical inscriptions of royal officials. They now consist of adulations of Akhenaten, hymns to the sundisk, and self-presentations limited to assertions of efficiency and kindness, and above all, loyalty to the king and to his teaching. That teaching declared that on earth Akhenaten alone was the fount and dispenser of Maat. The courtiers possessed Maat by virtue of having been taught by the king.”113 Tobin summarizes the Amarna concept of Maat writing, “because of this peculiar Egyptian concept the universe was seen as essentially benevolent to man. It was ordered, regular and dependable, under the rule of the divine… the concept of a perfect universe which could not be totally destroyed.”114

After the death of Akhenaten, the great upheaval and the rejection of his teaching resulted in all the gods restored to their seats. Maat was returned to the traditional Maat thinking, the principle of right-truth-justice but with the added nuance of personification.115 In the litany of Neferhotep, the chief scribe of Amun, hails Re as the maker of Maat.

At the beginning of the Ramesside period, man’s declarations of their own Maat doing takes on greater scope and urgency. Personal piety is seen from their appeal to the gods more directly and intimately asking them to be witnesses of their Maat doing. The privilege to pray for health, happiness and personal needs in this life and rewards in the afterlife is now extended to an average person. Lichtheim sees the statement, “I know the god acts for the rightminded,” as the credo of Maat in the New Kingdom and thereafter.116

18

Bibliography

Assmann, Jan. “State and Religion in the New Kingdom.” In Religion and Philosophy in Ancient Egypt, ed. James P. Allen, Yale Egyptological Studies, vol. 3, 55-88. New Haven, Conn.: Yale Egyptological Seminar, Dept. of Near Eastern Languages and Civilizations, the Graduate School, Yale University, 1989.

Black, James Roger. “The Instruction of Amenemope : A Critical Edition and Commentary Prolegomenon and Prologue.” Dissertation, University of Wisconsin, 2002.

Brunner, Hellmutt. “Der Freie Wille Gottes in der Aegyptischen Weisheit.” Les Sagesses du Proche-Orient Ancien (1963): 103-120.

Bryce, Glendon E. A Legacy of Wisdom : the Egyptian Contribution to the Wisdom of Israel. Lewisburg Pa.: Bucknell University Press, 1979.

Dunsmore, Marion Hiller. “An Egyptian Contribution to the Book of Proverbs.” Journal of Religion 5 (1925): 300-308.

Emerton, John A. “The Teaching of Amenemope and Proverbs xxii 17-xxiv 22: Further Reflections on a Long-Standing Problem.” Vetus Testamentum 51, no. 4 (2001): 431-465.

Erman, Adolf. “Eine agyptische Quelle der 'Spruche Salomos'.” In Sitzungsberichte der Preussischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, 86-93. Berlin: Philosophisch-Historische Klasse, 1924.

Fox, Michael V. “Two Decades of Research in Egyptian Wisdom Literature.” Zeitschrift fuer aegyptische Sprache und Altertumskunde 107 (1980): 120-35.

Frankfort, Henri. Ancient Egyptian Religion, An Interpretation. New York: Columbia University Press, 1948.

Garrett, Duane A. Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, Song of Songs, vol. 14. The New American Commentary. Nashville, Tenn.: Broadman Press, 1993.

Gesenius, Wilhelm, and Samuel Prideaux Tregelles. Gesenius's Hebrew and Chaldee Lexicon to the Old Testament Scriptures. London: S. Bagster, 1846.

Goldberg, Louis. “bina.” In Theological Wordbook of the Old Testament, ed. R. Laird Harris, Gleason Leonard Archer, and Bruce K. Waltke, 104. Chicago: Moody Press, 1980.

________. “kesil.” In Theological Wordbook of the Old Testament, ed. R. Laird Harris, Gleason Leonard Archer, and Bruce K. Waltke, vol. 1, 449. Chicago: Moody Press, 1980.

19

Gressmann, Hugo. “Die neugefundene Lehre des Amen-em-ope und die Vorexilische Sprunchdichtung Israels.” Zeitschrift fuer die Alttestamentliche Wissenschaft 42 (1924): 272-96.

Hornung, Erik. Conceptions of God in Ancient Egypt : the one and the many. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1982.

Israeli, Shlomit. “Chapter Four of the Wisdom Book of Amenemope.” In Studies in Egyptology Presented to Miriam Lichtheim, ed. Sarah Israelit-Groll, vol. 1, 464-484. Jerusalem: Magnes Pr., 1990.

63 Perdue, Wisdom and Cult, 56.64 The silent tree prosper because he is outside under the sun, that is under the care of the sungod.65 Israeli, “Chapter Four,”, 472-3.66 Ibid., 482.67 Perdue, Wisdom and Cult, 57.68 Shupak, Where can Wisdom be Found? , 166.69 Li uses the situation in chapter 21 to argue his case. When confronted by an oppressor, one is not to ask for help from his god because one does not know the plan of god. Rather he is to stay in his harmony with god and overcome the adversary with his silent. Derek S L. Li, “The Sage in the Egyptian Instruction of Amenemope,” CGST Journal, no. 18 (1995): 77-79.70 In Shupak’s extensive word study of lexemes related to “foolishness” in Egyptian wisdom literature, none of the examples used are related to the heated man. Shupak, Where can Wisdom be Found? , 183-199. 71 This is a more neutral term for “fool” with the nuance of rejection of social norm and failure to distinguish between good and evil. He does not endanger social order or abuses other people. The primary victim is himself or his family. Ibid., 185-6.72 Ibid., 196.73 Perdue, Wisdom and Cult, 59.74 For example, Prov 23:6-7, “Do not eat bread with a selfish man, or desire his delicacies” and Amenemope 14:5-6, “Do not covet a poor man’s goods, nor hunger for his bread” the warning against eating in Proverbs is that the person is stingy but in Amenemope the problem is the covetousness of the food of the poor. 75 Lichtheim points out that the heart is to be viewed as the god who dwells in man. Therefore the statement, “To let his heart enter its shrine, steering clear of evil” probably refers to the protection by the deity of the shrine. Lichtheim, AEL: New Kingdom.76 Roger N. Whybray, Wisdom in Proverbs, vol. 45 (Naperville, Ill: Alec R Allenson, 1965), 58.77 The crushing of the afflicted at the gate in v. 22b is taken as corruption of legal system because the gate is the law court equivalent of our day. 78 Yahweh himself is the avenger probably because the crime of oppression is not tangible and very difficult to concretely define even by the case laws. Suppose the owner oppresses his worker by underpaying them, it is very difficult to draw the line to what point it is oppression. Here, Yahweh himself protects those who are beyond the protection of the Mosaic Law, thus reveal his care for the underprivileged. The best example is found before this law was given, the killing of the first born of the Egyptians in respond to the crying out of Israel against their oppressors.79 Garrett, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, Song of Songs, 195, Toy, Proverbs, 429.80 Murphy, Proverbs, 171. NET.81 Gressmann, “Die neugefundene Lehre des Amen-em-ope und die Vorexilische Sprunchdichtung Israels,”: 276. Mercer follows Grassmann and translate 4b as, “and cease from thy dishonest gain.” Samuel A. B. Mercer, “The Wisdom of Amenemope and His Religious Ideas,” Egyptian Religion 2 (1934): 61.82 Ludwig Keimer, “The Wisdom of Amen-em-ope and the Proverbs of Solomon,” The American Journal of Semitic Language 43 (1926-1927): 20, Mercer, “A New-Found Book of Proverbs,”: 240.83 There is an inclusio in ch 6 (7:12//8:9, line 1 and 20), “borders of the fields,” enclosed within is the warning against illegitimate greed. 84 This is Simpson’s translation. William Kelly comp Simpson, The Literature of Ancient Egypt; an Anthology of Stories, Instructions, and Poetry, New ed. (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1973), 248.85 Murphy, Proverbs, 175, Toy, Proverbs, 432.

20

Keimer, Ludwig. “The Wisdom of Amen-em-ope and the Proverbs of Solomon.” The American Journal of Semitic Language 43 (1926-1927): 8-21.

Kevin, Robert Oliver. “The Wisdom of Amen-em-apt and its Possible Dependence upon the Hebrew Book of Proverbs.” Dissertation, University of Pennsylvania, 1931.

Köhler, Ludwig et al. “binah.” In The Hebrew and Aramaic Lexicon of the Old Testament. Leiden; Boston: Brill, 2001.

________. “lyts.” In The Hebrew and Aramaic Lexicon of the Old Testament. Leiden ; Boston: Brill, 2001.

________. “pth I.” In The Hebrew and Aramaic Lexicon of the Old Testament. Leiden ; Boston: Brill, 2001.

________. “'wl.” In The Hebrew and Aramaic Lexicon of the Old Testament. Leiden; Boston: Brill, 2001.

Li, Derek S L. “The Sage in the Egyptian Instruction of Amenemope.” CGST Journal, no. 18 (1995): 67-85.

86 The metaphor, “put a knife to your throat” can be taken either as self-restraint in eating or eating that may endanger one’s life. The former is to be preferred since it is an idiom meaning curbing one’s appetite and is a common ANE admonition regarding table manner. Murphy, Proverbs, 174, W. O. E. Oesterley, The Book of Proverbs (London,: Methuen, 1929), 197. NET Prov 23:2 n. 3. 87 Both Oesterley and Toy see v. 3 as misplaced because the deceptive food does not seem to fit the context of controlling one’s appetite. This difficulty is resolved by Murphy’s suggestion that the purpose of the free meal is to test the character of the person. Murphy, Proverbs, 174, Oesterley, The Book of Proverbs, 198, Toy, Proverbs, 429.88 Whybray, Wisdom in Proverbs, 61.89 Mercer, “A New-Found Book of Proverbs,”: 240.90 Keimer, “The Wisdom of Amen-em-ope and the Proverbs of Solomon,”: 20.91 For example, the Egyptian theology regarding the plan of god is unknowable (22:5; 23:8), security in god (11:2, 5; 14:1; 22:7; 23:10; 24:20), divine retribution (5:4) and passages about god’s objection to falsehood (13:16; 14:2; 15:21).92 Keimer, “The Wisdom of Amen-em-ope and the Proverbs of Solomon,”: 20-21.93 They are ב ִ̀סר־ִל\ aי, ֲח Kִת dיִל, ֶּפ Kִס Vיִל, ְּכ Kִו Yץ, ֱא ִל, ִל\ Nב Nָנ , and ַ̀ער Nִּב, where the last two terms only occurs five times in total. 94 Ludwig Köhler et al., “pth I,” in The Hebrew and Aramaic Lexicon of the Old Testament (Leiden ; Boston: Brill, 2001).95 She defines “positive fool” as those who are corrigible. Shupak, Where can Wisdom be Found? , 214.96 Louis Goldberg, “kesil,” in Theological Wordbook of the Old Testament, ed. R. Laird Harris, Gleason Leonard Archer, and Bruce K. Waltke, vol. 1 (Chicago: Moody Press, 1980), 449.97 Ludwig Köhler et al., “'wl,” in The Hebrew and Aramaic Lexicon of the Old Testament (Leiden; Boston: Brill, 2001).98 Shupak, Where can Wisdom be Found? , 204.99 Ludwig Köhler et al., “lyts,” in The Hebrew and Aramaic Lexicon of the Old Testament (Leiden ; Boston: Brill, 2001).100 The LXX renders “mocker” here as “proud,” apparently identifying the mocker according to his primary characteristic.

21

Lichtheim, Miriam. Ancient Egyptian Literature: a Book of Readings: The New Kingdom, vol. 2. Berkeley,: University of California Press, 1976.

________. Ancient Egyptian Literature: a Book of Readings: The Late Period, vol. 3. Berkeley,: University of California Press, 1980.

________. Maat in Egyptian Autobiographies and Related Studies. Freiburg, Schweiz: Universitätsverlag, 1992.

McGlinchey, James M. The Teaching of Amen-Em-Ope and the Book of Proverbs. Washington: Catholic University of America Press, 1939.

Mercer, Samuel A. B. “A New-Found Book of Proverbs.” Anglican Theological Review 8 (1926): 237-44.

________. “The Wisdom of Amenemope and His Religious Ideas.” Egyptian Religion 2 (1934): 27-69.

________. “The Wisdom of Amenemope and Monthesim.” Egyptian Religion 2 (1934): 18-20.

Murphy, Roland Edmund. Wisdom Literature: Job, Proverbs, Ruth, Canticles, Ecclesiastes, and Esther. Grand Rapids, Mich.: W.B. Eerdmans, 1981.

________. Proverbs. Nashville, Tenn.: T. Nelson Publishers, 1998.

Oesterley, W. O. E. The Wisdom of Egypt & the Old Testament in the Light of the Newly Discovered 'Teaching of Amen-em-ope', vol. viii. London Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge: New York, 1927.

________. The Book of Proverbs. London,: Methuen, 1929.

101 They are ת ַע� ה, ָח�ְכָמ�ה, ַּד Nיָנ Kה, ִּב Nבֶּוָנ Vִל, ִת dָכ �ָמ��ה, ֵׂש\ ִז ��ה, ַע�ְרָמ�ה, ָמ �ִׁש��י ��ִׁש�ְר�ּון, ת�ּו ְכ . 102 Shupak, Where can Wisdom be Found? , 240-42.103 Ibid., 326.104 Louis Goldberg, “bina,” in Theological Wordbook of the Old Testament, ed. R. Laird Harris, Gleason Leonard Archer, and Bruce K. Waltke (Chicago: Moody Press, 1980), 104, Ludwig Köhler et al., “binah,” in The Hebrew and Aramaic Lexicon of the Old Testament (Leiden; Boston: Brill, 2001).105 Wilhelm Gesenius and Samuel Prideaux Tregelles, Gesenius's Hebrew and Chaldee Lexicon to the Old Testament Scriptures (London: S. Bagster, 1846), 790.106 Lichtheim, Maat, 9-10.107 Ibid., 11.108 Ibid., 19.109 Ibid., 25-6.110 Ibid., 26.111 Ibid., 36-42.112 Ibid., 51.113 Ibid., 61.114 Tobin, Theological Principles of Egyptian Religion, 86.115 Lichtheim, Maat, 63.116 Ibid., 89.

22

Overland, Paul. “Structure in the Wisdom of Amenemope and Proverbs.” In "Go to the Land I will Show You", 275-291: Winona Lake, Ind : Eisenbrauns, 1996.

Perdue, Leo G. Wisdom and Cult : A Critical Analysis of the Views of Cult in the Wisdom Literature of Israel and the Ancient Near East. Missoula, Mont.: Published by Scholars Press for the Society of Biblical Literature, 1977.

Ruffle, John. “The Teaching of Amenemope and its Connexion with the Book of Proverbs.” Tyndale Bulletin 28 (1977): 29-68.

Sauneron, Serge. “God.” In Dictionary of Egyptian Civilization, ed. Georges Posener, 108-111. New York: Tudor Pub. Co., 1959.

Shupak, Nili. Where can Wisdom be Found? the Sage's Language in the Bible and in Ancient Egyptian Literature, vol. 130. Gottingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1993.

Simpson, William Kelly comp. The Literature of Ancient Egypt; an Anthology of Stories, Instructions, and Poetry. New ed. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1973.

Soo Hoo, Gilbert. “Prov 22:17-24:22 and The Instruction of Amenemope: Literary dependence?” Thesis (Th. M.), Capital Bible Seminary, 1996.

Tobin, Vincent Arieh. Theological Principles of Egyptian Religion. New York: Peter Lang, 1989.

Toy, Crawford Howell. A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on the Book of Proverbs. New York: C. Scribner's Sons, 1899.

Traunecker, Claude. The Gods of Egypt. 1st English language ed. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 2001.

Whybray, Roger N. Wisdom in Proverbs, vol. 45. Naperville, Ill: Alec R Allenson, 1965.

________. “The Structure and Composition of Proverbs 22:17-24:22.” In Crossing the Boundaries, 83-96: Leiden : E J Brill, 1994, 1994.

23