Compare and Contrast the Interaction between Germanic Tribes along the lower rhine and Romans

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!Compare!and!Contrast!the!interaction!between!!Germanic!tribes!along!the!Lower!Rhine!and!

Romans!in!the!Imperial!!And!High!Empire!

!Class%3200%%200553185%%

Supervisors:%Dr%Green%&%Dr%Goodman%2013%

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CONTENTS!!!

1.0!Introduction!

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2.0!Tribal!structure!!

2.1!The!preDRoman!period!

2.2!Imperial!campaigns!

2.2.1!Conflicting!Ideologies!!

2.3!Battle!of!Teutoburg!Forest!

2.4!Batavian!Revolt!

2.5!Germania!in!the!High!Empire!

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3.0!Monetization!

3.1!Taxation!

3.2!The!emergence!of!the!Roman!villa!system!

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4.0!Agricultural!change!

4.1.!Cattle!Husbandry!!

4.1.2!Sheep!Husbandry!!

4.1.3!Horse!Husbandry!

4.2!Arable!production!

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5.0!Urbanization,!Settlement!and!societies!

5.1!Population!!

5.2!Citizenship!

5.3!The!development!of!Civitates!

5.4!Trade!along!the!frontier!

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6.0!Conclusion!

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List!of!figures!!

Figure%1%PAGE%7%

Figure%2%PAGE%17%

Figure%3%PAGE%24%

Figure%4%PAGE%27%

Figure%5%PAGE%29%

Figure%6%PAGE%30%

Figure%7%PAGE%33%

Figure%8%PAGE%38%

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1.0!Introduction!

% The%interaction%between%the%Romans%and%Germanic%tribes%was%one%of%conflict%

and%war%for%the%majority%of%the%Imperial%Empire;%it%would%drain%resources%and%

manpower%threatening%the%political%stability%of%the%Emperor.%Contrast%this%with%the%

early%High%Empire%when%Germania%became%a%province%with%greater%internal%

economic%stability%and%the%question%is%why%and%how%did%change%occur?%The%different%

time%frames%allow%this%study%to%look%at%social%interaction%in%two%dynasties.%In%this%

study%the%five%criteria%used%to%measure%social%interaction%include:%military%conflict,%

political%and%economic%organisation,%agricultural%and%livestock%production%and%

settlement%patterns.%I%will%examine%levels%of%social%interaction%through%

zooarchaeological,%archaeological%and%literary%evidence%giving%an%indication%of%the%

changing%relationship%between%the%two%groups.%My%study%will%show%how%mutually%

beneficial%and%reciprocal%relationships%developed%as%the%Germanic%tribes%and%Roman%

soldiers%became%more%dependent%on%each%other%during%the%High%Empire.%

% This%study%will%consider%tribes%in%Lower%Rhine,%such%as%the%Ubii,%the%Frisii,%

Frisiavones,%and%as%a%principal%case%study,%I%will%pay%attention%to%the%Batavian%tribe.%

Batavian%and%Roman%relations%developed%in%the%Imperial%period%when%the%Batavians%

became%a%client%tribe.%The%relationship%between%the%Romans%and%Batavians%shifted%

continually.%I%will%discuss%in%some%depth%the%revolt%of%the%Batavian%tribe%in%A.D.%69%

and%compare%this%with%the%earlier%revolt%of%Arminius%in%A.D.%9.%Additionally,%I%will%

examine%the%causes%of%these%native%revolts%and%the%effect%on%interaction%between%

Romans%and%tribes.%The%study%will%begin%with%a%chronological%account%of%the%military%

conflicts%to%give%a%linear%structure%and%historical%and%political%context.%

% Along%the%Rhineland%frontier%there%were%numerous%indigenous%groups%of%a%

range%of%ethnic%identities,%languages%and%tribal%complexities.%These%factors%affected%

the%‘speed%of%Romanization’%of%different%segments%within%a%tribe.%The%relationship%

between%Romans%and%natives%varied%according%to%the%circumstances%and%place%where%

groups%met,%for%example%trading%at%a%market%or%on%a%battlefield.%Of%particular%interest%

is%where%the%actions%of%one%group%or%person%lead%directly%to%the%likelihood%of%another%

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person%taking%a%similar%action%and%the%extent%to%which%this%sort%of%influence%

diminishes%with%geographic%distance%of%settlements.%%

% Relations%can%be%split%into%two%broad%sections,%‘positive%nature’%and%‘negative%

nature’.%By%looking%at%the%different%types%of%communication%we%can%understand%how%

successful%the%relationships%were%between%the%groups.%This%method%of%measurement%

can%be%implemented%for%each%of%the%five%criteria%specified%earlier%to%see%how%far%

associations%developed%and%whether%they%can%be%viewed%as%successful.%By%successful%

I%am%referring%to%whether%the%interaction%led%to%collaboration%of%both%groups%towards%

mutually%beneficial%goals%such%as%producing%of%a%surplus%of%goods%for%a%military%

market.%One%of%the%principle%aims%of%the%study%is%to%establish%how%relations%improved%

in%the%High%Empire%due%to%the%economic%prosperity%the%Roman%involvement%had%in%

the%lower%Rhine%region.%%

% The%use%of%archaeobotanical%and%zooarchaeological%evidence%in%chapter%4%

allows%us%to%identify%the%kinds%of%foods%produced%by%Germanic%tribes%and%as%a%surplus%

for%the%Roman%army.%The%requirements%of%the%Roman%army%were%a%key%stimulant%for%

the%economic%activity,%trading,%and%food%production%in%the%region.%I%will%compare%the%

level%of%production%at%one%military%centre%oppida&Batavodurum%with%two%rural%sites%

Geldermalsen%Hondsgemet%and%Tiel_Passewaiij.%Archaeological%evidence%is%of%

primary%concern%when%looking%at%different%economic%substructures%that%affected%the%

Roman%army.%In%the%study%I%will%examine%how%the%economic%activity%paved%way%for%

new%social%interactions.%

%

2.0!Tribal!structure!!!

% The%River%Rhine%was%central%to%the%division%of%the%Gallic%and%Germanic%tribes%

prior%to%the%Roman%invasion;%the%groups%were%distinguished%by%dialect%and%language.%

Caesar’s%De&Bello&Gallico&implies%that%the%Germanic%tribes%were%of%a%simplistic%nature%

unlike%the%civilized%Gauls%who%lived%in%oppida%on%the%western%side%of%the%river.%Both%

tribal%groups%would%have%been%self_sufficient%in%food%production%and%lived%in%small%

settlements%of%a%few%Byre_comprising%of%twenty%to%thirty%people.1%These%houses%were%

a%simple%design%made%of%planks,%wicker%and%large%quantities%of%thatch%for%the%

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!1 Kemmers 2009 p149

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roofing.2%Groups%produced%a%sufficient%supply%of%foodstuff%and%did%not%need%to%

produce%a%surplus;%there%was%not%any%real%need,%almost%all%households%were%involved%

in%agricultural%and%could%supply%their%own%needs.3%%Low%value%commodities%such%as%

meats,%milk,%and%cheeses%were%exchanged%on%a%daily%basis,%whereas%cattle%and%horses%

of%a%higher%value%were%used%to%build%regional%relationship%as%peace%and%friendship%

gifts.4%Cattle%raiding%were%common%in%Germanic%tribes%who%would%rather%fight%

heroically%and%physically%taking%goods%rather%than%cultivating%the%land,%the%people%

were%essentially%living%in%warrior%societies.5%%

%

2.1!The!pre!Roman!period!!

% %The%Tribes%along%the%Rhine%were%not%permanently%fixed;%the%Romans%forced%

migration%upon%groups%that%resisted%Roman%rule.%For%instance%Caesar%forced%the%

eastward%migration%of%the%Ebruones,%Menapii%and%Sugambri.6%The%Batavians%broke%

away%from%the%Germanic%Chatti%tribe%and%migrated%westward%between%50%–%20%B.C%

into%the%territory%that%had%been%occupied%by%the%Eburones.7%Roymans%has%argued%

that%an%amalgamation%of%old%and%new%tribes%were%fused%together,%the%remaining%

Eburones%joined%the%Batavian%immigrants%to%create%a%new%ethnic%group.8%Caesar%had%

failed%to%wipe%out%the%tribes%along%the%Lower%Rhine%because%the%river%area%was%

difficult%to%conquer%due%to%meandering%river%courses,%valleys%and%hills.%%

% The%river%delta%lacked%regional%centers%and%there%is%little%evidence%of%local%

crafts,%the%local%skill%in%agriculture%was%extremely%poor%due%to%lack%of%technical%

innovation%and%poor%quality%of%soils.9%There%was%no%specialized%pottery%production,%

which%is%characteristic%of%most%pre_Roman%tribes.%The%North_Belgic%area%was%cut%off%

from%the%rest%of%the%Gallic%world,%Roman%mercatores%avoided%the%area%and%no%

Mediterranean%wares%are%found%in%the%region%from%this%period,%this%suggests%the%

region%was%principally%ignored%because%it%was%under%developed%and%lacked%a%!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!2 Strabo Geography 4.4.3.16 3 Roymans 1996 p44 4 Roymans 1996 p45 5 Tacitus Germania 14 6 Willems 1984 p358 7 Willems 1984 p373, Tacitus, Histories, 4.13, See map on next page for migration patterns of Germanic tribes 8 Roymans 2004 pp25-27, 55 9 Roymans 1983 p52

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functioning%monetary%economy.10%The%North%Belgic%tribes%had%a%highly%segmented%

political%structure%that%was%similar%to%the%Germanic%tribes%on%the%east%of%the%Rhine,%

the%only%time%leaders%were%elected%was%at%times%of%war%when%a%petty%councils%came%

together.%The%members%were%almost%certainly%identified%by%genealogy%or%kinship,%

which%formed%the%basis%of%tribal%organization.11%There%is%little%evidence%to%suggest%

social%stratification%of%these%tribes,%the%clientele%system%had%not%evolved%and%the%

indigenous%population%had%similar%houses%and%accumulative%wealth.%There%was%

almost%no%contact%with%the%outside%world%in%the%region;%this%may%be%due%to%the%

isolation%of%farmsteads%and%many%rivers%that%made%the%region%difficult%to%navigate.%%

%What%is%apparent%is%that%the%absence%of%interaction%between%Romans%and%the%North%

Belgic%tribes%hindered%the%social,%political%and%agricultural%development%of%the%tribal%

structure%in%the%Dutch%river%area.%%

%

%Figure%1%–%Historically%documented%migrations%of%Germanic%groups%to%the%western%

lower%Rhine%in%the%second%half%of%the%1st%century%B.C.%Taken%from%Roymans%&%Aarts%

2009%p8%

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!10Roymans 1983 p53 11Roymans 1983 p54!

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2.2!Imperial!campaigns!!

% During%the%early%Imperial%period,%no%Roman%troops%were%positioned%along%the%

Rhine%and%eastern%Germanic%tribes%raided%the%undefended%Gallic%towns%and%vici.%

Stability%and%peace%were%breaking%down%without%Roman%military%presence,%Dio%states,%

“the%inhabitants%were%not%only%quarrelling%among%themselves,%but%were%being%

harassed%by%the%Germans”.12%In%17%B.C._%16%B.C.E%three%Germanic%tribes:%the%

Sugambri,%Usipetes,%and%the%Tencteri%crossed%the%Rhine%inflicting%a%major%defeat%on%

Marcus%Lollius,%commander%of%the%Legio&V&Aluadae,&who&lost%their%Eagle%and%

standards.13%The%loss%of%the%legion’s%standards%was%the%perfect%scapegoat%to%move%

large%military%forces%to%the%Rhineland%and%to%begin%offensive%campaigns%into%

Germania.%%

% Between%16_13%B.C.%Augustus%planned%a%major%military%assault%over%the%Rhine%

and%constructed%legionary%fortresses%at%Cologne,%Xanten,%Mainz%and%Nijmegen.14%The%

creation%of%major%road%networks%between%military%bases%improved%communications%

and%trade%routes.%The%Lyon%to%Cologne%road%followed%the%Rhone%River%and%was%a%

major%grain_supplying%route%linking%the%eastern%Mediterranean%with%the%Rhine.15%

From%12_8%B.C.%Drusus%campaigned%gaining%military%prestige%as%he%defeated%many%

tribes%including%the%Sugambri.%The%young%heir%built%the%Drussi&canal%from%Ijssel%Meer%

to%the%Rhine%and%the%Fossa&Drusiana%opening%lines%of%communication%and%secured%a%

new%treaty%with%the%Frisians%tribe.16%%Drusus%died%in%8%B.C.%when%he%fell%from%his%horse%

whilst%returning%to%the%Rhine.%Following%his%death%Tiberius%took%command%and%his%

first%action%was%to%relocate%around%40,000%Sugambri%to%the%west%bank%of%the%Rhine%as%

a%security%measure.17%Romanized%tribes%that%were%and%fit%for%military%purpose%as%

auxilaries&or&farmers%were%moved&into%defensive%positions.%The%Ubii%tribe%was%settled%

at%Cologne%defending%the%middle%Rhine%section%and%the%Batavians%at%Nijmegen%to%

defend%from%tribal%threats%coming%in%from%free%Germany.%To%persuade%tribal%support%

they%were%built%oppida&as%gifts,%the%Batavian%capital%was%unlike%an%indigenous%

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!12 Dio LIV 11.2 13 Velleius Paterculus II.97.1, Tacitus Annals 1.10, 3.48 14 Dio LIV 25.1 15 Wells 1972 p93 16 Strabo 4.1.14, Tacitus, Annals XIII.53.2-4 in F. Meijer/ O.V. Nijf, 1992 17 King 1990 p60%

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settlement,%but%more%like%Roman%vicus;&its%design%and%structure%suggest%it%was%a%

capital%‘for’%rather%than%‘of’%the%Batavians.%&%

% In%Cologne%8%B.C.%the%religious%cult%of%the%Imperial%household%set%up%by%

Augustus%as%a%piece%of%propaganda%in%honor%of%Drusus%who%painstakingly%campaigned%

in%Germania%and%died%there.%Priests%were%picked%from%leading%tribes%of%the%Cheruscii%

and%Chatti,%notable%aristocratic%leaders%including%Segimundus%and%Inguiomerus,%who%

both%helped%instigate%the%Varus%revolt%in%9%A.D%supporting%Arminius.18%The%temple%

acted%as%a%meeting%place%for%chieftains%and%was%designed%to%Romanize%the%people,%

however%it%actually%destabilized%Roman%power%by%creating%a%sense%of%Germanic%

national%unity%against%the%Romans.19%The%sense%of%nationalism%experienced%between%

Germanic%tribes%was%previously%unseen.%The%Romans%generals%had%the%misconception%

that%the%province%of%Germania%was%‘Romanized’%enough%for%administration%and%

taxation.%By%A.D.%5%after%Tiberius%joined%his%navel%fleet%and%legionary%foot%soldiers%at%

the%Elbe,%the%Romans%planned%a%huge%assault%from%the%Mainz%legionary%fortress%into%

the%territory%of%the%Marcomannic,%but%in%A.D.%6%it%was%postponed%due%to%the%

Pannonian%revolt%that%took%until%A.D.%9%to%quell.%

% Whilst%the%advance%into%Marcomannic%territory%was%halted%the%Romans%put%

Quintilius%Varus%in%charge%of%the%Rhine%legions.%The%Primary%historian%of%the%period%

Vellius%Paterculus%describes%Varus%as%an%administrator%not%a%military%general%and%

blames%his%incompetence%for%the%following%events.20%Dio%states%Varus%treated%the%

Germanic%land%in%the%same%manner%he%would%a%Greek%province,%the%tribes%were%

treated%like%slaves%and%taxes%were%imposed%too%quickly.21%%

% %In%the%summer%of%9%A.D.%the%commander%was%tricked%into%unknown%territory%

by%supposed%‘Romanized%elite’%of%the%Cherusci%family.%When%he%reached%Kalkriese%hill%

the%Germanic%tribes%laid%ambush%on%the%three%disorganized%17th,%18th%and%19th%

legions,%the%soldiers%could%not%use%Roman%tactics%or%weaponry%in%such%a%cramped%

swampy%environment%and%were%massacred%by%the%Germanic%tribes.22%It%is%generally%

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!18 Dyson 1971 p257 19 Dyson 1971 pp258 20 Vellius Paterculus II.117.2-4 21 Cassius Dio 58.18.4 22 Wells 1999A pp 38!

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agreed%by%the%primary%and%secondary%sources,%except%Dio,23%that%post%9%A.D.%military%

policy%became%strictly%defensive%as%an%old%aged%Augustus%saw%the%limitations%of%the%

army%and%looked%to%consolidate%the%Roman%Empire%he%had%previously%expanded.%%

% After%Augustus%death%in%A.D.%14%a%series%of%campaigns%led%by%Germanicus%west%

of%the%Rhine%aimed%at%restoring%Roman%honour%by%locating%the%legions%and%burying%

the%dead.%Germanicus%achieved%some%sort%of%retribution%for%the%military%disaster%of%

A.D.%9%when%his%commander%Stertinius,%located%the%battle%site%at%Kalkriese%hill,%near%

Osnabruck;%the%army%buried%the%dead%and%recovered%the%eagle%of%the%defeated%19th%

legion,%which%restored%some%military%prestige%for%the%new%emperor%Tiberius.24%

% Interaction%between%Romans%and%Germanic%tribes%was%primarily%of%a%

diplomatic%nature%after%A.D.16%when%the%Romans%withdrew%their%forces%west%of%the%

Rhine.%This%led%to%an%internal%power%struggle%between%the%two%most%dominant%tribes;%

The%Marcomanni%and%the%Cherusci.%Romans%diplomats%were%sent%to%both%tribal%

leaders%King%Marobodus%and%Arminius%of%the%Cherusci,%Roman%influence%was%thus%

still%held%in%political%power.25%The%Rhine%was%unofficially%the%limit%of%the%Roman%force%

but%the%power%of%the%Romans%still%extended%through%a%Hegemonic%empire%of%client%

tribes%by%diplomatic%measures.26%%

%% The%Imperial%battle%for%Germania%can%be%divided%into%five%periods:%finalizing%

the%Gallic%provinces%19_15%B.C;%Drusus%campaigns%12_9%B.C;%failed%pacification%8B.C._

A.D.%9;%Germanicus%campaigns%A.D.%14_16;%and%Claudius%fortification%of%the%frontier%

A.D.%41_50.%%

%

2.2.1!Conflicting!Ideologies!!

%% Slofstra%(2002)%argues%that%the%political%seduction%of%the%elite%through%

granting%of%Roman%citizenship%and%Civitas&Romana%helped%bind%the%indigenous%elite%

directly%with%the%emperor.27%Tribes%preferred%a%self_subsistent%heroic%warrior%lifestyle%

of%cattle%raiding%and%gift%exchange%rather%than%the%socio_economical%complexities%

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!23 Dio LIV 53.10.4-5 Dio believes that Augustus always conducted a defensive policy in regards to the Rhine frontier. 24 Tacitus Annals 1.62 25 Tacitus Annals 2.44 26 Gruen 2008 p194 27 Slofstra 2002 pp18!

! 11!

that%Roman%control%imposed.%Tacitus%Germania%is%our%principle%literary%source;%his%

writing%defines%Germans%as%ideologically%disconnected%from%Roman%philosophies%

such%as%the%value%of%cultivating%the%land.%For%example%Tacitus%states%“The%funds%for%

this%munificence%must%be%found%in%war%and%rapine;%nor%are%they%so%easily%persuaded%

to%cultivate%the%earth,%and%await%the%produce%of%seasons,%as%to%challenge%the%foe,%and%

expose%themselves%to%wounds;%nay,%they%even%think%it%base%and%spiritless%to%earn%a%

sweat%what%they%might%purchase%with%blood”28.%Items%won%through%war,%or%by%treaty%

with%a%fellow%clan%had%symbolic%prestige%that%was%more%valuable%that%Roman%coins%

and%money.%

% The%colorful%traits%of%the%Germans%are%epitomized%in%one%line%Tacitus%‘that%the%

same%persons%love%indolence,%and%hate%tranquility!’29%In%the%Imperial%period%

indigenous%tribal%values%remained%strong%and%the%deeply%rooted%warrior%ideologies%

had%not%yet%been%converted%to%Roman%practices.30%Although%the%Romans%believed%the%

native%leaders%were%subjecting%changes%on%their%people%and%preparing%them%for%

formal%annexation,%the%tribal%elite%were%actually%strengthening%tribal%treaties%and%

planning%national%revolt.%%%

% Roman%power%lay%in%the%hands%of%the%few,%but%in%Rome%there%was%a%huge%mob%

of%plebian%citizens%that%could%revolt%at%any%given%time.%The%same%situation%applies%to%

the%tribes%of%Germania;%the%real%power%lay%in%the%hands%of%the%people;%particularly%

the%lower%class.%This%annexation%system%was%flawed,%the%Germanic%population%

disliked%having%their%farming%products%or%prestige%items%(symbols%of%wealth)%taken%

from%them%as%taxation%by%their%tribal%elite%for%an%empire%they%never%seen.%When%the%

Roman%governor%Varus%swiftly%began%exacting%tribute%and%tax%he%encountered%

serious%problems,%the%local%tribal%chieftains%could%not%exact%tax%from%their%subjects.%

The%divisions%between%tribes%were%reduced%with%a%new%common%enemy.%%

% The%Roman%conquest%system%only%cared%for%the%elite%who%supposedly%

controlled%the%masses%such%as%the%Proletariat&(no%wealth%other%than%their%children&

proletarius)&or%the%Capite&Censi&(no%property%or%children,&their%service%is%classed%as%

property).&%The%four%functions%needed%to%annex%a%province%are%internal%order,%military%

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!28 Tacitus Germania 14 29 Tacitus Germania 15 30 Roymans 1983 p53!

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aggression,%communications%and%importantly%economic%redistribution.%With%no%

benefits%to%Roman%control,%the%masses%were%bound%to%be%angered%and%calling%for%

revolution,%the%mistake%of%the%Roman%army%was%introducing%a%taxation%system%in%an%

underdeveloped%non_monetized%economy.%The%involuntary%taxation%the%Romans%

imposed%upon%the%Germanic%tribes%was%unsuccessful%because%it%went%against%the%

ideological%principle%of%earning%wealth%through%battle%and%raids.%The%Romans%tried%to%

exert%power%over%the%indigenous%people%by%taxing%them,%which%failed%because%they%

had%not%earned%the%items.%Taxation%was%inconceivable%to%the%Germanic%tribes%since%

there%was%no%honor%in%handing%over%valuables%to%their%oppressors%without%a%fight.%%

% Revell%(2009)%criticizes%the%social%evolutionary%model,%which%plays%down%the%

unequal%relationship%between%the%defeated%group%and%imperial%authority%because%it%

ignores%the%society’s%defiance%to%cultural%changes,%loss%of%sacred%traditions%and%

festivities.31%Romanization%involves%altering%different%layers%of%a%society%and%major%

identity%changes%for%example%religion,%occupation,%status,%burial%customs,%and%eating%

habits,%which%can%only%happen%over%a%long%period%of%time.%To%further%complicate%the%

Romanization%system%is%the%fact%Germania%was%full%of%hundreds%of%different%tribes,%

some%which%were%not%stratified%at%all,%therefore%the%problems%of%‘Romanization’%of%

Germania%were%too%complex%to%be%complete%in%one%single%generation.%%

% One%major%problem%the%Romans%faced%in%the%lower%Rhine%was%communicating%

with%tribes.%The%many%different%variations%of%the%Gallic%and%Germanic%dialect%used%by%

the%different%tribes%in%the%Lower%Rhine%a%meant%that%interaction%between%Romans%

and%indigenous%tribes%was%somewhat%hindered.%However,%Derks%and%Roymans%(2002)%

concluded%that%the%Roman%spread%of%Latin%literacy%to%the%Batavian%region%could%be%

attributed%to%the%army%veterans%who%were%taught%to%read%and%write%Latin%by%the%

Roman%military.32%The%level%of%literacy%of%the%army%was%not%limited%to%legionary%

commanders%but%adopted%by%all%ranks;%as%is%shown%by%the%Vindolanda%tablets%that%

include%letters%from%soldiers%of%every%rank.33%Evidence%of%literacy%can%be%seen%by%the%

large%quantity%of%250%seal%boxes%in%the%Civitates%Batavorum%area.34%%The%local%

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!31 Revell 2009 p7 32 Derks and Roymans 2002 p 99ff, A full study of the linguistic challenges the Romans faced is out of the scope of this study but for a comprehensive bibliography and list of sources see in Derks and Roymans. 33 Derks and Roymans 2002 p100%34 Derks and Roymans 2002 p94ff

! 13!

variation%of%Latin%spoke%was%probably%a%combination%of%Latin%and%native%dialect.35%

Evidence%of%seal%boxes%in%rural%farmhouses%suggests%that%the%army%was%

communicating%with%their%families%in%the%latter%half%of%the%1st%century%A.D.36%The%use%

of%Latin%by%soldiers%and%rural%famers%suggests%locals%could%“communicate%with%friends%

and%relatives%over%great%distances,%and%to%reap%the%economic%benefits”.37%Therefore%it%

is%fair%to%assume%in%the%High%empire%the%Latinization%of%the%Batavian%area%was%

reasonably%developed,%however%we%should%not%believe%it%was%adopted%too%early%in%

the%Imperial%period%because%like%all%Roman%changes%the%most%important%factor%of%

change%was%time.%%

%

2.3!Battle!of!Teutoburg!forest!!% The%breakdown%of%good%relations%between%the%Germanic%tribes%and%the%

Romans%is%most%clearly%shown%in%the%form%of%native%revolts.%Luttwak%(1976)%states%

“Rome’s%major%security%problems%were%the%result%of%native%revolts%within%the%

Empire”.38%The%process%of%Romanization%in%Germania%failed%because%it%was%too%

narrowly%focused%on%gaining%favor%with%the%notable%tribal%elite,%whilst%overlooking%

the%lower%class.%The%Roman%take_over%brought%no%re_division%of%wealth%and%land%and%

therefore%the%power%remained%between%the%few%tribal%leaders%who%Rome%

maintained%contacts%with.%%Essentially%the%Roman%authorities%made%political%ties%with%

chieftains%and%formed%a%frontier%of%exclusion%to%the%mass%population.%%

% The%native%revolt%of%9%A.D.%was%targeting%against%Roman%Ideologies%and%the%

imposition%of%taxes.%Coin%finds%from%the%site%at%Kalkriese%attest%to%Varus%minting%coins%

(VAR%symbol)%that%suggest%the%Romans%were%forcing%administrative%duties%of%

censuses%and%taxation%on%the%Germanic%tribes%and%attempting%to%introduce%a%

monetary%economy.39%The%revolt%was%pivotal%to%the%change%of%military%strategy,%after%

A.D.%9%the%frontier%of%exclusion%was%set%up.40%%

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!35 Derks and Roymans 2002 p102ff 36 Derks and Roymans 2002 p100 37 Derks and Roymans 2002 p103 38 Lutwak 1976 pp18 39 Wells 1999 p84-5 40 Luttwakk 1976 1-50pp

! 14!

% Strabo%tells%us,%Q.Varus%and%three%legions%were%tricked%into%entering%

dangerous%swampy%terrain%to%quell%what%they%believed%was%a%‘small%revolt’%in%

Cheruscian%territory.41%He%was%even%warmed%about%the%revolt%by%a%rival%Cherusci%

leader%Segestes%who%supported%Rome.42%Varus%allowed%their%lines%of%communication%

to%be%cut,%leading%the%three%legions%into%unknown%bogey,%mountainous%territory%

where%an%ambush%of%troops%had%been%well%organized,%constructing%a%15%feet%wide%

fortified%wall.43%Evidently%German%leaders%had%seen%the%strength%of%recruiting%a%mass%

army%and%had%seen%the%weaknesses%of%traditional%tribal%fighting%and%dispersal%

tactics.44%Elite%tribal%leaders,%such%as%Arminius,%were%formerly%recruited%as%Roman%

auxiliarie&and%had%access%to%the%Roman%lines%of%communications,%military%strategy%

and%Arminius%used%his%knowledge%against%them.%%

% %The%unity%and%organization%of%the%Germans%was%unexpected,%it%could%be%

argued%this%level%of%group%organization%was%introduced%to%the%tribal%leaders%by%the%

establishment%of%the%imperial%cult%at%Colognes%in%8%B.C.%The%religious%sanctuary%acted%

as%a%meeting%place%for%Augustan%priests%who%were%prestigious%leaders%of%tribes%

throughout%Gaul%and%Germania.%Dyson%states%‘The%use%of%native%assemblies%had%the%

reverse%effect%of%creating%national%unity%against%the%Roman%oppressors”.45%If%the%

reverse%effect%of%the%cult%is%to%be%used%as%an%argument%for%the%revolt%then%the%level%of%

tribal%complexity%of%the%Germanic%tribes%must%be%regarded%as%higher%than%expected.%%

% Overall%the%main%miscalculation%was%that%the%Romans%believed%they%had%the%

tribal%elite%onside,%Arminius%a%highly%Romanized%native%caused%unforeseen%strength%

of%Germanic%tribes%that%shows%serious%problems%in%the%structural%relationship%

between%governing%class%and%Romans.%Clearly%the%level%of%socio%evolutionary%

complexity%of%the%tribes%was%much%higher%than%expected.%The%failure%of%Romanization%

can%also%be%noted%in%Cassius%Dio%who%states,%“They%had%not,%however,%forgotten%their%

ancestral%habits,%their%native%manners,%their%old%life%of%independence,%or%the%power%

derived%from%arms”.46%Thus%the%return%to%the%sword%was%imminent.%%

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!41 Wells 1999 p38 Strabo quoted “The Cherusci and their subjects, in whose country the three Roman legions, with their general Quinctilius Varus, were destroyed by ambush in violation of the treaty” 42 Wells 1999A p40 43 Wells 1999A p50 44 Tacitus Annals II 88, Dyson 1972 p256 45 Dyson 1971 256ff 46 Cassius Dio 58.18!

! 15!

%

2.4!Batavian!revolt!%

% The%Batavian%revolt%of%69%A.D.%has%very%similar%causes%to%the%revolt%that%

occurred%in%A.D.%9.%The%difference%between%the%two%is%that%the%revolt%of%9%was%deep%

in%Germanic%territory%in%marshy%swamps%were%Roman%war%tactics%could%not%be%used,%

whereas%the%revolt%of%69%was%in%Roman%territory%along%the%heavily%fortified%Rhine%

frontier.%The%similarities%lie%in%the%cause%of%the%revolt,%the%Romans%were%exerting%too%

high%a%tax%and%the%locals%saw%a%weakness%in%the%lines%and%limits%of%the%Roman%army.%

Furthermore%the%revolutionary%leaders%in%both%revolts%are%both%highly%Romanized%

elite%individuals.%%

% The%cause%of%the%revolt%could%be%argued%to%be%threefold.%The%requirement%of%

auxiliary%troops%as%the%form%of%taxation%is%how%the%Romans%exerted%tax%from%the%

Batavians%tribe%that%guarded%the%lower%Rhine.47%Firstly%the%revolt%could%be%simplified%

as%the%result%of%over%taxation.48%%However,%there%was%also%the%highly%respected,%

Romanized%commander%Julius%Civilius%who%is%to%blame,%he%initially%instigated%the%

revolt%after%his%brother%was%executed%in%Rome.49%Lastly%the%initial%Batavian%cohorts%to%

revolt%were%on%their%way%to%serve%in%Britian%with%the%AIV%Germani,%this%as%unpopular%

because%it%meant%leaving%their%homeland%which%some%feared%they%would%never%

return.50%%%

% When%the%Batavians%revolted%they%gained%military%support%from%the%

Cannifates,%Frisii,%Bructeri%and%Tencteri%and%began%raiding%Roman%settlements%and%

attacking%merchants%and%traders.51%The%circumstances%were%similar%to%the%revolt%of%

the%Imperial%period,%the%instigators%of%the%revolt%were%highly%Romanized%elite%

individuals%that%in%theory%should%of%supported%Romans%rule%that%helped%secure%their%

initial%power.52%What%is%evident%is%that%the%revolt%was%nativeized%by%the%fact%the%

leader%Julius%Civilis,%a%Batavian%noble%who%had%served%25%years%army%service,53%

refused%to%cut%his%hair,%committing%to%a%sacred%vow%until%the%destruction%of%the%!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!47 Tacitus Germania 29 48 Tacitus Histories 4.15, 4.12.3 49 Tacitus Histories 4.14 50 Woodside 1937 p282 51 Tacitus Histories 4.16, 4,26 52 Tacitus Histories 4.33, 4.55, 4.15 53 Tacitus Histories 4.32!

! 16!

Roman%legionary%forts.54%There%was%even%a%religious%prophet,%Velada,%who%foretold%

the%destruction%of%the%base%at%Vetera%(Xanten).55%

% The%difference%between%the%revolts%was%due%to%the%fact%the%Batavian%revolt%

was%in%Roman%territory%and%was%rather%well%planned,%Tacitus%states%the%natives%asked%

for%double%pay%as%a%‘pretext%for%mutiny’.56%The%natives%were%not%just%revolting%against%

the%Roman%administrative%systems%place%upon%them;%they%were%reverting%to%

Germanic%traditions%and%raiding%Roman%forts%and%settlements%for%glory%and%plunder.%%

% The%revolt%was%finally%quelled%when%Vespasian%was%proclaimed%the%new%

emperor,%he%visited%the%Rhineland%in%69A.D.%and%had%the%tribes%swear%an%oath%of%

allegiance%to%him%and%peace%was%re_established.%After%the%revolt%the%repercussions%

were%not%as%serious%as%after%Varus%disaster,%after%which%a%frontier%of%exclusion%had%

been%established,%Ruger%states%“With%the%end%of%the%Batavian%revolt%Germania%

vanished%from%the%purview%of%imperial%politics%…%In%Rome%everything%was%

accompanied%by%rather%less%of%a%feeling%of%catastrophe%than%had%been%the%case%on%

the%defeat%of%Varus”.57%Following%the%revolt%the%long%peace%of%the%‘Pax%Romana’%was%

established%that%paved%way%for%over%a%century%of%peace%allowing%for%security%of%

civilian%life,%property%and%economic%development.%This%peace%of%the%lower%Rhine%was%

ensured%by%the%two%new%legions%II%Adiutrix%and%X%Germina%who%were%set%up%to%

oversea%the%Batavians.58%%

%

2.5!Germania!becomes!a!province!!

% It%is%in%Domitian’s%reign%when%they%region%of%Germania%is%finally%made%into%a%

province%after%a%successful%series%of%wars%with%tribes%in%free%Germany.%Domitian%

launched%his%campaign%into%Germania%against%the%Chatti%from%the%base%at%Mainz%in%

82/3%A.D.59%On%completion%Germania%was%made%into%two%provinces%Inferior%to%the%

north%near%the%mouth%of%the%Rhine%and%Superior%to%the%southern%region%along%the%

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!54 Tacitus Histories 4.15 55 Tacitus Histories 4.61 56 Tacitus Histories 4.20 57 Ruger 2008 496 58 Levick 1999 p160 59 Jones 1992 p128!

! 17!

Danube.60%The%campaign%saw%the%formation%of%the%Legio%I%Minervia%who%constructed%

75km%of%road%network%into%Chattan%territory%deforesting%a%huge%region%that%made%

the%assault%possible.61%This%paved%way%for%easier%trade%and%communications%between%

Romans%and%natives.%Domitian%celebrated%a%triumph%at%Rome%in%elaborate%style%

adopting%the%name%Germanicus%to%his%title.62%He%is%criticized%by%the%primary%sources%

that%state%he%oversold%the%victory%as%the%pacification%of%the%entirety%of%Germania%and%

that%the%war%was%unnecessary%pursuit%of%glory.63%Nonetheless%it%acted%as%imperial%

propaganda%to%state%the%conquest%of%Germania%had%finally%been%achieved.%Domitian%

minted%a%series%of%coins%that%proclaimed%his%victory,%the%coins%depicted%the%subdued%

Germans%on%the%reverse%and%on%the%obverse%was%Domitian.64%%%%

%

Figure 2 RIC II 252, Obverse shows Domitian and Reverse shows trophy in centre with

subdued seated female on left and standing male captive to the right

%

% In%reality%the%pacification%of%the%region%was%part%of%an%ongoing%process%of%

regular%contact%between%Roman%soldiers,%merchants%and%native%farmers.%The%

interaction%of%the%tribes%in%free%Germany%and%Romans%in%the%Imperial%period%is%a%

crucial%aspect%as%to%why%Domitian’s%war%so%quick%and%easy.%For%there%was%no%sudden%

point%where%the%tribes%suddenly%adopted%Roman%ideologies,%the%main%cause%was%the%

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!60 Ruger 2008 p498 61 Jones 1992 p130 62 Jones 1992 p129 63 Suetonius Domitian 6, Tacitus Agricola 39 64 RIC II 252, See on next page Image from http://www.wildwinds.com/coins/ric/domitian/RIC_0274_2.jpg!

! 18!

slow%process%of%mutual%trade%that%acted%as%a%means%of%‘positive%interaction’%between%

both%groups.%%

% Once%Germania%was%converted%into%two%regular%provinces%the%territory%was%

incorporated%into%the%legal%framework%of%the%empire,%L.%Iavolenus%Priscus%was%sent%to%

govern%the%province%from%89_92%A.D.65%The%incorporation%of%the%provinces%paved%way%

for%increased%economic%activity,%such%as%the%mining%of%gold,%silver%and%lead%in%the%

mountainous%Lahn%region.66%Local%production%levels%boomed%and%there%was%an%

increase%in%the%arable%cultivation%of%the%land%due%to%the%deforestation%of%part%of%the%

black%forest;%and%in%the%Rheinzabern%region%local%production%of%imitation%terra&

sigilatta%pottery%was%exported%on%an%international%level%with%products%found%in%

Raetia,%Noricum,%Britain%and%Gaul.67%The%economic%prosperity%enjoyed%along%the%

Rhine%frontier%finally%begun%in%the%Germanic%provinces%after%Domitian’s%war%with%the%

Chatti.%The%increased%level%of%socio_economic%organization%would%have%been%

impossible%without%the%administrative%duties,%taxes,%laws%and%the%legal%framework%

the%Roman%Empire%provided.%%

% Contrast%the%development%in%the%High%empire%in%Germania%on%the%right%of%the%

Rhine%with%that%of%the%left%bank%of%the%Rhine%in%the%Imperial%epoch%and%we%see%that%

the%stimulant%of%economic%prosperity%is%two%fold,%firstly%the%peace%and%stability%the%

Roman%conquest%offered%allowed%for%unbroken%trade%and%secondly%that%the%

development%of%roads%and%infrastructure%was%paramount%to%Roman%control.%The%

importance%of%the%road%network%to%the%Romans%was%a%vital%factor%that%allowed%for%

further%conquest,%Lutwak%stated%“The%frontier%defense%of%this%phase%of%the%empire%

was%critically%dependent%on%the%density%and%quality%of%the%road%network”68.%Roads%

were%not%just%developed%as%means%of%defense;%they%joined%regions%previously%

inaccessible%and%allowed%for%trade,%which%in%essence%is%the%main%means%of%positive%

interaction%of%tribes%and%Romans.%%%

!!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!65 Ruger 2008 p498 66 Ruger 2008 p504 67 Ruger 2008 p506 68 Lutwak 1976 p71!

! 19!

3.0!Monetization!!!% The%Germanic%tribes%of%the%Ubii,%Batavi%and%Tungri%began%minting%their%own%

coins%in%late%1st%century%B.C.69%Coins%were%important%for%forming%tribal%identities%and%

creating%social%cohesion%between%newly%founded%groups.%The%use%of%coins%was%

symbolic%and%primarily%for%religious%purposes%as%offerings%to%local%dieties.%More%than%

250%of%the%Bronze%Rainbow%dove%coins%belonging%to%the%Batavians%have%been%found%

deposited%at%the%religious%sanctuary%at%Empel.70%Religious%culture%was%a%social%

platform%for%the%political%elite%to%define%and%establish%their%positions%whilst%forming%

inter_regional%alliances%with%other%tribes.71%%

% It%is%important%to%exemplify%the%use%of%coins%before%the%Imperial%period%was%

not%as%a%means%of%trade,%the%primary%evidence%for%this%is%the%fact%that%the%lower%Rhine%

region%did%not%have%large%markets%or%cities%that%could%act%as%centres%of%commerce.72%

Roymans%argued%that%the%existence%of%gift%exchange%prevailed%in%the%Lower%Rhine%

region%and%the%importance%of%cattle%remained%whilst%gold%circulation%was%of%little%

importance.73%%

% The%use%of%coins%as%currency%to%buy%and%purchase%goods%was%a%new%

phenomenon%in%the%region.%The%exchange%network%that%dominated%the%region%had%

three%spheres%of%different%valued%goods:%the%subsistence%sphere%of%low%value%

commodities%such%as%milk%and%cheeses;%the%prestige%sphere%made%up%of%livestock;%

and%the%high_level%sphere%of%Chariots%and%rare%foreign%luxury%items%obtained%through%

inter_regional%alliances.74%%

% However%the%existence%of%interregional%trade%before%the%Romans%is%shown%in%

one%form%of%specialist%exchange.%La_Tene%glass%bracelets%are%found%along%the%Rhine,%

down%the%Meuse%and%along%smaller%rivers%of%the%Northern%brabrant.75%The%bracelets%

were%manufactured%in%the%Batavian%region%between%the%Waal%and%the%Meuse,%the%

exchange%of%these%shows%us%that%specialized%craftsmanship%was%in%existence%in%the%

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!69 For an in depth analysis of coins of the tribes along the Rhine in the pre-Roman period see Roymans and Aarts 2009 5-26, 70 Roymans and Aarts 2009 p14 71 Derks 1998, p12 72 Roymans and Aarts 2009 p20, Willems 1984 p359 73 Roymans1996 p49ff 74 Roymans 1996 p46ff 75 Willems 1983 p110ff

! 20!

late%iron%age.76%This%indicates%trade%with%the%south%existed%before%the%Romans,%as%

glass%wear%requires%querns%of%basaltlava%and%crude%glass%material%to%be%imported%

from%the%south.%Therefore%object%exchange%in%“stateless’%societies%may%have%taken%

place%in%the%form%of%commercial%exchange%of%%‘bars%of%salt,%copper%wire,%cowrie%shells%

which%would%of%facilitated%exchange%with%foreigners”.77%Evidence%of%specialized%crafts%

like%La_Tene%bracelets%suggests%that%luxury%items%were%produced%for%the%few%who%

could%afford%items%of%wealth.%Strabo%attests%to%tribal%fondness%of%metal%ornaments%

particularly%gold%and%silver%necklaces,78%the%use%of%luxury%items%made%dignitaries%

stand%out%and%was%a%method%of%forming%personal%identities.%

% There%is%no%physical%evidence%of%markets%to%exchange%or%sell%goods%in%the%

region.%I%would%like%to%acknowledge%the%‘possibility%of%travelling%markets’%but%will%

stick%to%the%general%consensus%that%this%is%unlikely%due%to%the%lack%of%archaeological%

evidence%proving%this.%Caesar%attests%that%prior%to%and%during%Roman%occupation%the%

Roman%Mercatores%avoided%the%Dutch%river%area%and%‘that%there%was%no%access%to%

merchants%for%them’.79%The%amount%of%trading%and%exchange%before%the%Roman%

influence%is%variable%but%should%still%be%considered%relatively%low%due%to%primitive%

egalitarian%structure%of%societies%that%dominated%the%Rhine%regions.%

% %

% The%importance%the%Roman%army%played%in%improving%the%level%of%

communications%during%the%Imperial%period%was%vital%to%changing%the%settlement%

structure%and%transforming%the%economy%of%the%region.%The%Imperial%campaigns%of%

Augustus%from%12%B.C.%to%16%A.D.%required%thousands%of%troops%to%be%sent%to%the%

River%Rhine%area%and%set%up%legionary%fortresses%along%the%Rhine%at%Xanten,%Mains,%

Cologne%and%Nijmegen.%The%requirements%of%the%army%meant%the%local%level%of%socio_

economic%organization%had%to%significantly%increase.%Therefore%the%need%to%create%a%

monetary%economy%and%establish%trading%markets%along%the%Lower%Rhine%area%was%of%

extreme%importance%to%the%Romans.%%

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!76 Willems 1983 p363ff, 374ff!77 Willems 1983 112ff 78 Strabo Geography 4.4.5.1-3 79 Caesar De Bello Gallico 2.15

! 21!

% The%economy%and%ecology%of%warfare%limited%the%Roman%advancements%into%

Germanic%territory.80%In%the%Imperial%period%the%Roman%army%needed%to%establish%a%

frontier%zone%that%could%effectively%support%the%Roman%army,%to%do%this%the%region%

had%to%develop%ways%of%producing%vast%quantities%of%food.%Once%a%stable%monetary%

economy%was%established%the%cyclical%effect%of%money%to%the%region%would%be%

mutually%beneficial%to%both%local%famers%and%Roman%soldiers.%%The%Roman%frontiers%

follow%a%pattern%of%devlopment;%the%state%collects%taxes%then%pays%the%army%in%cash,%

the%soldiers%spend%the%money%on%food%and%equipment%in%the%local%Vici%and%they%in%

turn%pay%this%back%in%the%form%of%taxes.%Therefore%a%monetary%economy%is%established%

through%the%emergence%of%a%trade%market%allowing%universal%prosperity.%!

% For%the%Romans%to%establish%a%standardized%trading%currency%it%had%to%allow%

for%easy%trading%of%low%value%commodities.%The%unification%of%the%system%of%coinage%

used%in%the%lower%Rhine%area%was%a%way%of%Romanizing%the%locals,%it%meant%that%tribal%

groups%who%identified%themselves%through%locally%minted%coins%were%collectively%

brought%into%the%Roman%system%of%coinage.%This%transition%period%took%until%10%A.D%

when%the%tribal%production%stopped.81%We%may%assume%a%standardized%currency%

encouraged%trade%or%at%least%made%inter_regional%trade%easier.%The%Roman%army%was%

constantly%moving%and%required%a%universally%accepted%form%of%coinage%that%could%be%

exchanged%for%goods%and%services.%The%unified%currency%created%a%new%monetary%

system%that%integrating%the%cannabae,%vici&and%rural%settlements.%These%economic%

changes%encouraged%much%greater%mutually%beneficial%action%between%the%Roman%

and%Germanic%tribes%and%increased%the%level%interaction%thus%promoting%

Romanization.%%

% However,%there%were%regional%differences%that%affected%the%monetization%and%

integration%of%tribes%along%the%Lower%Rhine;%the%slow%emergence%of%a%cash%economy%

could%be%attributable%to%the%poverty%of%Lower%Rhine.%%For%example%the%Batavian%

region%had%a%poorer%quality%farming%land,%the%brackish%clay%soils%of%old%river%beds%

affected%the%amount%of%land%that%could%be%used%for%the%cultivation%of%cereals.82%The%

limitations%of%agrarian%production%of%the%Batavian%region%affected%the%nature%of%the%

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!80 Whittaker 2008 313ff!81 Roymans and Aarts 2009 p20-3 82 Groot and Kooistra 2009 http://intarch.ac.uk/journal/issue27/5/3.4.1.html and also see Roymans 1996 p52%

! 22!

relationship%between%the%Romans%and%the%tribe.%The%Batavian%tribe%had%a%long_

standing%agreement%with%the%Roman%rulers%to%provide%auxiliary%soldiers%as%a%form%of%

tax%instead%of%cash%or%tribute%because%the%available%land%was%not%very%profitable.83%

Seeing%as%a%large%quantity%of%the%Batavians%of%noble%and%low%birth%had%to%serve%as%

soldiers%for%the%empire,%the%bonds%between%them%were%much%firmer%than%any%other%

Germanic%tribe.%%

The%macro_regional%differentiations%in%agrarian%development%led%to%deep%

cultural%divisions%and%regional%specialization%that%typified%regional%identities.%The%

proximity%of%tribes%to%a%provincial%centre%affected%personal%levels%of%interaction,%the%

further%away%the%people%were%the%less%likely%they%were%to%engage%with%the%Roman%

soldiers.%Therefore%geographic%location%would%have%affected%the%process%of%

Romanization%and%the%sparseness%of%isolated%byre_houses%found%in%the%Dutch%river%

area%would%have%certainly%slowed%that%down.84%To%what%extent%the%monetization%of%

the%region%affected%every%settlement%in%the%lower%Rhine%in%the%Imperial%Empire%is%

unknown%since%trade%could%still%occur%through%commodity%exchange.%However,%cash%

exchange%in%rural%farmhouses%is%unlikely%because%of%the%constant%need%for%small%

denominations%of%coins.%Therefore%it%can%be%concluded%that%during%the%imperial%

period%the%native%societies%had%an%basic%economy%and%agrarian%production%was%not%

completely%monetized,%however%trade%was%still%ongoing%but%it%form%gift%exchange.85%

!

3.1!Taxation!!

% The%reason%for%the%expansion%of%the%Roman%Empire%was%to%increase%levels%of%

taxation%and%funding%for%the%government.%If%the%inhabitants%did%not%have%the%ability%

to%pay%taxes%annexation%is%counterproductive.%The%Roman%army%legitimized%taxation%

by%emphasizing%the%provinces%received%peace%and%protection%from%external%threats%

west%of%the%Rhine.86%The%imposition%of%taxes%differed%regionally;%the%collection%of%

taxes%was%partially%in%the%form%of%money%but%also%in%kind%and%services.%Farms%

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!83 Tacitus, Germania 29 84 See in Williems the hierarchical model of socio-economic of regions that is determined by location to imperial core p384 See appendix for model 85 Roymans 1996 p86 86 Roymans 1996 p84

! 23!

developed%specialized%products%based%on%what%crops%suited%the%land,%the%Romans%

then%asked%for%a%percentage%of%the%surplus%in%the%form%of%tax.%For%example%the%

Frisians%tribes%were%taxed%in%cowhides%up%until%the%revolt%of%A.D.%28%after%which%they%

were%taxed%in%cash.87%On%the%other%hand%the%Batavians%provided%a%service%tax,%

constituting%of%a%heavy%obligation%to%supply%auxiliary%troops%for%the%Romans,%but%they%

were%exempt%from%any%other%forms%of%taxation.88%%

% The%Romans%were%lenient%to%tribes%that%could%not%produce%much%of%a%surplus,%

for%example%the%Batavian%treaty%suggests%that%tribes%which%supplied%manpower%were%

taxed%less%in%other%ways.89%Roman%and%Batavians%had%intrinsically%complex%relations%

because%a%large%number%of%5000%males%were%required%to%join%the%army.%90%%Every%

family%out%of%an%estimated%total%population%of%35,000%people%would%on%average%have%

to%contribute%two%men%the%auxiliaries.91%Such%a%huge%burden%would%seriously%affect%

the%demographic%trend%and%social%relations.%Therefore%I%would%argue%the%Batavian%

revolt%was%partially%the%result%of%socio_political%inequality%that%caused%an%internal%

power%struggle%between%pro%and%anti%roman%factions.%

%Taxation%was%different%regionally,%those%that%could%be%taxed%in%pastoral%products%

were%and%it%depending%on%what%a%region%could%produce.%Certain%factors%constrained%

production,%Stallibrass%&%Thomas%stated%“Enviromental%factors%both%facilitate%and%

constrain%what%can%be%grown%in%different%locations”.92%%

%The%Batavians%post%revolt%of%69%A.D.%had%the%choice%to%be%taxed%in%pastoral%

products,%livestock%or%cash,%the%Romans%still%employed%Batavian%military%cohors%but%

they%were%no%longer%situated%along%the%frontier%instead%they%were%sent%to%distant%

provinces%like%Spain%and%Britian.93%%

The%Romans%introduced%a%system%of%taxation%that%was%flexible%and%variable%

according%to%local%produce.%In%the%lower%Rhineland%the%tax%was%in%manpower%or%cattle.%

The%Romans%introduced%a%very%flexible%system%of%taxation.%Roymans%concluded%that%

the%system%of%taxation%imposed%on%tribes%during%the%imperial%epoch%was%determined%

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!87 Tacitus Annals 4.72 88 Tacitus Germania 29, Hist. 4.12, 5.25 89 Roymans 1996 p86 90 Roymans 1996 p22 91 Williems 1984 235ff 92 Stallibrass and Thomas 2008 p148 93 Tacitus Histories 4.47!

! 24!

by%the%location%and%regional%specifications%of%the%tribe,%for%example%tribes%based%

along%the%Rhine%(Batavi,%Ubii)%were%likely%to%be%taxed%in%manpower%as%they%could%

police%the%frontier,%whilst%areas%in%Northern%France%(Tungri%,%Menapii)%were%taxed%in%

wheat%and%cereals%as%a%means%to%feed%the%army.94%The%change%in%the%Flavian%period%

was%to%move%men%that%were%locally%recruited%to%other%provinces%since%this%prevented%

organized%revolt%along%the%frontier.%The%end%of%the%Batavian%revolt%was%the%last%civil%

war%along%the%Rhine%for%over%a%decade%and%the%beginning%of%peace%along%the%Rhine%

paved%way%for%economic%prosperity%between%the%frontier%tribes%and%the%Romans%

between%A.D.%70%and%230,%this%was%the%changing%period%of%the%Pax%Romana.95%The%

fact%there%was%even%a%2.5%%tax%on%goods%entering%the%lower%Rhine%delta%

(Quadragesima&gallirum)%from%Spain,%Britian,%Noricum%and%Italy%shows%the%region%

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!94 Roymans 1996 p87, See above for map of the regional differences in the lower Rhine 95 Ruger 2008 p510

! 25!

was%experiencing%economic%boom.96

Figure 3 – Taxation along the Lower Rhine – From Roymans 1996 p87

&

3.2!The!emergence!of!the!Roman!villa!system!!

% The%development%of%the%Roman%villa%in%the%northern%Rhineland%never%took%

place%as%it%did%in%interior%Gaul.%%The%villa%was%a%unique%symbol%of%Roman%values%that%

was%epitomized%by%the%grandness,%size,%layout%and%interior%decoration.%During%the%

Imperial%and%High%Empire%we%do%not%see%this%type%of%house%develop%along%the%Rhine.%

This%may%be%due%to%the%limitations%of%the%terrain.%Tacitus%states,%“the%land%was%

shagged%in%forests,%covered%in%marshes%and%swamps%and%was%bleak%to%all%but%a%

native”.97%The%former%clay%riverbeds%could%not%easily%be%farmed%due%to%the%low%

quality%soil%and%cultivation%of%this%land%was%very%limited.%As%a%result%the%production%of%

cereals%remained%at%a%subsistent%level.98%

% %Villas%were%the%product%of%Roman%prosperity%of%the%few%that%owned%land%and%

were%run%on%client_patron%relationships%between%lower%class%who%acted%as%

sharecroppers%for%the%elite.%The%villa%style%house%emerged%when%there%was%a%surplus%

to%be%sold%which%could%pay%for%the%Roman%architectural%design.%%In%order%to%create%a%

surplus%for%wholesale%a%producer%would%need%to%consume%some%of%the%product%and%

retain%a%proportion%to%ensure%sustainable%production%the%next%year.99%Therefore%in%

order%to%create%a%surplus,%farmers’%required%fertile%soil%and%productive%land%along%

with%a%large%workforce.%The%emergence%of%the%Roman%villa%is%seen%in%the%Eifel%region%

of%France%were%cereals%could%be%produced%with%a%large%surplus%for%Roman%demand,%

whereas%in%the%Northern%Rhine%delta%the%agricultural%production%level%remained%

unchanged.100%The%Eifel%plains%were%in%central%Gaul%and%were%mainly%grain%producers.%

The%Rhineland%housing%style%that%persisted%through%the%Imperial%age%and%into%

the%High%Empire%was%that%of%the%Byre_house,%a%house%with%a%connected%Byre%that%was%

used%to%shelter%livestock,%usually%cattle,%under%one%roof.%The%persistence%of%this%style%

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!96 Ruger 2008 p504ff!97 Tacitus Germania 2.14 98 Groot and Kooistra 2009 http://intarch.ac.uk/journal/issue27/5/3.4.1.html 99 Stallibrass and Thomas 2008 p151 100 Roymans 1996 p87, see Figure 3 pp25 Eifel region in part D mainland Gaul where Villas were set up!

! 26!

of%house%along%the%Rhine%has%been%attributed%to%the%poverty%of%the%River%region,%

notably%the%Batavian%area.%Due%to%high%taxes,%poor%quality%of%suitable%arable%land%and%

lack%of%available%manpower%to%tend%the%land%meant%that%the%provincial%settlers%could%

not%reach%the%level%wealth%required%to%create%a%Villa%style%house.%The%prevalence%of%

the%tribal%byre%house%is%rooted%in%the%pastoral%practice%of%housing%cattle%alongside%

humans;%an%ideological%principle%of%protecting%cattle%from%raiders%which%dates%back%

long%before%Roman%conquest.101%

%

%

4.0!Agricultural!change!!

% Roymans%concluded%that%prior%to%Roman%occupation%of%the%Dutch%river%area%

“the%entire%population%was%engaged%in%agrarian%production,%and%agriculture%was%

practiced%in%virtually%every%settlement”%102.%Agrarian%change%in%the%Batavian%river%

area%was%minimal%during%the%Imperial%age%because%the%Romans%taxed%them%solely%in%

manpower%so%there%was%no%need%to%produce%a%surplus%of%food.%However,%In%the%

period%after%A.D.%70%we%see%certain%enclosures%of%fields%and%ditches%being%dug%around%

properties%forming%fields%in%one%excavated%rural%settlement%called%Tiel_Passewaaij.103%

Heeren%has%argued%this%was%a%sign%of%Roman%land%census%and%taxation104,%his%theory%

is%supported%by%excavations%of%the%large%granaries%built%around%the%same%period.%

Furthermore,%after%the%Batavian%revolt%of%A.D.%69%it%is%understood%the%locals%paid%tax%

and%therefore%needed%to%produce%a%surplus%of%goods%to%be%able%to%contribute%

taxes.105%%During%the%High%Empire%the%spread%of%the%Latin%language%used%by%the%

legionary%army%and%auxiliaries%encouraged%trade%and%communication%with%

indigenous%tribes.%The%Romans%supported%the%agricultural%production%along%the%

Rhine%in%many%diverse%ways%to%maximize%the%production%and%support%existing%

structures%with%Mediterranean%agrarian%technologies.%106%%

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!101 Roymans 1996, p88 102 Roymans 1996, pp44 103A map of Tiel-Passewaiij is from Groot 2009 p204 104 Herren 2009, pp242-52 105 Groot 2008A, pp69 106 Ruger 2008 p515!

! 27!

%Figure 4 - Depicts the location of two settlements I refer to From - Groot 2009 p204

%

4.1!Cattle!husbandry!%% The%Roman%army%recognized%the%value%of%cattle%production%in%settlements%

and%helped%indigenous%tribes%to%improve%the%size%and%quality%of%animals%for%a%mutual%

benefit.107%Cattle%were%very%significant%to%tribes%in%the%lower%Rhine%because%they%had%

daily%uses%in%the%fields%pulling%the%ploughs%and%carts,%producing%milk%that%could%make%

pastoral%products%and%later%on%could%be%sold%for%meat%or%sacrificed%and%consumed%at%

religious%festivals.%They%were%kept%sheltered%in%Byre_houses%for%part%of%the%year,%

living%in%‘deep%litter%sections’%that%were%lower%down%than%the%living%quarters,%manure%

was%collected%in%‘deep%litter%sections’%to%fertilize%the%land.108%Cows%were%kept%for%up%

to%four%years%because%larger%adult%cattle%could%pull%ploughs%and%produce%pastoral%

products.109%%We%may%assume%cattle%spent%half%the%year%grazing%on%leftover%crops%and%

plant%remains%in%the%stream%ridges,%after%cereals%were%harvested,%and%then%the%cows%

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!107 See Figure 5 on pp30 108 Kemmers 2009 156, Tacitus 20 109 Groot and Kooistra 2009, Http://intarch.ac.uk/journal/issue27/5/3.3.1.html, Groot 2008 p89ff!

! 28!

naturally%fertilized%the%land%for%the%next%year.110%Tacitus%remarks%on%the%importance%

of%cattle%to%tribal%communities,%a%fine%in%cattle%could%atone%for%homicide%and%a%bride%

had%to%provide%a%dowry%of%a%cow%when%entering%marriage.111%Pastoral%products%were%

produced%by%Batavian%farmers%who%could%sell%these%products%at%markets%based%in%vici%

near%forts%or%at%larger%regional%centers%such%as%Oppidum&Batavorum.%%

% The%importance%of%cattle%to%the%tribes%along%the%Rhine%is%vital%to%the%economic%

structures;%the%Romans%did%not%try%to%alter%existing%structures%but%aimed%to%support%

them.%Contrary%to%evidence%showing%a%large%number%of%cattle%bones%found%in%animal%

bone%assemblages%is%the%fact%‘specialization’%in%cattle%husbandry%never%occurred%in%

the%lower%Rhine.112%Local%famers%easily%managed%the%supply%of%cattle%and%when%cattle%

had%served%about%four%years%of%tilling%the%land%and%pulling%ploughs%were%they%sent%to%

military%markets.113%Surplus%animals%were%only%sold%off%after%several%years%worth%of%

labour,%or%offspring%had%been%taken%by%the%rural%settlement. %

% Lauwerier%(1988)%proposed%the%Romans%introduced%larger%cows%into%the%

Rhine%river%for%reproduction%purposes%to%create%larger%cattle%with%more%meat%and%

increased%value.114%Evidence%shows%varying%lengths%of%cattle%bones,%but%they%increase%

in%size%west%of%the%lower%Rhine%in%the%period%after%50%A.D.%continuing%until%the%end%of%

the%Roman%period.%This%can%be%seen%as%a%direct%influence%of%the%Roman%army%on%

animal%husbandry%to%make%cows%larger,%stronger,%and%more%profitable.%

% %

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!110 Groot and Kooistra 2009, Http://intarch.ac.uk/journal/issue27/5/3.4.1.html 111 Tacitus Germania 21 112 Groot 2008 p191 113 Groot 2008 p75-77 114 Lauwerier 1988 quoted from Filean 1999, Also see Groot 2008 p69ff!

! 29!

!Figure 5 - Depicts the heights of cows and changing withers in different periods – From Roymans 1996 p45

%

4.1.2!Sheep!husbandry!%

% During%the%Imperial%campaigns%the%Roman%army%was%fed%on%cereals%and%a%vast%

quantity%of%protein%based%meats%from%sheep,%pigs%and%cattle.%Farming%production%

levels%reflected%the%large%requirements%of%the%army.%To%highlight%one%example%in%the%

Batavian%region,%Tiel%Passewaaij%shows%a%diverse%%supply%of%livestock%that%changed%

periodically,%possibly%in%connection%with%the%army%requirements%at%Nijmegen.%%%

We%see%a%sharp%increase%in%sheep%killed%at%the%young%age%of%6_12%months%reflecting%a%

supply%of%products%of%meat%and%milk%between%50%B.C.%and%50.%A.D.115%The%general%

change%after%50%A.D.%is%shown%by%the%increase%in%age%at%which%sheep%were%

slaughtered%between%6%months%and%6%years%reflecting%an%increased%production%of%

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!115 Groot 2008 p88

! 30!

wool.116%The%fact%that%sheep%were%kept%alive%for%longer%suggest%wool%was%now%

required%as%a%valuable%commodity%being%sold%as%a%surplus%at%markets.%%

The%sharp%decrease%in%sheep%husbandry%after%100%A.D.%could%reflect%the%removal%of%

the%10th%legion%from%Nijmegen.117%%Livestock%was%the%key%means%of%trade%and%

commercial%activity%between%the%Roman%army%and%rural%farms%in%the%Batavian%region.%

The%changes%in%mortality%profiles%of%sheep%suggest%the%locals%were%changing%their%

production%directly%in%the%Imperial%period%to%cater%for%the%textiles%market.%

Farming%in%the%Dutch%river%area%prevailed%as%the%central%mechanism%of%wealth%for%

indigenous%tribal%farmers,%however%different%types%of%husbandry%could%offer%varying%

levels%of%prosperity.%%%

%

% Figure 6 - Mortality profiles for sheep in Tiel-Passewaaij (Passewaaijse Hogeweg), phases 2 (50 BC - AD 50) and 3 (AD 40-140). n is the number of mandibles for which tooth wear has been assessed. Illustration Bert Brouwenstijn, ACVU – From Groot and Kooistra 2009 http://intarch.ac.uk/journal/issue27/5/images/figure38.html %

%

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!116 Groot 2008 p70 117 Groot 2008 p72!

! 31!

% The%move%to%wool%production%in%the%latter%part%of%the%Imperial%Age%suggests%

that%an%active%textile%industry%was%potentially%based%in%the%region%capital%near%

Nijmegen.%A%centralized%business%district%allows%for%commercial%production,%the%

possibilities%of%fulleries,%dyers,%and%other%assorted%jobs%in%the%textile%business%may%

have%taken%place%at%Nijmegen,%however%evidence%of%this%is%not%yet%proven.%In%

addition,%the%wool%may%have%been%transported%to%textile%centres%at%Trier%or%Gallia%

Belgica.118%Inter_regional%trading%was%common%in%the%merchant%businesses%of%textiles%

and%pottery%and%material%goods%were%traded%along%from%the%Rhine%area%to%southern%

France%and%vice%versa%by%network%of%waterways%such%as%the%River%Rhone.%The%

Romans%soldiers%built%canals%to%increase%the%speed%of%transportation%and%develop%

communications%to%ease%difficulties%of%land%transport.119%%%

%

4.1.3!Horse!Husbandry!!

% The%Romans%were%reliant%on%a%large%supply%of%horses%from%the%frontier%

provinces%that%made%up%the%equestrian%alae.%According%to%Strabo%those%tribes%along%

the%north%coast%were%the%most%warlike%by%nature%and%their%cavalry%force%was%the%

greatest%the%Romans%had%ever%come%into%contact%with.120%Tacitus%also%refers%to%the%

Batavian%cavalry%as%a%contingent%in%equites&singulares&Augusti,&their%skill%in%horse%

riding%was%unrivalled%and%the%emperor%trusted%the%Batavians%because%they%were%

foreign.121%

% Evidence%of%horse%husbandry%in%rural%settlements%in%the%Batavian%region%

during%the%Flavian%dynasty%has%been%proven%using%zoo%archaeological%research%in%two%

settlements%excavated%by%Maaike%Groot%(2009).%At%Geldenmalsen%Hondsgemet,%a%

rural%settlement%just%off%the%Waal,%excavations%of%burial%pits%produced%large%

quantities%of%animal%bones%that%were%quantified%and%analyzed%for%height%and%species.%

A%study%of%the%remains%proved%that%in%the%period%50%B.C.%–%A.D.%50%the%bone%

assemblages%had%a%high%proportion%of%cattle%bones%(over%50%)%dominating%the%

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!118 Groot 2008 p72-3 119 Tacitus Annals 13.53.2-4 120 Strabo Geography 4.4.2.17-18 121 Tacitus, Annals 15.58%

! 32!

collection.122%This%fits%our%expectation%of%farms%heavily%engaged%in%cattle%husbandry.%

It%is%rare%is%to%find%a%collection%of%horse%bones%over%10%%at%rural%sites%but%where%there%

is%more%then%horse%husbandry%can%usually%be%inferred.123%%

%% In%the%next%phase,%bones%dating%from%between%A.D.%50%–%150%in%House%20%had%

a%remarkably%high%percentage%of%horse%bones%at%26%.124%This%shows%a%big%increase%

from%the%early%Imperial%period.%Therefore%the%owner%of%House%20%was%probably%a%

horse%breeder;%this%is%exemplified%by%a%few%factors%such%as%it%is%the%largest%property%in%

Tiel_Passewaiij,%it%has%the%most%the%most%enclosed%ditches%and%the%fact%that%

numerous%metal%artifacts%including%seal%boxes%and%spurs%suggests%the%owner%was%an%

army%veteran%of%equestrian%status.125%Horse%husbandry%required%large%amounts%of%

land%so%the%animals%could%roam%freely,%requiring%perhaps%one%hectare%per%horse.%%

If%this%is%evidence%of%horse%husbandry%then%we%expect%to%find%an%assortment%of%horse%

bones%including%foal%bones.%

% The%significance%of%the%assorted%horse%bones%at%Geldermalsen_Hondsgemet%is%

useful%for%examining%changing%animal%production%levels%but%the%data%could%be%

miscued.%Byre%houses%usually%survived%one%generation,%around%20%years%before%being%

rebuilt;%therefore%results%of%the%excavation%are%limited.%Although%the%data%cannot%be%

seen%as%archetypal%for%every%settlement%it%exemplifies%a%few%factors%such%as%the%

production%of%horses%in%the%Batavian%region%by%veteran%farmers%was%a%possible%

change%in%animal%husbandry%geared%towards%a%military%market.%Horse%husbandry%was%

certainly%more%profitable%than%cattle%husbandry%and%their%use%as%transport%was%

important%to%both%Romans%and%locals.%Provincial%farmers%probably%had%formal%links%

with%the%army%where%the%farmers%were%of%veteran%status.%There%may%also%be%a%link%

between%the%nobility%of%the%Batavian%Iulii%and%the%breeding%of%horses,%the%rich%nobility%

may%have%owned%stud%farms,%Caius%Iulius%Civilis%is%said%to%have%had%argos&

villaesque,126%however%his%villa%was%more%likely%geared%towards%horse%husbandry%than%

less%efficient%arable%production.127%Farming%land%could%have%been%granted%to%

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!122 Groot 2009 pp 209-10 123 Groot 2008B pp 93, See Figure 7 on page 34 124 Groot 2009 pp 209-10 125 Groot 2009 pp 215 126 Tacitus Histories 5.23 127 Slofstra 2002 p25!

! 33!

equestrian%auxiliaries%as%a%pension%under%the%guarantee%that%the%supply%of%regular%

foals%was%to%be%commissioned%to%the%Romans.%%

%

%%

Figure 7: Species composition in 2nd-century rural settlements in the Dutch River Area with a high percentage of horse bones. PHW: Tiel Passewaaij (Passewaaijse Hogeweg; Groot 2008a); WDDH: Wijk bij Duurstede-De Horden (Laarman 1996b); EW: Ewijk (Lauwerier 1988); GLM: Geldermalsen-Hondsgemet (Groot 2009); WES: Oss-Ussen Westerveld (Lauwerier and IJzereef 1998); HOU8: Houten site 8A (De Vries and Laarman 2000); KEST: Kesteren-De Woerd (Zeiler 2001); HUIA: Huissen-Loostraat site A (Groot 2008c). n is the total number of identified fragments. Illustration Bert Brouwenstijn, ACVU. – From Groot and Kooista 2009 http://intarch.ac.uk/journal/issue27/5/images/figure39.html %

%% A%Study%by%Davies%(1969)%took%the%question%of%surplus%demand%even%further%

to%suggest%that%the%Roman%army%supported%the%local%production%of%horses%by%

importing%bigger%horses%to%mate%with%the%local%breed%that%were%known%to%be%of%small%

variation.128%The%argument%is%supported%by%the%fact%the%horse%samples%in%the%%

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!128 Tacitus Germania 5

! 34!

Rhineland%region%are%known%to%be%larger%than%examples%studied%by%Johnston%(2008)%

in%at%Roman%British%sites.129%%

Evidence%points%to%the%fact%that%the%army%supported%farmers%across%the%Batavian%

region%during%the%Flavian%period%a%change%significant%change%from%local%husbandry%in%

the%Impeiral%age,%this%suggests%co_operation%between%Romans%and%rural%farmers.%%

%

4.2!Arable!production!!

% In%contrast%arable%production%remained%at%a%subsistent%level%for%the%frontier%

region,%compared%with%the%increased%levels%of%animal%husbandry%in%the%river%delta.%

Arable%cultivation%was%different%in%each%region%of%the%lower%Rhine;%the%three%most%

predominant%crops%grown%were%barley,%oats%and%millet.130%An%examination%of%the%

cereal%production%level%in%the%rural%settlement%of%Tiel_passewaij%can%be%used%as%an%

example%for%what%could%be%produced%by%tribes%situated%along%the%lower%Rhine.%The%

lack%of%dry%land%and%soft%soils%to%cultivate%cereals%meant%that%the%local%level%of%

production%was%of%a%low%yield%that%probably%only%catered%for%the%tribal%population%in%

Tiel%Passewaaij.%The%availability%of%land%for%arable%cultivation%was%only%33%hectares,%

which%Groot%has%calculated,%could%only%cater%for%local%consumption%levels.131%Up%to%

the%end%of%the%first%century%A.D%the%amount%of%cereal%production%remained%the%same,%

therefore%we%do%not%see%changing%pattern.%The%Roman%legions%sourced%and%imported%

grain%from%provinces%such%as%Africa%over%300km%away.132%Wells%has%suggested%the%

one%legion%required%2000%tones%of%wheat%per%year.133%With%over%110,000%soldiers%

situated%along%the%Rhine%there%would%have%been%an%enormous%demand%of%cereals.134%

The%logistical%cost%of%transporting%large%quantities%of%crops%meant%finding%a%suitable%

local%source%of%crops%was%of%key%importance.%In%the%region%of%Eifel%farmers%developed%

a%sizeable%production%level%for%large_scale%cultivation%of%cereals%thanks%to%the%fertile%

arable%lands,%this%is%turn%led%to%large_scale%villas%developing%over%the%course%of%the%

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!129 Johnstone 2008 pp 128-145 130 Groot and Kooistra 2009, http://intarch.ac.uk/journal/issue27/5/3.4.1.html 131 Groot and Kooistra 2009, http://intarch.ac.uk/journal/issue27/5/3.4.1.html 132 Stallibrass and Thomas 2008 p148 133 Wells 1999B p142 134 Wells 1999B p145!

! 35!

High%Empire.135%Production%of%cereals%for%a%military%and%local%market%led%to%stable%

economic%prosperity%in%Gaul.%%

%

5.0!Urbanization!and!Settlement!!

% The%eastern%river%delta%was%retained%under%military%control%as%a%buffer%zone%

to%prevent%communities%migrating%to%the%area.%The%army%was%in%control%of%settlers%to%

the%east%and%west%of%the%Rhine,%the%wide%strip%of%land%on%the%east%bank%known%as%the%

Glacis%was%controlled%by%the%Romans%and%kept%free%of%settlers%from%A.D.%9%up%until%

the%Flavian%period.136%In%support%of%this%is%the%low%density%of%archaeological%material%

dating%to%the%Imperial%age%(only%3%finds%from%the%Augustan%period)%suggests%that%the%

area%was%sparsely%populated.137%%David%Breeze%states:%%“The%Romans%had%an%interest%

in%controlling%access%to%their%space”.138%%However,%after%70%A.D.%in%the%High%Empire%

small%migrant%tribes%were%allowed%to%settle%in%the%region.%%

% The%positioning%of%Roman%forts%along%the%Rhine%was%strategic:%they%were%

placed%at%bends%in%the%river;%at%the%end%of%floodplains;%the%beginning%of%mountainous%

regions;%and%importantly%in%high%locations%with%an%advantageous%aerial%view.139%

For%example,%Nijmegen%is%positioned%on%a%hill%were%there%are%numerous%islands%and%

changes%in%the%river%course,%fort%locations%were%placed%where%the%Rhine%was%shortest%

to%cross,%or%marshy%locations%to%prevent%large%scale%invasions.%The%situation%of%forts%

along%the%river%was%to%maintain%control%the%Rhine%itself,%a%valuable%asset%that%

maintained%Roman%communications%and%trade.140%%

% Locating%pre_roman%settlements%and%Imperial%forts%along%the%River%Rhine%is%

tricky%due%to%the%ever_changing%nature%of%river%systems,%which%can%remove%

archeological%material.141%For%example%when%looking%at%the%Imperial%base%at%Xanten%it%

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!135 Roymans 1996 p87 136 Junow 2002 p88 137 Junow 2002 p89 138Breeze quoted from Sommer 2009 p111, See Breeze & Jilek 2008 Frontier of the Roman empire – the European dimension of world heritage site for his current interpretation of Frontier studies 139 Sommer 2009 p112 140 Sommer 2009 111ff 141 Sommer 2009 p103!

! 36!

is%hard%to%trace%the%remains%because%they%were%partially%washed%away%by%the%

changing%river%course.142%%%

%

5.1!Population!%

% The%increase%in%population%in%the%Rhineland%is%attributable%to%the%Roman%

army;%with%around%110,000%soldiers%based%along%the%Rhine%and%an%equal%number%of%

auxiliaries%there%would%have%been%a%significant%increase%in%the%density%of%occupation%

along%the%frontier%from%the%Imperial%period%onwards.%The%biggest%contrast%between%

the%Flavian%and%Imperial%epoch%is%the%significant%increase%in%army%veterans%settled%in%

the%lower%Rhine%delta.%There%were%over%1500%retirees%a%year%in%the%Rhineland%and%it%is%

probable%that%they%settled%in%the%vici%near%where%they%served.%Over%a%twenty%year%

period%this%would%have%caused%on%average%20,000%ex_soldiers%settling%in%the%region%

living%as%merchants%or%farmers.143%%

% Unfortunately,%the%level%of%urbanization%is%uncertain%because%we%do%not%have%

access%to%the%censuses%records%of%the%Lower%Rhineland%to%tell%us%how%many%citizens%

were%registered%there.%The%census%acted%as%one%of%the%most%important%factors%of%

Romanization,%it%had%a%highly%symbolic%function%that%separated%the%Romans%from%the%

barbarians%by%way%of%legal%rights%and%privileges%that%were%offered%to%citizens%of%the%

empire.%The%soldiers%that%fought%as%auxiliaries%would%achieve%citizenship%on%

completion%of%25%years%service.%It%can%be%inferred%that%the%number%of%Batavians%

obtaining%citizenship%from%the%Julian%to%the%Flavian%epoch%would%have%increased.%

%

5.2!Citizenship!!

% The%level%of%citizenship%obtained%by%tribal%groups%is%difficult%to%verify,%there%

was%an%elite%class%who%obtained%Roman%citizenship%that%advocated%a%Roman%style%of%

government%from%the%Augustan%period%onwards,%they%would%act%as%magistrates%for%

the%region.144%%Evidence%that%a%hierarchical%system%of%governing%was%in%place%as%early%

as%the%Augustan%reign%can%be%certified%by%inscriptions%and%monuments%such%as%an%

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!142 Sommer 2009 103p 143 Elton 1996 56ff, See Agrarian changes 3.3 Horse Husbandry 144 Roymans 2004 p200!!

! 37!

alter%stone%at%Ruimel%naming%a%magistrate%Flavus%who%was%son%of%Vihirmas%supreme%

magistrate%of%the%civiatas&Batavodurum.145

&%This%shows%a%structured%system%of%a%

hereditary%political%hierarchy%whereby%political%offices%were%passed%down%through%

aristocratic%line%of%linage.%There%was%a%select%few%Batavian%nobles%who%were%directly%

linked%with%the%Julio_Claudian%aristocracy%who%served%as%imperial%bodyguards%to%the%

emperor.146%The%fact%we%have%a%group%of%nobles%that%held%an%unorthodox%amount%of%

power%shows%a%change%from%the%egalitarian%ideologies%of%the%pre%roman%tribes%

towards%a%Roman%oligarchic%structured%powerbase%of%the%few.%Slofstra%(2002)%argued%

that%the%Batavians%were%slowly%Romanized%due%to%the%conservative%nature%of%the%

transmission%of%culture%from%elites%to%clients.%The%slow%filtering%of%Roman%customs%

upon%the%rest%of%society%was%also%due%to%the%sparseness%of%the%population%that%would%

have%hindered%the%rate%at%which%Roman%influence%spread.%The%job%of%Roman%

recruitment%of%the%auxiliaries%was%probably%one%role%of%the%tribal%magistrates,%in%the%

imperial%period%the%interaction%between%the%native%aristocracy%and%the%Romans%was%

primarily%political%in%nature,%the%magistrates%would%levy%taxes%and%organize%the%

recruitment%of%auxiliaries.147%There%was%no%equality%between%poorer%proletariats%and%

the%elite,%internal%strife%was%probably%one%cause%of%the%Batavian%revolt%and%there%can%

be%no%doubt%that%some%Batavians%were%pro_Roman%whilst%the%majorities%were%

opposed.%The%Roman%take%over%will%have%increased%social%separation%of%classes,%some%

will%have%held%political%power%in%the%form%of%citizenship%whilst%others%struggled%to%

survive%and%were%forced%into%the%Roman%military%by%the%tribal%elite.%%

%

% 5.3!The!development!of!civitates!!!% The%tribes%situated%along%the%lower%Rhine%of%the%Menapii%and%Batavia%had%no%

political%centers%or%fortified%settlements%such%as%oppida%or%castella%prior%to%the%

Roman%annexation.148%The%settlements%in%the%northern%region%were%either%isolated%

Byre_houses%or%a%gathering%of%a%few%small%houses%that%practised%communal%farming.%%

The%lack%of%oppida%and%evidence%of%recognizable%status%difference%is%an%indication%of%

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!145 CIL XIII 8771 from Roymans 2004 p201 146 Slofstra 2002 p25 147 Slofstra 2002 p26 148 Caroll 2001p21!

! 38!

an%under_developed%political%hierarchy.%Upon%Drusus’%arrival%in%the%Rhine%the%

construction%of%the%Oppida&Batavodurum&began.%Once%the%oppida%was%built%these%

centres%were%at%the%top%of%the%settlement%pyramid.149%Surrounding%settlements%were%

politically%and%economically%subordinate%to%the%oppida.%The%Roman%oppida%along%the%

Rhine%acted%as%microcosms%of%Rome.%%

%Figure 8 – Structure of settlement hierarchy all directly related to the city/oppida

%

% The%Imperial%reorganization%shuffled%tribes%into%new%locations%and%changed%

the%demographic%structure%of%the%northern%river%delta,%the%creation%of%oppida%next%to%

the%military%garrisons%served%to%create%self_governing%civitates%that%acted%as%

administrative%capitals.%The%creation%of%a%‘polis%style’%hub%intertwined%states%with%

rural%settlements%helping%to%create%local%unity.%Oppida%helped%form%local%

communities%with%a%shared%religion,%language,%ethnic%identity,%culture%and%above%all%

political%system.%The%development%of%civitates%was%a%physical%move%towards%civilized%

ethos.%

% The%development%of%Germania’s%capital,%Ulpia%Novimagnus,%was%modern%

Cologne;%the%city%was%home%to%Roman%urban%life%and%acted%as%capital%of%the%

surrounding%oppida%along%the%Rhine.%The%creation%of%the%Imperial%cult%in%8%B.C.%

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!149 See map below of settlement hierarchy

! 39!

identified%this%city%as%the%head%of%Roman%religion%for%the%Germanic%tribes.%The%city%

earned%the%title%Colonia%Claudia%Ara%Agripanensium%in%50%A.D.%when%Claudius%granted%

the%right%to%the%city%after%the%birth%of%his%daughter%Agrippina.150%Soon%after%it%was%

quick%to%develop%as%a%major%area%of%Roman%activity%and%by%60%A.D.%three%bathhouses%

had%been%constructed%and%there%was%an%amphitheatre%in%the%capital.151%The%

development%of%buildings%of%Roman%architectural%style%shows%people%engaging%in%

Roman%activities%during%leisure%time%and%adopting%Roman%customs.%However,%this%

level%of%infrastructural%development%was%not%reached%in%most%tribal%capitals,%and%

notably%in%the%northern%Lower%Rhine%no%theatres%were%created%probably%due%to%

poverty%levels%in%the%area.%

% %The%development%of%infrastructure%along%the%frontier%was%pivotal%to%

improving%communications%and%trade.%This%changed%the%two%provinces%more%

drastically%than%anything.%The%new%network%of%roads,%the%establishments%of%towns%

and%villages%led%to%a%previously%unforeseen%dense%occupation%of%the%countryside.%The%

soldiers%that%constructed%roads%were%called%Beneficiarri,%the%two%most%important%

roads%went%from%the%Moselle%to%the%Rhine,%and%the%road%along%the%Rhine%valley%that%

connected%the%legionary%bases%with%the%Alpine%passes.152%It%was%a%key%component%of%

the%army%to%maintain%roads%and%build%bridges%linking%the%towns%and%cities,%the%natives%

may%have%seen%the%roads%as%features%of%their%enslavement%while%Roman%officials%

viewed%them%as%feats%of%engineering%connecting%the%outer%provinces%with%Rome.%%

%

5.4!Trade!along!the!frontier!% As%well%as%providing%opportunities%for%negotiatores,%farmers%and%craftsmen%

the%Roman%army%created%jobs%by%recruitment,%it%was%the%backbone%of%the%economic%

organization%along%the%Rhine.%Trading%relations%between%tribes%beyond%the%Rhine%to%

the%Netherlands%began%as%early%as%the%Imperial%period%and%continued%unbroken%into%

the%Flavian%Empire.%For%example%a%wax%tablet%receipt%found%in%Frissian%territory%from%

29%A.D.%attests%to%soldiers%buying%a%cow.153%This%is%not%enough%evidence%to%assume%

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!150 Haffer and Von Schnurbein 1996 p18 151 Caroll 2001 p49 152 Caroll 2001 32-44 153 Elton 1996 68ff!

! 40!

that%trade%between%Frissians%and%soldiers%was%regular%and%continuous,%but%it%infers%

that%trading%extended%beyond%the%lower%Rhine%region.%There%is%also%evidence%of%forty%

mini%statuettes%of%the%syncretism%god%Mars_Thinscus%found%in%Frissian%territory%

indicating%possible%trading%links%with%the%Romans.154%Galestin%attests%to%coins,%terra%

sigilatta%and%bronze%items%in%Frisian%territory,%and%makes%the%point%that%although%

finds%are%sparse%there%are%large%quantities%of%Roman%goods%and%wares%in%the%region%

almost%200km%north%of%the%Rhine.155%Whether%trading%was%reciprocal%is%hard%to%

establish%because%Frissian%wares%such%as%pottery%are%rarely%found%in%Roman%military%

camps.%It%is%more%likely%tribes%provided%services%and%obtained%Roman%items%in%return.%

It%is%evident%some%traders%accessed%natives%situated%far%from%the%Rhineland%frontier%

because%we%have%numerous%wealthy%burial%sites%in%Denmark%and%Scandinavia.%An%

equestrian%signet%ring%along%with%Roman%eating%and%drinking%wares%were%found%in%

the%princely%Hoby%grave.156%Interpreting%this%evidence%is%difficult%since%we%do%not%

know%the%date%of%burials,%the%process%of%deposition,%nor%can%we%certify%how%items%

reached%the%outer%provinces.%%

% P.S.%Wells%(1999)%created%a%‘world%systems%theory’%which%suggests%that%there%

was%regular%continuous%trade%from%the%Imperial%period%onwards%between%the%outer%

provinces,%he%suggest%that%reciprocal%trade%can%be%attested%in%the%entire%northern%

region%because%of%the%wax%receipt%evidence%of%a%cow%being%brought:%“the%existence%

of%long%term%trade%contacts%demonstrated%at%Feddersen%Wierde%can%therefore%be%

extrapolated%to%all%‘Wierden’&(small%farms)&in%the%north%of%the%Netherlands”.157%He%

also%suggested%that%trade%was%not%periodical%and%exploitative%but%was%continuous%

and%paved%way%for%a%two%way%transmission%of%culture,%his%argument%therefore%puts%

great%importance%of%the%influence%and%communication%with%the%army%upon%small%

farmers%north%of%the%Rhine.%Interaction%of%local%soldiers%caused%social%and%political%

changes%as%much%as%it%affected%the%local%economies.158%Vellius%Paterculus%states%

whenever%the%Romans%established%Roman%political%presence%in%a%region,%the%army%

was%there%and%this%provided%the%basic%market%for%merchant%travellers%and%farmers.159%%

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!154 Galestin 2010 p76-77 155 Galestin 2010 78ff 156 Galestin 2010 86ff 157 Wells 1999B, 244ff 158 Wells 1999B 13ff!159 Vellius Paterculus 2.110.6

! 41!

% Merchants%could%import%and%transport%Mediterranean%goods,%especially%wine%

and%other%Italian%and%Spanish%commodities%like%garum&sauce%into%Gaul%and%then%to%

the%Rhine.%Guilds%and%traders%gathered%together%and%formed%groups%of%near%Roman%

mercantile%centres%on%the%Rhine,%the%merchant%clubs%of%Remi%and%Lingones,%were%

associated%with%the%military%base%at%Vetera.160%Economic%activity%and%growth%was%

supported%by%Roman%governors%since%agricultural%traders%received%rights%and%tax%

freedoms%from%the%government%as%shown%by%texts%of%the%Digest161.%Ruger%argues%that%

the%collaboration%between%Romans%and%indigenous%traders%in%the%Flavian%period%

became%a%more%regular%as%the%local%level%of%production%could%meet%the%demands.162%%%%

%

6.0!Conclusion!

%% During%the%early%Imperial%period%the%relationship%between%the%Germanic%

tribes%and%the%Romans%was%based%on%political%and%military%conflict%as%a%resuly%of%

different%ideologies.%The%tribal%groups%were%used%to%fighting%for%rights.%There%was%

little%common%ground%between%the%segmented%Germanic%tribal%communities%and%the%

highly%organized,%literate%Roman%invaders.%The%Romans%attempted%to%give%political%

control%to%the%tribal%elite%by%entrusting%them%to%collect%taxes%on%behalf%of%the%army.%%%

However%the%Vararian%disaster%showed%serious%problems%in%the%structural%

relationship%between%the%elite%and%Roman%leaders.%

% Initial%interaction%of%the%Batavian%tribe%and%the%Romans%developed%in%the%

early%Imperial%period%with%the%creation%of%the%oppida&Batavodurum%opposite%the%

legionary%fort%at%Nijmegen.%Large%majorities%of%the%male%population%were%forced%into%

serving%in%the%army.%Whereas%in%the%High%Empire%the%Batavians%were%taxed%animals%

good%and%services.%More%peaceful%relations%began%after%A.D.%70%with%the%Pax%Roman,%

Germania%was%deemed%pacified%and%incorporated%into%the%Empire%after%Domitian’s%

successful%war%against%the%Chatti.%This%was%possible%due%to%the%creation%of%roads%and%

a%network%of%infrastructure.%%

%

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!160 Ruger 2008 p529 161 Digest L.6.5.3-6 162 Ruger 2008 p501ff!!

! 42!

% However,%the%Batavian%region%remained%poor,%the%fact%that%the%Roman%villa%

never%developed%in%the%area%suggests%an%unwillingness%to%conform%to%Roman%ideals.%

Furthermore%the%importance%of%animal%husbandry%in%the%Lower%Rhine%continued%and%

supported%by%the%Roman%army.%The%specialization%of%horse%husbandry%in%the%Batavian%

region,%during%the%High%Empire,%is%evident%from%bone%deposits%Tiel_Passewaiij%and%

Geldenmalsen%Hondsgemet.%%

% The%physical%nature%of%the%landscape%included%forests,%swamps%and%brackish%

clay%soils%restricted%cereal%production%in%the%Dutch%river%area.%During%both%periods,%

Villas%did%not%emerge%because%large_scale%arable%farming%could%not%take%place%and%

therefore%arable%farming%patterns%remained%at%a%subsistent%level%in%the%Rhineland.%%

% In%A.D.%9%at%the%battle%of%Teutoburg%forest%there%was%an%uprising%led%by%the%

Cheruscian%leader,%Arminius,%against%the%taxes%rapidly%imposed%by%the%Roman%

general%Varus.%The%unification%of%the%Germanic%tribes%against%the%Roman%rulers%was%

unexpected.%After%9%A.D.%an%exclusion%zone%was%set%up%along%the%eastern%bank%of%the%

Rhine%frontier%and%remained%until%the%High%Empire.%Ironically,%the%tribal%leaders%who%

served%in%the%Roman%auxiliaries%prompted%the%revolts%against%the%Roman%leaders.%

This%security%threat%reoccurred%again%at%the%end%of%the%Imperial%period%with%the%

Batavian%Revolt%of%A.D.%69,%because%of%the%taxation%in%manpower,%where%young%men%

were%conscripted%to%the%army.%The%cause%of%both%revolts%along%the%Frontier%was%

primarily%the%cause%of%over%taxation%of%the%Germanic%tribes.%

% In%the%High%Empire%the%emergence%of%a%standardized%coinage%system%paved%

the%way%for%a%more%successful%monetary%economy.%This%was%key%to%developing%

mutually%beneficial%relationships%between%Germanic%tribes%and%Romans.%The%Roman%

army’s%need%for%food%and%service%supported%the%local%economy%and%created%a%surplus%

market%of%goods,%animals%and%crafts.%For%example,%legions%required%a%large%amount%of%

meat,%cereals,%wool,%horses%and%manpower,%all%of%which%were%acquired%though%

trading%or%taxation.%The%relationship%was%principally%developed%through%establishing%

a%monetary%economy%with%a%comprehensive%system%of%taxation.%Army%conscripts%

learned%Latin%as%part%of%their%army%training,%evidence%of%letters%and%seal%boxes%in%

rural%sites%shows%the%development%of%a%literate%society,%this%paved%the%way%for%

improved%relations,%greater%communication%and%collaboration%of%both%parties.%

! 43!

% The%development%of%the%transport%infrastructure%during%the%High%Empire%was%

important%to%strengthen%communications%and%improve%the%speed%of%transportation.%

There%is%evidence%Batavian%auxiliary%veterans%were%involved%in%the%specialized%

production%of%horses%for%the%Roman%army%as%shown%in%Geldermalsen_Hondsgemet%

where%the%high%percent%of%horse%bones%suggests%horse%husbandry%for%a%military%

market.%The%establishment%of%four%legionary%bases%along%the%Rhine%at%Xanten,%

Nijmegen,%Mainz%and%Cologne,%meant%over%110,000%Roman%soldiers%were%stationed%

in%the%region,%the%interaction%of%soldiers%and%indigenous%tribes%in%the%form%of%trading%

took%place%in%the%Vici.%%%

% The%interaction%between%the%Lower%Rhine%Germanic%tribes%and%the%Romans%

changed%over%a%period%of%time%as%they%began%to%respect%each%other%and%develop%a%

more%reciprocal%and%mutually%beneficial%relationship%based%around%successful%trading%

and%a%slow%process%of%Romanization.%%

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! 44!

Primary!sources!!%Caesar%De&Bello&Gallico&http://classics.mit.edu/Caesar/gallic.2.2.html%(online%translation%W.A.McDevitte%and%W.S.Bohn%!Cassius%Dio%http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/home.html (online translation by E. Cary)%!Suetonius,&Lives&of&the&Caesars,%tr.%C.%Edwards%(Oxford,%2000)%%Strabo,%Geography&Book%IV%Chapter%IV%%http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Strabo/4D*.html%(online%translation%H.L.Jones)%%%Tacitus,&The&Annals&of&Imperial&Rome,%tr.%M.%Grant%(Harmondsworth%Penguin,%1989)%!Tacitus,%The&Germania&and&Agricola%%http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Tacitus/home.html%(online%translation%C.H.Moore%%Tacitus%Histories%http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Tacitus/home.html%(online%translation%J.Jackson)%%Velleius%Paterculus,%Roman&Histories&%%http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Velleius_Paterculus/2A*.html%(online%translation%F.W.Shipley%!Secondary!sources!%H.W.%BENARIO%1999,%Tacitus&Germany&Germania&Including&Translation&and&

Commentary%Wiltshire%%M.CAROLL%2001,%Romans,&Celts&and&Germans:&The&German&province&of&Rome,&

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first&century&A.D,&Feeding&the&Roman&army:&The&archaeology&of&North&West&Europe%Edited%by%Sue%Stallibrass%and%Richard%Thomas,%Oxbow%Books,%Eynsham%%R.W.%DAVIES,%1969:%The!supply!of!animals!to!the!Roman!army!and!the!remount!system.!Latomus!28,!1969,!4295459.!!T.DERKS%1999,%Gods&Temples&and&Ritual&Practice,%Amsterdam%university%Press,%Amsterdam%%%

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M.GALESTIN%2010,%Roman%Artefacts%Beyond%the%Northern%Frontier:%Interpreting%the%Evidence%From%the%Netherlands%European&Journal&of&Archaeology&2010%13:%64%DOI:%10.1177/1461957109348299%%M.%GROOT,%2008A:%Surplus&production&of&animal&products&for&the&Roman&army&in&a&

rural&settlement&in&the&Dutch&River&Area,%in:%S.%STALLIBRASS%/%R.%THOMAS%(Eds.),%Feeding%the%Roman%army.%The%archaeology%of%production%and%supply%in%NW%Europe,%Oxford,%83_98.%!M.%GROOT,%2008B:%Animals&in&ritual&and&economy&in&a&frontier&comT&munity.&

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Dutch&River&Area.%Internet%Archaeology%27.%http://intarch.ac.uk/journal/issue27/5/1.html!!E.S.GRUEN%2008,%Expansion&under&Augustus&p188_194&in%The&Cambridge&Ancient&

History&Volume&X&The&Augustan&Empire&43&B.C.&–&A.D.&69&2nd&Edition,&Cambridge&University%Press%Seventh%Printing%2008%!%HAFFER/VON%SCHNURBEIN%1996,%Celts,&Germans&and&Romans&in&the&region&between&

Luxembourg&and&Thuringen:&Archaeological&and&environmental&studies&on&the&

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! 46!

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imperial&frontier/%edited%by%WILLEM%J.H%WILLEMS%and%HARRY%VAN%ENCKEVORT;%with%contributions%by%Peter%van%den%Broeke…%(et%al),%Portsmouth,%R.I.:%Journal%of%Roman%Archaeology%%A.KING%1990,%Roman&Gaul&and&Germany,&British%Museum%Publication&%%%J.KUNOW%2002,%Relations&between&Roman&occupation&and&the&limesvorland&in&the&

province&of&Germania&Inferior&in%The%early%Roman%empire%in%the%West,%Edited%by%Thomas%Blagg%and%Martin%Millet,%Oxbow%books,%Oxford%2002&&&

B.LEVICK%1999,%Vespasian,&Routledge,%London%%%%LUTTWAK%1976,%The&grand&strategy&of&the&Roman&Empire,&Baltimore%and%London,%John%Hopkins%University%press%&&&

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N.ROYMANS,%1983,%The&North&Belgic&Tribes&In&The&1st&century&B.C.&A&Historical&Anthopological&Perspective&in%Romans%and%Native%in%the%Low%countries:%Spheres%of%interaction%Edited%by%Roel%Brandt%and%Jan%Slofstra%BAR%international%series%184,%Oxford%England%%%N.%ROYMANS,%1996,%From&the&sword&to&the&plough,&Amsterdam%University%press,%Amsterdam%%%N.ROYMANS%2004,%Ethnic&Identity&and&Imperial&Power,&Amsterdam%University%Press,%Amsterdam%%%

! 47!

N.ROYMANS/J.AARTS,%2009,%Coin&use&in&a&dynamic&frontier&region:&Late&Iron&Age&

coinage&in&the&Lower&Rhine&area,&Amsterdam%%%C.RUGER%2008,%Roman&Germany&p496_513%in%The&Cambridge&Ancient&History&Volume&

X&The&Augustan&Empire&43&B.C.&–&A.D.&69&2nd&Edition,&Cambridge&University%Press%Seventh%Printing%2008%%SLOFSTRA%2002&Batavians&and&Romans&on&the&Lower&Rhine.%%Archaeological%Dialogues,%9,%pp%16_38%%doi:10.1017/S1380203800001963%%C.S.SOMMER%2009,%Why&There?&The&positioning&of&the&forts&along&the&riverine&

frontiers&of&the&Roman&Empire&in%Journal%of%Archaeology%supplementary%series%74,%The%army%and%the%Frontiers%of%Rome%papers%offered%to%David%J.%Breeze%on%the%occasion%of%his%65th%birthday%and%his%retirement%from%historical%Scotland,%Edited%by%William%S%Hanson,%Portsmouth%Rhode%Island%%2009%%S.STALLIBRASS/%R.THOMAS%2008,%Food&for&thought&what’s&next&on&the&menu%in:%S.%STALLIBRASS%/%R.%THOMAS%(Eds.),%Feeding%the%Roman%army.%The%archaeology%of%production%and%supply%in%NW%Europe,%Oxford,%p128_145%%C.M.WELLS%1972,%The&German&policy&of&Augustus:&an&examination&of&the&

Archaeological&evidence&Oxford%at%the%Clarendon%Press%&&&&%P.S.WELLS%1999A,%The&Battle&that&stopped&Rome,&Norton%2003%%%P.S.WELLS%1999B,%The&Barbarians&Speak:&How&the&conquered&people&shaped&Roman&

Europe,&Princeton%University%Press,%New%Jersey%%%D.%WIGGS,%1999:%The&development&of&the&monetary&economy&in&North&Gaul&in&the&late&

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frontier&in%the%Low%Countries:%Spheres%of%interaction%Edited%by%Roel%Brandt%and%Jan%Slofstra%BAR%international%series%184,%Oxford%England%&!%W.J.H.WILLEMS,%1984,%Romans&and&Batavians&A&Regional&Study&in&the&Dutch&Eastern&

River&Area,&Project%Oostellijk%Rivierengebied,&Amsterdam%%!C.R.WHITTAKER%2008,%Frontiers&p293_319&in%The&Cambridge&Ancient&History&Volume&

X&The&Augustan&Empire&43&B.C.&–&A.D.&69&2nd&Edition,&Cambridge&University%Press%Seventh%Printing%2008%%

! 48!

M.ST.A.WOODSIDE%1937,%The&revolt&of&the&Eight&Batavian&Cohorts&in&the&events&of&68T69&A.D.,&Transactions%and%proceedings%of%the%American%philological%association%VOL%69%pp277_283&&Websites!!http://www.wildwinds.com/coins/ric/domitian/RIC_0274_2.jpg%%%

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