COMPARISON OF CONCENTRATING PHOTOVOLTAIC (CPV) CONFIGURATION FOR PHOTOVOLTAIC (PV) APPLICATION MURNIZA BT MOHD ISA UNIVERSITI TUN HUSSEIN ONN MALAYSIA
COMPARISON OF CONCENTRATING PHOTOVOLTAIC (CPV)
CONFIGURATION FOR PHOTOVOLTAIC (PV) APPLICATION
MURNIZA BT MOHD ISA
UNIVERSITI TUN HUSSEIN ONN MALAYSIA
3
This thesis has been examined on the date 25th May 2016 and is sufficient in
fulfilling the scope and quality for the purpose of awarding the Degree of Masters in
Electrical Engineering.
Chaiperson: PROF. MADYA DR. KOK BOON CHING
Faculty of Electrical and Electronic Engineering
Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia (UTHM)
Examiners: PROF. MADYA DR. GAN CHIN KIM
Faculty of Electrical Emgineering
Universiti Teknikal Malaysia Melaka (UTEM)
DR. WAHYU MULYO UTOMO
Faculty of Electrical and Electronic Engineering
Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia (UTHM)
4
COMPARISON OF CONCENTRATING PHOTOVOLTAIC (CPV)
CONFIGURATION FOR PHOTOVOLTAIC (PV) APPLICATION
MURNIZA BT MOHD ISA
A thesis submitted in
fulfillment of the requirement for the award of the
Degree of Master of Electrical Engineering
Faculty of Electrical and Electronic Engineering
Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia
MAY 2016
6
For my beloved beloved parents, Mohd Isa Hamid and Zabidah Yunus and beloved
siblings,Norafiza, Norizwana, Muhammaed Zakree, Muhammaed Fikree and
Muhammaed Azree for their motivation and inspiration.
To all those who believe in the richness of learning
iii
7
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
Alhamdulillah. I am so grateful to Allah s.w.t for giving me strength and guidance
throughout my studies. Again, thank you Allah for easing my path towards Your
knowledge.
I would like to express my deepest and sincere gratitude to my supervisor Dr.
Rahisham bin Abd.Rahman for his excellent guidance, supervision and abundant
support which help me a lot to complete this thesis successfully.
My special thanks to PM. Ir. Dr. Goh Hui Hwang for his excellent guidance
and knowledge of solar energy. Thanks to all Lab technicians who had contributed to
the completion of this project.
Lots of gratitude to financial support of “Research Acculturation Grant
Scheme (RAGS)” and Kementerian Pengajian Tinggi Malaysia (KPM) for granted
me the scholarship.
Last but not least, I would like to give my big thanks to my parents, brothers,
sister and friends for their support, love and patience. Without their encouragement,
motivation and understanding it is hard for me to complete this work
iv
8
ABSTRACT
Concentrated Photovoltaic (CPV) is a well-known technology that relies essentially
on the design and fabrication of a concentrator optic part and with the use of
Compound Parabolic Concentrator (CPC) as a basic shape. However, common
drawbacks of the 3-dimension (3-D) CPC are the decreasing geometrical
concentration ratio which leads to the reduction of the optical and cell output
performance. The aim of this research is to perform comparative studies of the
Rectangular Compound Parabolic Concentrator (RCPC) by combining reflective
surface and refractive dielectric materials. The proposed concentrator model was
designed by intersecting two 2-dimension (2-D) compound parabolic concentrators
(CPC). A basic formulation characteristic of CPC shape was used to create RCPC
design configuration with a geometrical concentration ratio of 4 and a maximum half
acceptance angle = 14.5° as the final parameters. A typical silicone PV cell was
used as a receiver for the RCPC design. An optical ray-tracing simulation technique
was employed to measure and evaluate the optical performance for three different
RCPC cases in terms of surface and dielectric material selections. The comparison of
optical performance of RCPC mirror, RCPC dielectric and RCPC coated solar
concentrator was studied and the effects of light distribution on the receiver was also
analyzed. Simulation results showed that the RCPC coated maintained the half
acceptance angle when the incidence angle was larger, that is with a maximum half
acceptance angle, = 14.5° and the flux distribution on the PV cell was uniformed
compared to the RCPC mirror and RCPC dielectric. It is illustrated that the RCPC
coated which was orientated facing toward the sun based on site location resulted in
12% higher in total collected energy at the PV cell detector and a 95% increase in
electrical efficiency compared to conventional PV.
v
9
ABSTRAK
Penumpu Fotovolta (CPV) merupakan teknologi terkenal yang bergantung pada
dasar reka bentuk dan fabrikasi bahagian penumpu optik dan Penumpu Kompaun
Parabola (CPC) digunakan sebagai bentuk asas. Walau bagaimanapun, salah satu
kelemahan 3-dimensi CPC adalah pengurangan nisbah kepekatan geometri yang
member kesan kepada prestasi optik dan sel. Tujuan utama kajian ini bagi
melaksanakan kajian perbandingan Segi Empat Tepat Penumpu (RCPC) dengan
menggabungkan permukaan reflektif dan bahan dielektrik. Cadangan model
penumpu solar ini telah direka dengan persilang dua 2-D penumpu kompaun
parabola (CPC). Formula asas ciri bentuk CPC telah digunakan untuk mencipta reka
bentuk konfigurasi RCPC dengan nisbah kepekatan geometri 4 dan maksimum
setengah sudut penerimaan = 14.5 ° sebagai parameter akhir. Sel silikon PV yang
biasa digunakan telah di pilih sebagai penerima. Teknik simulasi sinar-kerja optik
telah digunakan untuk mengukur dan menilai prestasi optik tiga kes RCPC yang
berbeza dari segi permukaan dan pilihan bahan dielektrik. Perbandingan prestasi
optik RCPC cermin, RCPC dielektrik dan RCPC bersalut penumpu solar telah dikaji
dan kesan taburan cahaya pada penerima juga sedang dianalisis. Hasil simulasi
menunjukkan bahawa RCPC bersalut mengekalkan sudut penerimaan separuh
apabila sudut tuju adalah lebih besar, di mana maksimum sudut penerimaan separuh,
= 14.5 ° dan taburan fluks pada sel PV adalah seragam berbanding dengan cermin
RCPC dan RCPC dielektrik. Ini menggambarkan bahawa RCPC bersalut yang
berorientasikan menghadap ke arah matahari berdasarkan tapak lokasi menghasilkan
jumlah tenaga yang dikumpul 12% lebih tinggi pada pengesan sel PV dan 95%
peningkatan kecekapan elektrik berbanding konvensional PV.
vi
vii
CONTENTS
TITLE i
DECLARATION ii
DEDICATION iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT iv
ABSTRACT v
ABSTRAK vi
CONTENTS vii
LIST OF FIGURES xii
LIST OF TABLES xvi
LIST OF SYMBOLS AND ABBREVIATION xvii
LIST OF APPENDICES xx
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 Project background 1
1.2 Problem statements 2
1.3 Objectives 4
1.4 Project scope 5
1.5 Contribution of the thesis 5
1.6 Thesis organization 6
CHAPTER 2 REVIEW ON CONCENTRATING
PHOTOVOLTAIC (CPV) TECHNOLOGY 7
2.1 Introduction 7
2.2 Solar energy technologies 7
viii
2.2.1 Concentrated solar power 7
2.2.2 Photovoltaic (PV) 8
2.2.3 PV technology in Malaysia 10
2.3 Concentrating Photovoltaic (CPV) 11
2.3.1 History of CPV 12
2.3.2 Terms and Concepts 14
2.4 CPV configuration 15
2.4.1 Concentration factor 15
2.4.2 Optic 16
2.4.2.1 Reflective optic 17
2.4.2.2 Refractive optic 18
2.4.3 Solar cell 18
2.4.4 Cooling 18
2.4.5 Sun tracking system 19
2.5 Fundamental optics applied to solar
concentration 19
2.5.1 Concentration Ratio ( 20
2.5.2 Aperture ( 21
2.5.3 Acceptance angle 21
2.6 Review of solar concentrator design 21
2.7 Concentrator design work in Malaysia 24
2.7.1 Summary of previous R&D solar
concentrator 27
2.8 Previous research on NIO solar
concentrator using CPC 31
2.9 Summary 32
CHAPTER 3 METHODOLOGY 33
3.1 Introduction 33
ix
3.2 Non-imaging solar concentrator design 33
3.3 Design consideration Compound
Parabolic Concentrator 33
3.3.1 Design principle of geometrical
CPC 34
3.3.2 Dimensions of CPC 35
3.4 Edge ray principle 37
3.5 Ray-tracing technique 37
3.6 Designing Rectangular Compound
Parabolic Concentrator (RCPC) 38
3.6.1 Design principle of geometry
RCPC 38
3.6.2 3-D RCPC Simulation
Construction Model 40
3.6.3 Surface and material selection 42
3.6.4 Optical modeling simulation
using ray-tracing TracePro 43
3.7 TracePro Solar Emulator 45
3.8 Cases Optical Analysis of 2D-CPC using
TracePro 46
3.8.1 Case 1:2-D Common CPC
mirror 46
3.8.2 Case 2: 2-D CPC dielectric
material 47
3.9 Cases Optical Analysis of RCPC using
TracePro 48
3.9.1 Case 1: RCPC mirror 48
3.9.2 Case 2: RCPC dielectric material 48
3.9.3 Case 3: RCPC coated 49
x
3.10 Summary 50
CHAPTER 4 RESULTS & ANALYSIS 51
4.1 Introduction 51
4.2 Truncation of 2-D compound parabolic
concentrator 51
4.2.1 Truncation analysis 53
4.2.2 Initial 2-D CPC design 54
(a) Flux distribution on
concentrator 54
(b) Flux distribution on PV
cell 55
4.2.3 Truncated CPC design 57
(a) Flux distribution on
concentrator 57
(b) Flux distribution on PV
cell 58
4.2.4 Summary 60
4.3 Case: Optical Performance for 2-D
Compound Parabolic Concentrator 62
4.3.1 Case 1: 2-D common CPC
mirror 62
(a) Optical efficiency of
concentrator 62
(b) Flux distribution on PV
cell 63
4.3.2 Case 2: 2-D dielectric 64
(a) Optical efficiency of
concentrator 64
xi
(b) Flux distribution on PV
cell 64
4.4 Cases Optical performance for RCPC
using TracePro 66
4.4.1 Case 1: RCPC mirror 66
(a) Optical efficiency of
concentrator 66
(b) Flux distribution on PV
cell 67
4.4.2 Case 2: RCPC dielectric 68
(a) Optical efficiency of
concentrator 68
(b) Flux distribution on PV
cell 69
4.4.3 Case 3: RCPC coated 70
(a) Optical efficiency of
RCPC dielectric at
different positions 70
(b) Optical efficiency of
concentrator 71
(c) Flux distribution on PV
cell 72
4.5 Summary of RCPC cases 73
4.6 Ray-tracing analysis based at UTHM
location 75
4.6.1 Flux distribution on PV cell 75
4.7 Summary 76
CHAPTER 5 CONCLUSION & FUTURE WORKS 81
5.1 Conclusion of research 81
xii
5.2 Limitations of research 83
5.3 Recommendations for future work 83
REFERENCES 84
APPENDIX A 90
APPENDIX B 92
APPENDIX C 94
APPENDIX D 95
VITA 96
10
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Project background
The demand electricity and its consumption have been constantly growing year by
year to meet the daily needs of developing countries. The growing demands
exacerbate the challenge connected to the limitation in energy supply, and the
resulting competition for resources. Most of energy sources are produced by fossil
fuel and coal. According to International Energy Agent [1], 41.1% of the world
electricity is generated using coal in supply generation system and there has been as
much as 32310 million metric tons of carbon dioxide emissions from the
consumption of energy [2]. Due to that reasons, scientist are very interested in
exploring the potential of alternative and clean energy sources such as wind, hydro,
biomass and solar energy.
Renewable energy is a source of energy that is not destroyed when being
harnessed. According to the predictions made from Renewable Energy Policy
Network for 21st Century [3], in the near future, as much as 19% of global energy
consumption will be mainly from renewable energy. Solar energy is one of the
renewable energy that can reduce the carbon dioxide emissions and the green house
effect. Earth receives an estimate of 1000W/m² solar irradiation a day and 1.5x10
kWh/year [4] total amount of a solar energy. This amount of solar irradiance could
generate 85000 TW and it is estimated that the current global energy is at 15000 TW
as reported by International Energy Statistic. Therefore, the direct and simplest
method to generate electricity from solar radiation is by using photovoltaic (PV)
module.
11
PV is a technology that converts the light from the sun into electricity using
PV modules [5] without using any moving mechanical parts, it operates quietly
without emissions, and is durable for long term use. Malaysia is located in equatorial
regions and receives sun penetration throughout the year. It is estimated to receive
huge solar radiation as much as 400 – 600 MJ/m² per month [6], 1643 kWh/m²
average irradiance per year [7] with ten sun hours daily [8]. Therefore, the country is
suitable for implementing photovoltaic system. However, the very-high initial cost of
PV cells is the main barrier for PV commercialization where silicon is the most
expensive material in the production of PV cells. As much as 72% of the overall
fabrication cost of PV module goes to PV cells [5]. Therefore, an alternative method
in making this renewable energy to be more effective is by using solar concentrator
where the expensive solar cells are replaced with inexpensive concentrator optic
materials to make Concentrated Photovoltaic (CPV) system.
In CPV system, the main reason of using the concentrator optic is to reduce
the cost of PV module and at the same time cutting down the cost of solar energy
produced. The concentration is achieved via an optical device with the objective of
reducing the area of expensive solar cell with the addition of increasing its
efficiency. One of the disadvantages in CPV system is the tracking mechanism used
in medium and high concentration of the PV system. However, the advantage of low
concentration PV system is the exclusion of the tracking mechanism. In addition to
that, the type of solar cell used in low concentration level is usually silicon cell. The
existence of CPV technology relies on the design and fabrication of the concentrator
parts. There are many types of optical concentrator which can increase flux of
radiation on the receiver. They can be classified into two major optical categories
which are imaging optic and non-imaging optic. Compound parabolic concentrator
(CPC) is a well-known non-imaging type optical concentrator in which it does not
use image forming and focusing the light source on a receiver within its acceptance
angle; producing a different prescribed illumination pattern.
1.2 Problem statements
Several paths are being explored for desired PV cost reduction and efficiency
improvement. The PV system efficiency and capital cost from the year 1995 to 2020
for three different types of materials are shown in Figure 1.1 and Figure 1.2 below.
2
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Figure 1.2
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12
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3
13
There have been rapid developments involving solar concentrator designs. One of the
most studied talking points is the characteristic parameters of the CPC shape. The
most efficient solar concentrator for non-imaging optic type is due to it characteristic
of collecting and concentrating all rays within its acceptance angle. However, from
previous circular 3-D CPC, the geometry of the entry and exit aperture are circular.
The drawback for this design is the decrease in its geometrical concentration ratio in
order to shift from its circular shape of entry aperture to a hexagonal shape and the
fact that the circular shape remains at the exit aperture. Due to this reason, a
rectangular compound parabolic concentrator was designed by intersecting two 2-D
CPC’s. The proposed design gives an advantage in which the entry aperture and its
exit aperture are square in shape as compared to the circular geometry of entry
aperture of typical 3-D CPC. The optical performance and characteristic of RCPC,
however, as a combination between reflective and refractive solar concentrator have
not been studied and investigated. In response to this problem, the proposed research
presents the comparative study of the RCPC solar concentrator designs in PV
application.
1.3 Objectives
Concentrating photovoltaic (CPV) technology is considered as an alternative solution
to reduce the cost of PV production. The main aim of this research work is to
perform on comparative studies of RCPC by considering reflective materials as well
dielectric materials. The research objectives in order to achieve the essential aim of
this research work are as follows:
i. To design the structural geometry of rectangular compound parabolic
concentrator (RCPC) by combining two compound parabolic concentrators
(CPC).
ii. To evaluate and analyze an optical performance of RCPC mirror, RCPC
dielectric and RCPC coated using ray-tracing technique.
iii. To enhance and proposed estimated PV cell output performance in terms of
collected energy and electrical efficiency based on RCPC coated design.
4
14
1.4 Project scope
In Malaysia, solar energy is divided into two categories, namely solar thermal and
photovoltaic (PV) technology. This project primarily focuses on studying
concentrated photovoltaic (CPV) where the concentrator optic is applied by
considering at Universiti Tun Hussein Malaysia (UTHM) geographical coordinates.
The research scopes of this project are as follows:
i. The concentrator optic material is used to replace a part of the photovoltaic
cells. Standard mirror and dielectric material are chosen to focus the solar
irradiance on the receiver.
ii. The proposed RCPC design is based on a combination of non-imaging optical
concentrator with respect to its concentration ratio level and acceptance
angle.
iii. The solar concentrator optic is evaluated by ray-tracing simulation analysis
where it is used to obtain the optimum solar irradiance of which it properly
reflects and refracts sunlight to the receiver.
1.5 Contribution of the thesis
The contribution of this research project is summarized as follows:
i. The combination and intersection of two 2-D CPC’s contributes to a square
shaped entry and exit aperture of receivers. It would be more beneficial to
have a square exit aperture area for the geometry of the solar concentrator
since PV technology uses semiconductor cells (wafer), generally several
square centimeters in size.
ii. The low-cost optic material is introduced. A mirror with reflectivity of 0.94
will reflect 94% of sunlight on receiver resulting better performance of PV
cell. Schott BK7 glass is an alternative dielectric material other than
Polymetyl-methacrylate (PMMA). The material is added as lens, contributing
to more uniform flux distribution on PV cells and exceeds half acceptance
angle of a solar concentrator.
iii. The actual site and time duration in TracePro Solar Emulator are presented in
real value based on geographical map location. This gives an advantage to
5 5
15
predict and analyze the optical performance of solar concentrator based on
real site location.
1.6 Thesis organization
This thesis has been organized into five chapters. Chapter 1 provides an overview of
the project that includes the project background, problem statements, objectives and
its scope. Chapter 2 reviews framework of solar energy and fundamental principles
of photovoltaic generation and technology, focusing on the third generation of
photovoltaic technology which is called CPV and finally revises previous studies on
CPV technology. Chapter 3 describes the approach of the Rectangular RCPC. In this
chapter, the basic geometry of 2-dimensional compound parabolic is referred and
using ray-tracing technique to evaluate the optical performance of RCPC and ray-
distribution on PV cells. There are three different cases that have been divided and
analyzed. Chapter 4 explains the results and ray-tracing analysis of solar concentrator
and PV cell. The truncation of RCPC is shown and analyzed together with analysis
on optical efficiencies at different incidence angles and flux distribution on PV cell.
The data were acquired at UTHM campus. Finally, Chapter 5 draws the conclusion
of this project and recommendations for future works
6
16
CHAPTER 2
REVIEW ON CONCENTRATING PHOTOVOLTAIC (CPV) TECHNOLOGY
2.1 Introduction
This chapter reviews some fundamental knowledge and relevant research works
related to this project. Section 2.2 describes the photovoltaic technologies, while in
Section 2.3, the CPV technology and its terminologies and concept related to CPV
are explained. Section 2.4 and 2.5 depicts the CPV configuration and reviews of
solar concentrator design. The concentrator design work in Malaysia is reviewed in
Section 2.6 and the fundamental optic that is applied to the solar concentration is
discussed in Section 2.7. Lastly, Section 2.8 summarizes the entire Chapter 2.
2.2 Solar energy technologies
Solar power is a relatively simple and direct method to convert the sunlight into
electricity. It is a big potential alternative energy source as the earth receives 1000
W/m² light intensity per day and 1.5x10 kWh/m² per year. There are two different
approaches to harvest the sun’s energy, namely the concentrated solar power
technology or called solar thermal and photovoltaic technology.
2.2.1 Concentrated solar power
Concentrated solar power (CSP) technology is the one of ways to generate electricity
by producing heat when sunlight focuses on a receiver [12, 13] . This system uses
optical component either mirrors or lenses and tracking mechanism to concentrate a
large area of sunlight into a small beam to heat up the receiver and thus produces
17
steam to generate electricity. There are three common methods to concentrate the
sunlight, i.e. solar trough, solar dish and a solar tower as illustrated in Figure 2.1.
Figure 2.1: Concentrated solar power design [14]
Solar trough or parabolic trough consists of parabolic-shaped mirror as
concentrator and tube receiver. The mirror concentrates sunlight on receiver tube
which contains heat transfer fluid. The solar dish system uses parabolic dish shape,
where the concentrator focuses sunlight onto a receiver located at focus point of the
dish. Then, for the solar tower system, an array field heliostat (individual tracking
mirror) focuses sunlight at central receiver located on top of the tower.
2.2.2 Photovoltaic (PV)
The example of conventional photovoltaic (PV) cell is shown in Figure 2.2. PV or
known as solar cell is an electronic device that generates DC electrical power from
8
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9
19
2.2.3 PV technology in Malaysia
PV technology was first introduced in 1980’s in Malaysia [17]. The aim was to
provide electricity and telecommunication to rural areas. In 1998, the first grid
connected was set up by Tenaga Nasional Berhad (TNB) as alternative sources for
national utility [17]. Then, six pilot grid connected PV was installed in the range of
2.8 kWp to 3.8 kWp capacity in year 1998 to 2000. The first practical PV system was
installed on the roof top College of Engineering Universiti Tenaga Nasional
(UNITEN) with system capacity of 3.15 kW by TNB. However, the installation was
still expensive even though required basic and simple connection. In the same year,
BP Malaysia had installed an 8 kWp system capacity grid connected PV at BP petrol
station along KESAS highway and 5.5 kW system capacity at the Solar Energy
Research Park at Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia (UKM) [6].
On 25th July 2005, the Malaysia Building Integrated Photovoltaic (MBIPV)
Technology Project [17] [18] [7] was introduced and launched. A number of policies
had been introduced by the Malaysia government in terms of solar technology [19]
[20] including the MBIPV project. Since the launch of the project, PV installation
business has started to soar. The aim of this project is to reduce the cost of BIPV
project whilst reduce the greenhouse effect within the country. This project ended in
December 2010. At the time, as much as 1516.00 kWp was successfully generated
that met the demand of 109 buildings and reduced 40% of the PV cost [18]. On 24th
September 2012, Solar Home Rooftop Program (SHRP) was lunch by Sustainable
Energy Development Authority (SEDA) Malaysia to enhance the public participation
if renewable energy generation. Malaysians can participate as individuals through
this program. A total of 14.36 MW was approved based on the form of 1079 Feed-in
Approval (FiA) application for individual participant at the end of April 2013 [21].
At the end of August 2013, the number raised up to 1316 applications with the total
capacity of 16.64 MW. This is one of the steps to encourage individuals in Malaysia
to install solar panels on the rooftop of their houses. At the same time, Malaysians’
perspective towards the development of solar energy is also important to meet the
FiT mechanism success especially in the field of solar PV harvesting. Feed-in tariff
(FiT) [22] mechanism had been introduced in 2011 by Malaysia government, in
accordance with Renewable Energy Act 2011 and Sustainable Energy Development
10
20
Authority Act 2011. The main idea is to promote the growth of renewable energy
sector in Malaysia.
However, the installation of PV systems in Malaysia has some drawbacks in
terms of high cost investment and long payback period [23, 24]. 77% among the
respondent that agreed to install the solar PV system, had changed their mind after
knowing the cost of installation is high (RM 50, 000 – RM 150, 000). Haw et.al [25]
had conducted a survey where most Malaysians only consider to install solar PV if
the cost of a solar panel is below RM 5,500 per kWp, about 30% of the market price.
The cost of PV module account for 60% [18] of total PV system cost. Therefore, the
more cost-efficient method to overcome this problem is using solar concentrator
optic [26, 27].
2.3 Concentrating Photovoltaic (CPV)
CPV system is categorized under third generation of photovoltaic technologies [5]. It
uses lenses or mirrors to concentrate sunlight on PV cells as shown in Figure 2.3.
The concept is similar to the CSP technology that uses optical component to focus
sunlight but the difference is that it concentrates sunlight to produce heat while CPV
directly focuses sunlight on PV cell to generate electricity. They entrain a large area
of solar energy onto small cell, which operates at an irradiation level many times
greater than direct and diffuse sunlight [27]. Therefore, it requires lesser solar cells,
which is the most expensive component in a PV system. The main advantage of CPV
is the decrease of PV system costs that needs less area of solar cell, silicon cells can
still be used and a higher efficiency, but the major disadvantage is the necessity to
have a sun tracking system to keep the CPV module focused in the sun throughout
the day. A CPV system is formed by three main components, namely optic, solar cell
and sun tracking system. The most expensive component in this system is solar or
PV cell [28]. Its concentration level depends on the type of solar cell being used. A
silicon cell is a suitable choice for lower and medium concentration level as the
efficiency is increases when the incident light also increases to a certain level [29]
and multi-junction cells or modified silicon cell used for the high concentration level.
As the temperature of solar cell increases, the efficiency will be decrease due to light
concentration in the CPV system. Therefore, solar cell must be kept cool in a
concentrated system, requiring practical and advanced heat transfer design [28].
11
Another f
radiation [
strike onto
decrease th
2.3.1 Hi
Table 2.1
during the
by the US
1977 for
universitie
concentrat
regions du
other resea
irradiation
had been s
total inves
1970s, m
factor that
[30]. It is im
o the surface
he cell effic
istory of CP
shows the
e oil crisis i
SA federal
the researc
es began t
ted in US r
ue to the h
arch group
n (DNI), su
spent for th
stment in fla
mainly on p
affects the
mportant for
e of a cell. A
ciency.
Figure 2.3
PV
history of
in 1970s; w
governmen
ch on CPV
to design
rather than E
igher direct
that worked
ch as Spain
his research
at-plates PV
point-focus
efficiency
r the cell to
A non-unifo
: Example o
f CPV for o
where the S
nt in 1975 a
V feasibilit
their own
Europe and
t solar reso
d on this are
n and Italy.
from 1974
V research. T
concentrat
of solar c
o get prefere
orm distribu
of CPV Mod
over 3 deca
andia Natio
and the Dep
ty. Over tim
n CPV sys
d Japan, in p
ource then.
ea, in particu
An estima
to 1992, bu
The first pro
tors. Sandi
cell is the u
entially mos
ution of ligh
dule [28]
ades [31]. T
onal Labora
partment o
me, many
stem. The
particular su
At the sam
ular in regio
ated of over
ut it was a s
ototype was
ia National
uniformity
st uniform r
ht in the PV
The CPV w
atories were
f Energy (D
of compan
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me time, the
ons with hig
r $40 millio
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l Laborator
21
of light
radiation
V cell can
was born
e funded
DOE) in
nies and
nts were
-western
ere were
gh direct
on funds
on of the
n the late
ries had
12
22
developed the first prominent demonstrator which uses an acrylic Fresnel lens with
active water cooling. In the meantime, Institute for Solar Energy of Polytechnic
University of Madrid (IES-UPM) had also developed a Ramon Aceres panel; a
silicon-on-glass point-focus Fresnel lens with a passive cooling system. During that
period, a silicon solar cell was used for both flat-plate and concentrated PV but in
1978, a group from North Carolina State University had carried out a research on
multi-junction (tandem) solar cells and came out with the first dual-junction solar
cell.
In early 1980s, the oil crisis ended and the concentrator program was put off
due to limitation of funds, most participants dropped out. Then, in 1990s, the
research on CPV restarted back when DOE created the PV Concentrator Initiative
Program (PVCI). This program involved four-cell manufacturers (ASEC, Spectrolab,
Sunpower and Solarex) and four-module manufactures (Entech, Solar Kinetics,
Alpha Solarco and SEA Corporation). Unfortunately, in 1993 the PVCI program was
terminated even though the progress achieved had been significant. A higher
efficiency solar cell was achieved in early 1990s using double-junction solar cells.
Then, in early 2000s, an improvement in this field was obtained with realization of
first triple junction solar cell on germanium substrate. This is the current state of art
technology in terms of efficiency.
Table 2.1: CPV Milestones
Year History
1973 Oil crisis
1975 Sandia National Laboratories were funded for research on CPV feasibility
1977 Department of Energy (DOE) was founded
Late 1970 Sandia National Laboratories realized the 1st prototype with active cooling
1979 1st dual junction was realized
Early 1980s -Oil crisis ended -Concentrator program was put off
Early 1990s Improved dual junction solar cells
1991 DOE created the PV Concentrator Initiative Program (PVCI)
1993 PVCI terminated
Early 2000s Realization of the first 3J III-V solar cell
2007 Spectrolab announces the 1st 3J with efficiency >40%
13
23
2.3.2 Terms and Concepts
There have been varieties of designs in CPV technology as compare to conventional
PV system. The terms and concepts of CPV is quoted in IEC 62018 standards [32] as
summarized below in Figure 2.4
Figure 2.4: Term and concept of CPV [32]
Concentrator a device used to concentrate sunlight Concentrator optic
optical component (lenses or mirrors) that perform one or more of following function from its input to output that increasing light intensity, filtering spectrum, modifying light intensity distribution or changing light direction. Primary optic is a device that receives sunlight directly from sun and secondary optic is a device that receives concentrated or modified sunlight from another optical device such as primary or another secondary optic
Concentrator cell
basic photovoltaic that used under the illumination of concentrated sunlight
Concentrator receiver
group of one or more concentrator cells and secondary optic (if present) that accepts concentrated sunlight and incorporated the means of thermal and electric energy transfer. Receiver could be made of several sub-receiver which consists of smaller portion of the full size receiver
14
24
Concentrator module
group of receivers, optics and other related components that accept sunlight directly from sun. All these components usually prefabricated as one unit and focus point is not field-adjustable. A module could be made of several sub-module being this physical standalone portion of a full size module
Concentrator assembly
group of module and other related component that accept sunlight directly from sun. All components usually shipped separately and need field installation and focus is field-adjustable. An assembly could be made of several sub-assemblies
2.4 CPV configuration
The CPV configuration can be classified as illustrated in Figure 2.5 below in which
the designs are mostly based on applications.
Figure 2.5: Criteria used in a CPV system [32]
2.4.1 Concentration factor
The CPV system is divided into three categories based on concentration level,
namely low concentration (less than 10 suns), medium concentration (up to around
150 suns) and lastly higher concentration (more than 200 suns) [27]. Lower level
concentrations try to assist with the benefit of conventional PV modules (high
15
acceptance
solar cell,
cell surfac
a very-hig
efficiency
concentrat
concentrat
show in Fi
Figconce
2.4.2 Op
The optic
concentrat
the light a
and condit
e angle) w
higher eff
ce area but u
gh sun tra
y of solar c
tion is the
tions. The e
igure 2.6.
(a)
gure 2.6: Exaentration (2
EUCLIDE
ptic
function is
tor optics u
as shown in
tions will co
ith the adv
ficiency). H
usually requ
acking prec
cell decrea
e combinat
examples of
amples of CSuns) Doub
ES [34] (c) H
to magnify
use either re
Figure 2.7
ontribute fin
vantage of C
Higher level
uires higher
cision and
ases with in
tion of the
f the low, m
(b)
CPV with dibleSun [33]High concen
y the sunligh
eflective or
. It is one o
nal perform
CPV modu
l concentrat
r efficiency
requires a
ncreasing t
e best feat
medium and
)
ifferent con] (b) Mediumntration (35
ht beam on
refractive
of important
mance of the
ule (lower c
tions reduce
solar cell w
active cooli
temperature
tures of bo
d high conce
ncentration lm concentra0 Suns) Am
PV cell. In
optical elem
t componen
complete s
costs as rel
es the size
which are ex
ing system
e. A mediu
oth low an
entration de
(c)
level (a) Loation (32 Su
monix [9]
n CPV syste
ment to con
nts since its
system.
25
lated the
of solar
xpensive,
m as the
um level
nd high
esign are
w uns)
em, most
ncentrate
features
16
26
Figure 2.7: Types of optic in CPV configuration [35]
2.4.2.1 Reflective optic
The reflective optical element uses mirror or a combination of mirrors to concentrate
the sunlight. It is made of different reflector materials [36], such as glass and various
types of aluminum or a special reflective coating with different shapes which have
large longevity. A higher quality mirror with better reflectivity is important for
reflecting system. Most aluminum mirrors have reflectance in the range from 80% to
86% while glass mirrors can achieve 93% to 96% of reflectance. The most common
shape is parabolic mirror. A reflective surface in the shape of a parabola will focus
all light that parallel to the axis of parabola to a point located at the parabola focus. It
comes at a point-focus configuration and line-focus configuration [4, 37, 38]. Most
material used are back silvered glass plates anodized aluminum sheets and
aluminized plastic films in solar energy applications as a reflector or concentrator.
This reflective materials are widely used and commercially available [39, 40].
17
27
2.4.2.2 Refractive optic
The Fresnel lens most commonly used for refractive surface solar concentrator [4].
Material used for the lens is normally made from plastic, such as acrylic
(polymetylmethacrylate or PMMA) or glass, such as Schott glass (Appendix A). It is
molded well and durable under different weather conditions [15]. Fresnel lens is
usually incorporated into a module that contains a lens or multiple lenses in parquet
and a housing to protect the backside of the lens which is difficult to clean due to the
sharp facets and the cells. The cell also may incorporates a secondary optical
elements (SOE) whose purpose is to further concentrate the light or make the image
more uniform.
2.4.3 Solar cell
A solar cell is made of semiconductor material with weakly bonded electrons
occupying a band energy called the valence band. The most abundant materials used
is silicon (Si), a semiconductor that is capable of absorbing light and deliver a
portion of that energy to carry of electric current, electrons and holes. This
phenomenon generates a direct current (DC) in a preferential specific direction,
working like a silicon diode [15]. Solar cell design involves specifying parameters of
a solar structure in order to maximize efficiency at given set of constraints. It is
usually formed by several layers, each one with specific functions. The common type
solar cells in the market are standard Si cell and multi-junction (III-V) cell.
2.4.4 Cooling
The concentration in CPV system is depends on the concentration level. As the
temperature of solar cell increases, the efficiency is decreases. [27]. For a low and
medium concentration, passive cooling will be used to cool the cell like heat sink
element. Liquid such as water is used as active cooling for high concentration level
to remove the heat out of the cell.
18
28
2.4.5 Sun tracking system
The sun tracking mechanism system is important in CPV technology. As the cell
concentration is increased, lower angle of sunlight enters in the system. Since CPV
system can only operate efficiently direct to sunlight with a relative low angle of
incidence, it requires tracking system to make sure that the CPV module stay focused
on the sun throughout the day [27]. This system is divided into one or two axis
trackers depending on the configuration of the optics. For low concentration level, it
requires only one axis tracker while in medium or high concentration level, two axis
trackers are used. Trackers incur extra cost in CPV systems as compared to
conventional PV modules where the price is proportional to the tracking precision
(measured in degree). The tracking precision necessary to be imposed by the
acceptance angle which is the tolerance that the optical system has to pay attention to
a deviation in the angle of sunlight rays.
2.5 Fundamental optics applied to solar concentration
The theory of optics is related to the creation of an image from an initial object.
Imaging optical system consists of three main components which are object, optic
and image it forms. In this system, the light is emitted by a point in the object. Then
it is being captured by an optical system and concentrated onto a specific point in the
image so that it is proportional to the object [4]. Thus, in imaging the imaging optics
concentrator it is focus on the image formed by the optical concentrator on the
receiver, so that the receiver must be small enough to attain even in the distribution
of the formed image. In CPV system, the main goal is to transfer maximum energy
from a source to a receiver. It does not basically form an image of the sun in the
receiver. In non-imaging optical system, the optical system has to take the light from
the light source, instead of an object. It is then concentrated to any point of the
receiver, instead of an image. This theory is called Non-imaging Optic. Professor
Roland Winston and group from University of Chicago has found this type of non-
imaging optics [4]. Therefore, regards of the need tracking system mechanism, the
important is to make solar concentrator collect more sunlight and concentrate on
solar cell and most efficient non-imaging solar concentrator is CPC [35]. This is
19
29
because the characteristic of CPC able to collect the solar radiation within specific
acceptance angle
2.5.1 Concentration Ratio (
In CPV system, there are three levels of concentration, namely low, medium and
high concentration which depends on concentration ratio. In general, there are two
definitions for concentration ratio. The first one is called geometric concentration
ratio is defined as the ratio between of entry aperture and exit aperture as shown in
Equation 2.1 [4]:
(2.1)
where is entry aperture and ′ is exit aperture. This equation is applied to central
concept in non-imaging optic. When the ratio of entry aperture relative to the exit
aperture is higher, the concentration of light in optical system also becomes higher
[28]. In solar energy concentration, there is a limit of concentration, so called sine
law concentration [41].
For two-dimensional concentrator, the maximum concentration ratio is given by
Equation 2.2 [4] below:
(2.2)
For three-dimensional concentrator, the maximum concentration ratio is given by
Equation 2.3 [4] below:
(2.3)
If the receiver immerse with dielectric material with refraction index, , then
the maximum concentration ratio is given by Equations 2.4 and 2.5 [4] below:
20
30
(2.4)
(2.5)
Second alternative called intensity concentration or flux concentration and mostly
term in “suns” and represent in term “x”. It is the ratio between the average intensity
of concentrated light that reaches the solar cell (W/m²) divides by standard peak solar
irradiance 1000 W/m² [35].
2.5.2 Aperture (
The term of aperture is the opening of plane that the solar radiation passes through.
In optic, there are two common dimensions, namely two-dimensional (2-D) and three
dimensional (3-D). For the 2-D, either linear or point focus concentrator [41], refers
to the width while for 3-D concentrator, it is categorized by the diameter of opening
plane.
2.5.3 Acceptance angle
Acceptance angle is defined as the range of angle over which accepted incoming
solar radiation and finally reach the receiver without moving all or part of
concentrator.
2.6 Review of solar concentrator design
In CPV system, it is important to concentrate sunlight from mirror or lenses onto a
small area of solar cell. Some of the designs require tracking mechanism to track the
sun especially for higher concentration. As already discussed in section 2.4.1, there
are three levels of concentration factor. This section is briefly reviews CPV system
according to the amount of solar concentration measured in “suns” or term of “X” as
referred to Table 2.2.
21
31
C.S. Sangani et al.[42] designed, constructed and experimented 2-suns V-
trough concentrator with commercial PV module and stand-alone PV module for
different types tracking mode experimentally characterized under outdoor conditions
both with and without concentrator and showed that the used of V-trough
concentrator increases the output power 44% more when compared to PV flat-plate
system. Butler et al. [43] presented a simple model of 3-suns (3X) linear trough
mirror collector to predict the illumination distribution on multi-crystalline silicon
solar cell resulting in increased module output when using reflector. Ayaji et al. [44]
described a sun tracking concentrating module that is designed to determine the one
higher power output that consist of a solar panel with diffuse reflector aligned at
23.5° with the horizontal axis and solar tracker showing that reflector system is a
better option as compared to solar tracker due to cost of fabrication and complexity
of the tracking mechanism. Nivas. V et al.[45] paper presented a simulation analysis
using TracePro and PV Syst software and experimental analysis of booster mirror
with 1X, 2X, 3X and 4X configuration on solar panel and estimated that 2X
configuration is the optimum concentration ratio for V-trough concentrator as
compared to the other three suns configurations. V. N. Palaskar et al.[46] proposed a
modified PV module consists flat reflector which is made of anodized aluminum
sheet is attached to the short side of commercial silicon based PV module at North-
South direction for Mumbai latitude producing 22% more PV power and 21% higher
efficiency as compared to simple PV module. A prototype with 11X concentration
and two axis tracking system with novelty of coupling linear Fresnel concentrator
with a channel photovoltaic/thermal collector was designed by Rosell et al [47]
showing that thermal performance of the solar system is exceed 60% and thermal
conduction between the PV cell and absorber plate is a critical parameter as
confirmed by theoretical analysis. Feurmann et al. [48] proposed a high
concentration of concentrator using miniature parabolic dish to obtain maximum flux
level on solar cell for CPV system.
These solar concentrator designs are examples that had been used for
photovoltaic and thermal application. The next following section focuses on solar
concentrator design in Malaysia.
22
Table 2.2: Solar concentrator design based on “suns”
Year Author University/Company Concentrator design suns (X) Contribution
2007 C. S. Sangani
et.al Energy System Engineering, IIT
Bombay V-trough concentrator 2
Increasing 44% output power using V-trough concentrator as compared to PV flat-plate system for passively cooled
module
2012 Butler et.al Nelson Mandela Metropolitan
University Linear trough mirror collector 3
Increased output module when using reflector
2013 Ajayi et.al University of Lagos Solar PV panel with diffuse reflector and solar tracker
-
The reflector system is a better option to contribute higher power output as
compared to solar tracker due to cost fabrication and complexity of the
tracking mechanism
2013 Nivas. V et al Anna University Booster mirror 1X, 2X, 3X
and 4X
2X configuration is the optimum concentration ratio for V-trough
concentrator as compared to the other three suns configuration
2014 V. N.
Palaskar Veermata Jijabai Technologies Institues
Matunga Mumbai V-trough concentrator -
Producing 22% more PV power and 21% higher efficiency compared to
simple PV module
2002 Rosell et.al Universitat de Lleida, Spain Linear Fresnel concentrator 11
The thermal performance of solar system is exceed 60% and thermal
conduction between the PV cell and absorber plate is a critical parameter as
confirmed by theoretical analysis
2001 Feurmann
et.al Ben-Gurion University Miniature Parabolic dish -
Obtaining 1000 suns of maximum flux level on solar cell for CPV system
23
2.7 Co
For the pa
for reflect
regarding
reviews re
on applica
Ch
focusing h
group of s
fixed targe
sun, and p
double sta
energy. B
as solar to
Mah
design us
obtained b
their anal
parabolic
between
increasing
oncentrator
ast four dec
tive and refr
optical co
esearch wor
ation.
hen et.al [4
heliostat use
slave mirror
et as shown
projects sola
age structur
esides, it is
ower, solar d
Figure 2
hinder Singh
sing simula
by selecting
lysis, it is
trough con
the increas
g optical los
r design wo
cades, variet
fractive opti
oncentrator
rks from un
49] and Om
ed for solar
rs that is ab
n in Figure 2
ar rays into
e into a sin
s also able t
dish and sol
2.8: Propose
h et.al [51]
ation meth
g the apertur
important
ncentrator
sing therm
ss as decreas
ork in Mala
ty designs o
ic. There ha
on PV mo
niversities r
mar et.al [
r thermal en
le to move
2.8. A fram
the fixed ta
ngle stage at
to be applie
lar laser pum
ed design no
presented a
od. Its ge
re area and
to optimiz
(CPTC) by
mal loss wh
sing the ape
aysia
of solar con
as been limi
odule desig
related to th
[50] propos
nergy appli
based on pr
me holder ro
arget. The a
t high temp
ed on high
mp.
on-imaging
a cylindrical
ometrical c
diameter of
ze long-term
y achieving
hen increa
erture area.
ncentrators h
ited researc
gn in Mala
he use of co
sed a desig
ication. The
roposed rot
otates slaves
aim is to rep
perature app
concentratio
heliostat [4
l parabolic
concentratio
f the receive
m performa
g the const
asing apertu
have been d
ch and deve
aysia. This
oncentrator
gn of non-
e design con
ation formu
s mirror to t
place a conv
plication usi
on applicati
49, 50]
trough conc
on ratio h
er paramete
ance of cy
tancy and
ure area a
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elopment
section
depends
-imaging
nsists of
ula and a
track the
ventional
ing solar
ion such
centrator
has been
rs. From
ylindrical
stability
and also
24
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