COMPARATIVE STUDY OF ANXIETY, AGGRESSION AND EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE AMONG TEAM AND INDIVIDUAL SPORTSMEN A THESIS SUBMITTED TO THE HIMACHAL PRADESH UNIVERSITY SHIMLA FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION (2012) SUPERVISED BY: SUBMITTED BY: DR.HARI SINGH SUNIL VICTER DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION HIMACHAL PRADESH UNIVERSITY SHIMLA-171005
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COMPARATIVE STUDY OF ANXIETY,
AGGRESSION AND EMOTIONAL
INTELLIGENCE AMONG TEAM AND
INDIVIDUAL SPORTSMEN
A THESIS
SUBMITTED TO THE HIMACHAL PRADESH UNIVERSITY
SHIMLA
FOR THE DEGREE OF
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
IN
PHYSICAL EDUCATION (2012)
SUPERVISED BY: SUBMITTED BY:
DR.HARI SINGH SUNIL VICTER DEPARTMENT OF
PHYSICAL EDUCATION
DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION HIMACHAL PRADESH UNIVERSITY SHIMLA-171005
DEDICATED TO MY GREAT FAMILY
MY FATHER SH. RAMESHWAR SINGH, MY MOTHER
SMT. SUSHEELA CHAUHAN
&
MY DAUGHTER SAYRA (ANNI),
SISTER’S SULAKSHNA, DIKSHA, ARUNA,
&
MY WIFE PROMILA (ANJALI)
SPECIAL THANKS TO MY WIFE PROMILA VICTER (ANJALI)
&
MY DAUGHTER SAYRA (ANNI),
WITHOUT THEIR SUPPORT & ENCOURAGEMENT, THIS RESEARCH
WORK WOULD NOT HAVE COMPLETED.
CERTIFICATE
Certified that the Dissertation entitled, “Comparative Study Of Anxiety,
Aggression And Emotional Intelligence Among Team And Individual
Sportsmen,” submitted by MR. SUNIL VICTER has been carried out under my
supervision and guidance. To the best of my knowledge, this is an original work
undertaken by the candidate and has not been submitted elsewhere in full or
parts for the award of any other degree. The data and references used in the
present study have been duly acknowledged.
I recommended the thesis for evaluation.
Place: Shimla (Dr. Hari Singh)
Dated: 28/04/2012
DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION,
HIMACHAL PRADESH UNIVERSITY,
SHIMLA-171005.
Dr. Hari Singh Assistant Professor
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The present study has been completed with the active assistance and
guidance, of various individuals. Many teachers, friends, relatives, and professionals
have rendered their invaluable help at various stages. Though it would not be
possible to mention all the names of those, who rendered their valuable and
generous help in their own way, yet it would be being under grateful, if I do not
acknowledge thanks to some of those without assistance of those it would not have
been possible to conduct this study. I owe due apologies to all those, whose
contribution I have not been able to recount. However, I cannot afford not to
mention a few.
I have no words to express my deep sense of gratitude to Dr. Hari singh,
assistant Prof. Department of Physical Education, Himachal Pradesh University,
Shimla, my research supervisor and esteemed teacher for his valuable guidance in
my research work. The research work would not have completed, had it not been for
constant and keen interest and initiative taken by my supervisor. I take this
opportunity to express my indebtedness to him.
I express special thanks to Dr. Surender Kumar Sharma, associate Prof.
Department of Physical Education Himachal Pradesh University Shimla, and
Esteemed teacher for his valuable guidance and support in my research work.
I would like to extend my thanks to Dr. Ramesh K. Chauhan Chairman
Department of Physical Education H.P.U Shimla, Prof. Y.P. Sharma and Dr. Sanjay
Sharma, non teaching staff sr. Assistant Rakesh Sharma and office staff sh. Madan
and Kanti lal jee Department of Physical Education Himachal Pradesh University
Shimla for encouragement and support in every field of the study.
I would like to thank my teacher who is not with us, Prof. Late. Sh. Chaman
Lal Gupta for his Guidance & encouraged me for this Higher Degree.
I express my special appreciation for encouragement, support and eternal
inspiration of my family members. My great father Sh. Rameshwar singh mother
Smt. Susheela Chauhan, my wife Promila (Anjali) little Daughter Sayra (Anni), Sister
Sulakshna Negi and her husband Arvind Negi, Diksha Negi and her husband Karnal
Negi, and Aruna chauhan,my nephew Aura negi. Thanks to my Uncle jee Sh.
Kushal Singh Verma I take this opportunity to express my heart-felt gratitude to
them.
I would like to thank my wife Promila (Anjali) once again my little daughter
Sayra (Aeni) without their moral support and encouragement, this research work
would not have completed.
Thanks to Prof. Balkrishan (Bali) for analysis of data. Department of
Commerce Himachal Pradesh University Shimla and thanks to Prof.Satish Shrama
Department of Physical Education Lovely P. University Jalandhar.
Thanks to my Mama Ji Dy. Director Law S.M. Chauhan, Dept. I & Ph. Shimla
Himachal Pradesh.
I express Very-2 Special Thanks to Prof. Satish Chand Badwal for his
valuable guidance, Interpretation and analysis of data Department of Education
Himachal Pradesh University Shimla. The research work would not have completed,
without his constant keen interest and initiative taken by him and assistant Prof.
Vimal Kishor Krishma B.ed. college Mandi.
My warmest gratitude is due to Uncle Anil Shyam & my friends Pardeep
verma etc. and all physical education lecturers and coaches of related team and
individual events in my research.
Dated: 28-04-2012 Sunil Victer
CONTENTS
CHAPTER TITLE PAGE NO.
CERTIFICATE I
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ii-iii
CONTENTS iv-viii
LIST OF TABLES ix-xi
FIGURES xii-xiii
CHAPTER TITLE
1 INTRODUCTION 1-62
1.1 Statement of the Problem 52
1.2 Significance of the Study 52-53
1.3 Objectives of the Study 53-55
1.4 Hypothesis 55-56
1.5 Delimitations of the Study 56
1.6 Operational Definitions of Key terms 57
References Used in Chapter one 58-62
2 REVIEW OF LITERATURE 63-109
2.1 Anxiety 63-80
2.2 Aggression 80-92
2.3 Emotional Intelligence 92-108
2.4 Overview 108-109
3 METHODOLOGY AND PROCEDURE 110-122
3.1 Sampling 110
3.2 Data of the team & individual events 111
3.3 Selection of Variables 112
3.4 Tools used 112
3.5 Description of Test, Anxiety 112-113
3.6 Method of scoring 113-114
3.7 Interpretation and classifications of Scores 114
3.8 Description of Test, Aggression 115
3.9 Method of scoring 115-116
3.10 Interpretation and classifications of Scores 116
3.11 Description Test, Emotional Intelligence
Inventory
117
3.12 Factorial approach 117
3.13 Criterion related approach 118
3.14 Method of scoring 119
3.15 Interpretation and classification of scores 120
3.16 Scoring procedure 120-121
3.17 Administration 121
3.18 Tabulation of Data 122
3.19 Statistical technique used 122
4 ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION OF DATA 123-175
4.1 Comparison of sportsmen participating in
team and Individual events on different
variables using Frequency distribution
123
4-1.1 Frequency Distribution for the Scores on
Anxiety among Sportsmen Participating in Team
Events
124-126
4-1.2 Frequency Distribution for the Scores on
Anxiety among Sportsmen Participating in
individual Events
127-129
4-1.3 Frequency Distribution for the Scores on
Aggression among Sportsmen Participating in
Team Events
130-132
4-1.4 Frequency Distribution for the Scores on
Aggression among Sportsmen Participating in
individual Events
133-135
4-1.5 Frequency Distribution for the Scores on
Intra personal awareness (own emotions)
among Sportsmen Participating in Team Events
136-138
4-1.6 Frequency Distribution for the Scores on
Intra personal awareness (own emotions)
139-141
among Sportsmen Participating in individual
Events
4-1.7 Frequency Distribution for the Scores on
Inter personal awareness (others emotions)
among Sportsmen Participating in Team Events
142-144
4-1.8 Frequency Distribution for the Scores on
Inter personal awareness (others emotions)
among Sportsmen Participating in individual
Events
145-147
4-1.9 Frequency Distribution for the Scores on
Intra personal management (own emotions)
among Sportsmen Participating in Team Events
148-150
4-1.10 Frequency Distribution for the Scores on
Intra personal management (own emotions)
among Sportsmen Participating in individual
Events
151-153
4-1.11 Frequency Distribution for the Scores on
Inter personal management (others emotions)
among Sportsmen Participating in Team Events
154-156
4-1.12 Frequency Distribution for the Scores on
Inter personal management (others emotions)
among Sportsmen Participating in individual
Events
157-159
4-1.13 Frequency Distribution for the Scores on
Total emotional intelligence among Sportsmen
Participating in Team Events
160-162
4-1.14 Frequency Distribution for the Scores on
Total emotional intelligence among Sportsmen
Participating in individual Events
163-165
4-2 Comparison of Sportsmen Participating in
Individual and Team Events on different
Variables using ‘t’-Test
166
4-2.1 Comparison of Sportsmen Participating in
Team and Individual Events with Respect to
their Mean Scores on the Variables of Anxiety
166-167
4-2.2 Comparison of Sportsmen Participating in
Team and Individual Events with Respect to
their Mean Scores on the Variables of Aggression
167-168
4-2.3 Comparison of Sportsmen Participating in
Team and Individual Events with Respect to
their Mean Scores on the Variables of Intra
personal awareness (own emotions)
168-169
4-2.4 Comparison of Sportsmen Participating in
Team and Individual Events with Respect to
their Mean Scores on the Variables of Inter
personal awareness (others emotions)
169-171
4-2.5 Comparison of Sportsmen Participating in
Team and Individual Events with Respect to
their Mean Scores on the Variables of Intra
personal management (own emotions)
171-172
4-2.6 Comparison of Sportsmen Participating in
Team and Individual Events with Respect to
their Mean Scores on the Variables of Inter
personal management (others emotions)
172-174
4-2.7 Comparison of Sportsmen Participating in
Team and Individual Events with Respect to
their Mean Scores on the Variables of total
emotional intelligence
174-175
5 SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND
RECOMMENDATIONS
176-201
Summary 176-177
5.1 Statement of the problem 177
5.2 Significance of the study 177-178
5.3 Objectives of the study 178-180
5.4 Hypothesis 180-181
5.5 Delimitations of the study 181
5.6 Operational definition of key terms 182
5.7 Limitation of the study 183
5.8 Sampling 183
5.9 Tools used 183-184
5.10 Analyses and interpretations of the data 184
5.11 Conclusion 184-199
5.12 Educational implications 199-200
5.13 Suggestion for further studies 201
BIBLIOGRAPHY 202-214
APPENDIX A. ANXIETY SCALE
APPENDIX B. AGGRESSION SCALE
APPENDIX C. EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE
INVENTORY
APPENDIX D. KEY USED
APPENDIX E. KEY USED
APPENDIX F. KEY USED
APPENDIX G. ROW DATA OF THE TEAM
EVENTS
APPENDIX H. ROW DATA OF THE
INDIVIDUAL EVENTS
LIST OF TABLES
TABLE
NO.
TITLE PAGE
NO.
3.1 Table of the team events 111 3.2 Table of the individual events 111 3.3 Classification and interpretation of scores 114 3.4 Scores and classification 116 3.5 Correlation matrix of the four areas of the inventory 118 3.6 Criterion related Approach 118 3.7 Classification of scores 119 3.8 Classification of emotional intelligence inventory in
terms categories 120
3.9 Classification of emotional intelligence inventory in terms of categories in four area
121
4.1 Frequency distribution for the scores on anxiety among sports men participation in team events
124
4.2 Classification of anxiety scale 125 4.3 Frequency distribution for the scores on anxiety among
sports men participation in individual events 127
4.4 Classification of anxiety scale 128 4.5 Frequency distribution for the scores on aggression
among sports men participation in team events 130
4.6 Classification of aggression scale 131 4.7 Frequency distribution for the scores on aggression
among sports men participation in individual events 133
4.8 Classification of aggression scale 134 4.9 Frequency distribution for the scores on intra-personal
awareness (own emotions) component of emotional intelligence among sportsmen participation in team events
136
4.10 Classification of emotional intelligence in terms of categories
137
4.11 Frequency distribution for the scores on intra-personal awareness (own emotions) component of emotional intelligence among sportsmen participation in individual events
139
4.12 Classification of emotional intelligence in terms of categories
140
4.13 Frequency distribution for the scores on inter-personal awareness (others emotions) component of emotional intelligence among sportsmen participation in team events
142
4.14 Classification of emotional intelligence in terms of 143 4.15 Frequency distribution for the scores on inter-personal
awareness (others emotions) component of emotional intelligence among sportsmen participation in individual
145
events 4.16 Classification of emotional intelligence in terms of
Categories 146
4.17 Frequency distribution for the scores on intra-personal management (own emotions) component of emotional intelligence among sportsmen participation in team events
148
4.18 Classification of emotional intelligence in terms of Categories
149
4.19 Frequency distribution for the scores on intra-personal management (own emotions) component of emotional intelligence among sportsmen participation in individual events
151
4.20 Classification of emotional intelligence in terms of Categories
152
4.21 Frequency distribution for the scores on inter-personal management (others emotions) component of emotional intelligence among sportsmen participation in team events
154
4.22 Classification of emotional intelligence in terms of Categories
155
4.23 Frequency distribution for the scores on inter-personal management (others emotions) component of emotional intelligence among sportsmen participation in individual events
157
4.24 Classification of emotional intelligence in terms of categories
158
4.25 Frequency distribution for the scores on total emotional intelligence among sportsmen participation in team events
160
4.26 Classification of emotional intelligence in terms of Categories
161
4.27 Frequency distribution for the scores on total emotional intelligence among sportsmen participation in individual events
163
4.28 Classification of emotional intelligence in terms of Categories
164
4.29 ‘t’ value for the two groups of sportsmen on the variable of anxiety
166
4.30 ‘t’ value for the two groups of sportsmen on the variable of aggression
167
4.31 ‘t’ value for the two groups of sportsmen on “intra personal awareness (own emotions)” component of emotional intelligence
168
4.32 ‘t’ value for the two groups of sportsmen on “inter personal awareness (others emotions)” component of emotional intelligence
170
4.33 ‘t’ value for the two groups of sportsmen on “intra 171
personal management (own emotions)” component of emotional intelligence
4.34 ‘t’ value for the two groups of sportsmen on “inter personal management (others emotions)” component of emotional intelligence
173
4.35 ‘t’ value for the two groups of sportsmen on total emotional intelligence
174
LIST OF FIGURES
FIGURE NO. TITLE PAGE NO.
4.1 Bar Diagram for the scores on anxiety among sportsmen
participating in team events
126
4.2 Frequency polygon for the scores on anxiety among sportsmen
participating in team events
126
4.3 Bar Diagram for the scores on anxiety among sportsmen
participating in individual events
129
4.4 Frequency polygon for the scores on anxiety among sportsmen
participating in individual events
129
4.5 Bar Diagram for the scores on aggression among sportsmen
participating in team events
132
4.6 Frequency polygon for the scores on aggression among
sportsmen participating in team events
132
4.7 Bar Diagram for the scores on aggression among sportsmen
participating in individual events
135
4.8 Frequency polygon for the scores on aggression among
sportsmen participating in individual events
135
4.9 Bar Diagram for the scores on intra personal awareness (own
emotions) among sportsmen participating in team events
138
4.10 Frequency polygon for the scores on intra personal awareness
(own emotions) among sportsmen participating in team events
138
4.11 Bar Diagram for the scores on intra personal awareness (own
emotions) among sportsmen participating in individual events
141
4.12 Frequency polygon for the scores on intra personal awareness
(own emotions) among sportsmen participating in individual
events
141
4.13 Bar Diagram for the scores on inter personal awareness (others
emotions) among sportsmen participating in team events
144
4.14 Frequency polygon for the scores on inter personal awareness
(others emotions) among sportsmen participating in team
events.
144
4.15 Bar Diagram for the scores on inter personal awareness (others
emotions) among sportsmen participating in individual events
147
4.16 Frequency polygon for the scores on inter personal awareness 147
(others emotions) among sportsmen participating in individual
events.
4.17 Bar Diagram for the scores on intra personal management (own
emotions) among sportsmen participating in team events
150
4.18 Frequency polygon for the scores on intra personal management
(own emotions) among sportsmen participating in team events.
150
4.19 Bar Diagram for the scores on intra personal management (own
emotions) among sportsmen participating in individual events
153
4.20 Frequency polygon for the scores on intra personal management
(own emotions) among sportsmen participating in individual
events.
153
4.21 Bar Diagram for the scores on inter personal management
(others emotions) among sportsmen participating in team
events
156
4.22 Frequency polygon for the scores on inter personal management
(others emotions) among sportsmen participating Team events
156
4.23 Bar Diagram for the scores on inter personal management
(others emotions) among sportsmen participating in individual
events
159
4.24 Frequency polygon for the scores on inter personal management
(others emotions) among sportsmen participating Individual
events
159
4.25 Bar Diagram for the scores on total emotional intelligence
among sportsmen participating in team events
162
4.26 Frequency polygon for the scores on total emotional intelligence
among sportsmen participating Team events
162
4.27 Bar Diagram for the scores on total emotional intelligence
among sportsmen participating in individual events
165
4.28 Frequency polygon for the scores on total emotional intelligence
among sportsmen participating Individual events
165
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
One of the most important missions of the international society of sports
psychology (ISSP) is to disseminate knowledge to advance the research and
practices with in our domain. Health related exercise has grown tremendously
since its beginnings in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. The formation of
national and international societies of sports psychology (ISSP) in 1965, and
department of sports science and kinesiology in universities around the world
(as well as psychology departments embracing sports psychology as a sub-
discipline), has contributed to this development. More than a decade ago, singer
Murphy, and Tennant (1993) published the first handbook of research in sports
psychology. Due to the rapid increase in the number of sophistication of research
endeavours, a second edition (handbook of research in sports psychology) was
published in 2001. (Singer, Hausenblas & Janelle, 2001) sports psychology are
properly concerned with the mental process, whether they are working in
research or application settings. However the scope of meaning of the phase
“mental process” differs from language to language. Most English speaking
colleagues considers “mental processes” to be synonymous with “psyche” or
psychic” (“psychological” indicates a scientific or disciplinary perspective) where
German speaking colleagues refer to specific cognitive processes (e.g. thinking,
imagination, attention, concentration). Sports psychology and psychology in
general would benefit from determining what forms of mental practice are
appropriate for particular purposes and activities. Specification of how each
model is used would allow even further gain. Appropriate distinctions would
allow guideline to be developed that could benefit research and minimize
inappropriate use in applied settings. (Rushall & Lippmann, 1998, p. 58).as the
field of sports psychology has evolved during the last 30 years to what we know
it to be today, a constant source of controversy has been the efficacy of mental
practice. A professional who considers themselves applied sport psychologists or
applied sports psychology consultants teach their clients a number of skill
interventional that are purported to enhance the mental and emotional aspects
of performance.
ANXIETY
Anxiety is a state of mind in which the individual respond with discomfort
to some event that has occurred or is doing to occur. The person’s worry about
events, their occurrences and consequence, in general are the sources of anxiety.
However, anxiety can be either somatic or cognitive in nature. The symptoms of
somatic anxiety comprise mental worries and fears. In simple words, it is a type
of emotional disturbance. The sports men like other athletes are anxiety prone
while participating in competitive sports. Anxiety is one of the most common
deterrents to good performance. At worst the effect of the anxiety gets the
athlete so tied up in knots that he is frozen in fear. At best anxiety subtly impairs
performance by distracting the attention. The purpose of the study was to
compare the anxiety levels of individual sports and team game.
The 20th century has been called “the age of anxiety”, but concern with
anxiety with anxiety phenomena is as the history of humanity. Anxiety is
currently explanatory concept in most theories of personality and psychological,
and it is also widely regarded as a principal cause of such diverse behaviour as
insomnia, debilitating psychological and psychosomatic symptoms, immoral and
sinful acts, and even instances of creative self-expression.
Athletes can learn to think very clearly about physical activity. Training
sessions need to combine thinking practice to develop the skill of controlling
one’s thought, so that it can be used in a competition. Mental functioning should
be trained to overcome physically stressful conditions. At all time, in practices
and competitions, an athlete should remain mentally calm. The initial stages of
developing this capacity will require concentrated effort, by the athlete (Rushall,
1995).
A great deal of research has been developed to the effects of anxiety on
sports performance. Researcher has found that competitive state anxiety is
higher for amateur athletes in individual sports compared with athletes in team
sports (Simon & Martens, 1977). Anxiety exerts a variety of athletic performance.
These effects vary based on sport, gender and level of experience. In order to
facilitate peak performances by athletes, sport psychologists must consider the
three different facts of anxiety: cognitive anxiety, somatic anxiety and self-
confidence.
Given the researcher that indicates that successful athletes who interpret
their anxiety as being facilitative is characterized by high scores on self-
confidence and low scores on somatic and cognitive anxiety, sport psychology
should work achieving this ideal state among their clients. Let us now turn our
attention to the variety of treatment that is available for the treatment of anxiety
within the athletic context. Stress is a state that results from the demands that
are placed on the individual which require that person to engage in some coping
behaviour (Jones 1990). Arousal can be considered to be a single to the
individual that he or she has entered a stressful state and is characterized by
physiological sigs (Hardy 1996). Anxiety results when the individual doubt his or
her ability to cope with the situation that causes him or her stress. Another
important point that needs to be clarified is the difference between state and
trait anxiety (Spielberger, 1966). While state anxiety can be considered to be
more situational in nature and is often associated with arousal of the autonomic
nervous system, trait anxiety can be thought of as a world view that an individual
uses when coping with situations in his or her environment (Spielberger, 1966).
Trait anxiety influence performance in that individual with high trait anxiety will
attend more to information related to state anxiety (Hardy 1996). Previous
research outside of sport and exercise psychology has indicated that individual
with high trait anxiety who are state anxious attend to threat related
information, while individual with low trait anxiety who are state anxious will
attend away from threat related information (MacLeod, 1990). Within the
context of the sports, those individual who are low trait anxiety and experience
high state anxiety would find it facilitative to a peak performance; but, those
individuals with who are high trait anxious and experience state anxiety will find
it debilitative to athletic performance
Hardy (1996). Anxiety is considered to be a normal relation to stress. It
helps deal with a tense situation in the office, study for an exam keep focused on
an important speech and on ground. In general helps one cope, but when anxiety
becomes an excessive, irrational deal of everyday situations. It has become a
disabling disorder. Anxiety is a psychological state characterised by cognitive,
somatic, emotion and behaviour components. Anxiety can be accompanied by
physical effects. Anxiety does not consist of physical symptoms. Anxiety is
distinguished from fear, are described and the concept of anxiety disorders is
elucidated. Anxiety is a pervasive and significant negative affect that is now
under intense invention it is an intriguing and complex phenomenon that lends
itself of cognitive analyses: Anxiety involve the inter play of vigilance, attention,
perception, reasoning and memory the very meat of cognitive processing.
Anxiety is the tense, under setting anticipation of a threading but vague event, a
feeling of uneasy suspense. It is a negative effect so closely related to fear that in
many circumstances the two terms are used interchangeably like an anxiety; fear
also is a combination of tension and unpleasant anticipation. The present
research examines the level of anxiety among teams and individual events.
The athletes who participate in individual sports also have been found to
experience more anxiety than those who play team sports. Common sense
suggests that being part of time alleviates some of the pressure experienced by
those who compete alone. Finally there is evidence that in team sports, when a
team plays at the venue of the opposition (known as an “away” game) anxiety
level tends to be higher than when playing at home. Again, common sense would
indicate that having greater fan support and more familiarity with the venue
plays a role in anxiety levels during competition.
Anxiety disturbs psycho – physical functioning of the organism in
numerous ways. For instance, anxious individuals are said to have reduced
intentional focus. During heightened activity (anxiety inclusive) attention cannot
remain one – pointed. It manifests benumbing effect on the individual’s
judgment. Anxiety often results in narrowing of the field of attention as relevant
cues are excluded (Kamlesh, 1998).
Hockey has become one of the most popular games in the world and of
the major games it is the only one that has remained entirely amateur, a status
which has been proudly preserved by all those who play or support the games. It
is believed that for hockey Persia (Iran) is the birth place of this beautiful game
originated around two hundred years ago. Today, hockey is essentially a team-
game and has developed into a fast and skilful one (Borrett, 1950).
Anxiety is a widely used concept within the psychological literature yet is
often used uncritically and to reflect diverse meaning. Terms such as fear,
phobia, neurosis and anxiety are often used interchangeably, with definitional
problems further complicated by the overlap in use of the terms anxiety and
stress. Historically, fear and anxiety were differentiated on the basis of presence
or absence of cues, although the terms are frequently equated in the more
recently psychological literature. Anxiety is not only presumed to underlie
‘anxiety disorders’ such as agoraphobia, panic disorder, obsessive – compulsive
disorder and post – traumatic stress disorder.
Anxiety is a personality characteristic of responding to certain situations
with a stress syndrome of responses. Anxiety states are then function of the
situations that evoke them and the individual personality that is prone to stress
(Simpson, 1980).
Anxiety itself needs no description; everyone has personality
experienced this sensation, or to speak more correctly this affective condition, at
some time or other. But in my opinion not enough serious consideration has
been given to the question why nervous persons in particular suffer from anxiety
so much more intensely, and so much more altogether then others. One thing is
certain, that the problem of anxiety is a nodal point, linking up all kinds of most
important questions: a riddle of which the solution must cast a flood of light
upon our whole mental life (Freud, 1969, p. 341)
Science the 1950s, however, as it became clear that the basic learning
theory paradigm could not explain all cases of anxiety reaction, it too has
undergone many revisions. Over the past decade there has been increasing
emphasis upon cognitively based theories. Initially these emphasised the
importance of mental events as intervening variables between an environmental
event and the reactions of the individual to this event. While there is a continuing
debt about mental events can be seen as casual or moderating variables or,
indeed, whether they are merely one component of an anxiety response, much
recent theorising has emphasised the importance of particular patterns of
thinking as casually implicated in the generation of anxiety. In describing and
discussing theoretical contributions to anxiety this historical trend will form the
basis for organising the presentation of material.
Bowlby (1973) considers anxiety as closely allied to fear, as is the case in
the psychoanalytic tradition and most of psychoanalytic tradition and most of
psychiatry, but he does not equate the two concepts. He thinks the two terms
refers to closely related state and share common cases and manifestations.
The profile for the high - anxiety subjects are quite consistent with
predictions on the basis of differential emotions theory. The highest means are
fear, interest, guilt, anger, and shame (shyness). The marked similarities in the
profiles for in the real and imagined anxiety conditions lend support to the
imaging technique in the study of emotions.
The concept of anxiety has occupied an important place in psychological
theory and research since Freud (1959) emphasized its role in neurosis. The
concept has suffered for lack of a clear and widely accepted definition. Most
definitions have tended to treat it as a unitary state (or trait) and failed to
recognize its complexity.
Anxiety is a psychological and physiological state characterized by
somatic, emotional, cognitive, and behavioural components. The root meaning of
word anxiety is ‘to vex or trouble’. In either presence or absence of psychological
stress, anxiety can create feelings of fear, worry, uneasiness, and dread. Anxiety
is considered is to be a normal reaction to a stress or it may help someone to
deal. With a difficult situation by prompting them to cope with it. When anxiety
becomes excessive, it may fall under the classification of an anxiety disorder.
Anxiety is a generalized mood condition that can often occur without an
identifiable triggering stimulus. As such, it is distinguished from fear, which is an
emotional response to a perceived threat. Additionally, fear is related to the
specific behaviours of escape and avoidance, where as anxiety is related to
situations perceived as un controllable of unavoidable.
Korchain (1998) explains that according to Freud “Anxiety (or dread)
itself needs no description; everyone has personally experienced this sensation
or to speak more correctly this affective condition at some time or other.”
According to Freud not enough consideration had been given to the question so
as to why nervous person in particular suffer from anxiety more than other.” He
believed that “the problem of anxiety is a nodal point, linking up all kind of
questions, a riddle of which the solution must cast a flood of light upon our
whole mental life.” Anxiety could be separated into realistic, moral and neurotic
forms according to Freud’s tripartite model. Realistic anxiety is a direct response
to real external threat and on its own cannot cause psychological difficulties.
Moral anxiety is associated with shame and guilt resulting from conflict between
ego and superego and neurotic anxiety compose of three element, focused
system such as phobic anxiety free floating feelings of displeasure causes by
many and varied stimuli and thirdly fully developed sensations of panic. Anxiety
can be viewed as an everyday word in miner sense, to what is in reality a
complex relationship occurring through time between the person and situation
one faces. Hallman (1994) refers to anxiety as the behavioural and psychological
responses directly induced by a situation, as an appraisal of the responses and
their effects, as a person’s intentions towards stimuli and as a person’s evolution
of the resources available for dealing with it.
Anxiety describes the individual’s level of emotionality. DeCecco &
Crawford (1977) believe since anxiety is an inferred emotional state of the
organism and cannot be directly observed; investigations of anxiety rely on
having the individual report his own emotional states under various stress
conditions. Educational psychologists have studied test anxiety, or the emotional
states the students experience under the stressful conditions of taking a test.
According to Sarason (1972, 1978) test anxiety may be conceptualized as a
proneness to emit self-centred interfering responses when confronted with an
evaluative situation.
Sarason & Mandler, (1952) the student may fall in the anxious group for
whom tests arise anxiety, who make test irrelevant responses such as worrying
about failing, their inadequacies, anticipating punishment and blocking on
question responses which lead to poor test performance and those individual
who are without such tendencies and therefore improve their performance.
Test anxiety is experienced when the characteristics of anxiety are
associated with academic or evaluative situation. Spielberger, Anton and Bedell
(1976) conceptualized as a state, trait and a process, and detailed analysis of test
anxiety as a process is more productive as observed.
The construct of test anxiety was originated by Mandler & Sarason
(1952). Sarason & Mandler held that test anxiety was a learned “drive” which
results in responses which related to task completion. These latter responses
include “feeling of inadequacy.” Helplessness, heighted somatic reaction,
anticipation of punishment or loss of status and esteem and attempts at learning
the test situations (Mandler & Sarason 1952 P. 166)
Test anxiety has been defined as a situation specific personality trait
(Speilberger-1972) as a special case of general anxiety. It refers to those
phenomenological, psychological and behavioural responses that accompany
concern about possible failure. Test anxious individual perceive evaluative
situation as personally threatening and responds to them with intense emotional
reactions. Evaluative situations also evoke task irrelevant self-centred worry
responses that interfere with effective performance on cognitive intellectual
tasks.
Mandler & Sarson (1952) interpreted the differences in performance of
high test anxious, (HTA) and low test anxious (LTA) on the basis of learned
psychological drives. Two kinds of learned drives are said to be evoked by test
situation. First are task- directed drives these stimulate behaviours to reduce the
drive by completing the task, second are learned anxiety drives.
These stimulate two opposite and incompatible behaviours.
(a) Task-relevant efforts to finish the task and thereby to reduce the anxiety.
(b) Self- directed, task irrelevant responses manifested by “feeling of
inadequacy, helplessness, heightened somatic reaction, anticipation of
leave the testing situation.”
This is double. The next time test-phobic individuals face a test, they not
only become anxious about making it, they become anxious about getting
anxious. I know I’ll be nervous. I always get nervous I can’t help it.
The moment people say, “I can’t help it. They institutionalize helplessness,
hopelessness and self-pity on guarantee failure. The result is further self
downing and depression.
Although different authors have emphasized various aspects of cognition,
the major thrust of cognitive theories of test anxiety are that (a) test anxiety is
associated with anticipation of negative out comes, negative appraisal of one
coping skills, negative evaluative of performance and excessive attention
towards social evaluative treat material, and (b) these cognitive activities lead to
performance decrements, although it is not clear whether this effect result from
information processing or motivational influences. Gibbons (1991) suggested
that a vicious cycle develops, whereby excessive self-directed attention and
pessimism serve to increase anxiety and to impair task performance. Poor
performances in turn serve to further increase belief regarding negative
outcomes expectancies.
On the basis of factor analysis of test anxiety questionnaire (TAQ), Liberty
and Morris (1967, 1969, and 1970) proposed that debilitating test anxiety is
bidimentional consisting of worry and emotionality components.
(i) Worry component is any cognitive expression of concern about one’s
performance i.e. the consequences of failure.
(ii) Emotionally component refers to “autonomic reactions” that are evoked
by evaluative stress for test situation.
Following are the symptoms of test anxiety:
a) Physical: Headaches, nausea or diarrhoea, extreme body temperature
changes, excessive sweating, shortness of breath, light headedness or
fainting rapid heartbeat and dry mouth.
b) Emotional: Excessive feeling of fear, disappointment, anger, depression,
uncontrolled crying or laughing, feeling of haplessness.
c) Behavioural: Fidgeting, pacing, substance abuse, avoidance.
d) Cognitive: racing thoughts, going blank, difficulty concentrating negative
self talk, feeling of dread. Comparing yourself to others, difficulty
organizing your thoughts.
Most important anxiety arousing situation for a student is examination
stress. Sarason (1959) states that we live in a test conscious, test giving culture
in which the lives of people are in part determined by their test performance.
Test anxiety is a pervasive problem on the sportsmen and non-sportsmen
Mandler and Sarason (1952) assumed that two kinds of learned drives
are said to be evoked by test situation:
(a) Learned task drive or task directed drives. These are elicited by demand
characteristic of task. They stimulate the task relevant behaviour that
facilitate the performance and lead to reduction of drives by task
competition.
(b) Learned anxiety drives: These Stimulate two apposite and incompatible
behaviour.
1) Task relevant behaviour i.e. effort to finish the task and thereby to reduce
the anxiety. In this manner they are functionally equivalent to learn task
drives.
2) Task relevant responses self- directed responses, manifested by feeling of
inadequacy, helplessness, heightened somatic reactions, anticipation of
punishment or loss of status, esteem and implicit attempts to leave testing
situation (Mandler and Sarason, 1952).
Anxiety is a physiological response to a real or emarginated threat. It is a
complex emotional state characterized by a general fear or foreboding usually
accompanied by tension. It is related to apprehension and tear and is frequently
associated with failure, either real or anticipated. It often has to do with inter-
personal relations and social situations. Feeling of rejection and insecurity are
usually a part of anxiety. According to Frost (1971), anxiety is “an uneasiness and
feeling of foreboding often accompanied by a strong desire to excel”. Hence,
anxiety state arises from faulty adaptations to the stress and strains of life and is
caused by over actions in an attempt to meet these difficulties. Various aspect of
the self-concept have been correlated with be general test anxiety. In a study of
the relationship between a self-esteem and test anxiety in grades 4 through 8,
many and many 11 (1975) found statistically significant negative correlations
between the measures of self esteem and each of the measures of general and
text- anxiety, when scores were analyzed by total groups, grade level, and sex.
Chand and Grau (1977) have investigated the relationship of perceived self and
ideal self ratings with high and low levels of anxiety in collage women. Subjects
with a high degree of anxiety were found to have a significantly greater
discrepancy between their perceived self and ideal self concept than subjects
who has a discriminate analysis of self ratings collage students having
Differential manifest anxiety by Mukherjee (1969) has revealed that those with
high scored on the manifest Anxiety scale tend to rate themselves lower on
Perseverance and higher on perfection dimensions than those scoring low. A
multivariate analysis that the high group expressed an overall inferior self-image
than the low group. Though some earlier studies had reported no significant
difference in terms of Anxiety level between groups of actualized and non-
actualized subjects.
Wilkins et al (1977) found a confirmation of a hypothesis inverse relation
between levels of self-actualization and anxiety. These latter workers discussed
their results in relation to conceptual distinction between debilitating and
facilitating anxiety and their respective effect on psychological growth. On the
bases of their studies, Rokeachhis associates (Frucher et. al., 1959 Rokeach and
Frucher, 1959) concluded that dogmatism as related to anxiety. These initial
findings led to Rokeach’s contention that dogmatism “is nothing than a total
network of psychological defence mechanisms.” Although some inconsistent
results have been obtained, the general trend seems to confirm Rotech’s finding
by showing a positive relationship between dogmatism and anxiety (Bryneete et.
al., 1966; Castle 1971; Hauson & Bush 1971; Hauson Clune; Norman 1966; Castle
1971 Huason & Bush 1971; Hauson & Clune 1973; Norman 1966; Rebhum 1966;
Rokeach & Restle 1960; Smiltres 1970). Extraversion and neuroticism
dimensions of personality as I be Medley Personality inventory were correlated
with scores on the manifest anxiety Scale, in a study by bending (1957). The
correlations of anxiety with both Extroversion and neuroticism were found to be
significant. However, the direction of relationships in case of neuroticism
positive. The present investigator (1985) in one of his studies concluded that (i)
competitive Anxiety decreases with the increase in age in the case of the male
athletes but it increase in the case of female athletes, (ii) in the case of male and
female athletes, The competitive anxiety in the Indian athletes has no
relationship with their experience of participation in competition, (iii) the Indian
athletes have moderate Level of competitive anxiety as compared to the sample
norms proving the inverted U-shape the relationship between performance and
anxiety. In another study, he (1986) found that there were no significant
differences in the anxiety sources of athletes, whether male or females on the
basis of four different categories of athletes i.e. sprinters, middle and long
distance runners, throwers and jumpers. Also there were no significant
differences in the anxiety scores of hockey players whether males or females on
the basis of their playing position i.e. forwards, centre and backs.
The term anxiety is also used to refer to a complex psychological process
(Spielberger, 1972 b.) in essence, the concept of anxiety as process implies a
theory of anxiety that included stress, threat; and anxiety as fundamental
constructor variables. Thus, anxiety as process refers to a sequence of cognitive,
affective, physiological and behavioural events. This process may be initiated by
a stressful external stimulus that is perceived or interpreted as dangerous or
threading, or by a thought or idea that forecasts threat or that causes the
individual to recall an earlier danger situation. Cognitive appraisals of anger are
immediately followed by A-State reactions or by an increment in the level of A-
state intensity. It should be noted that while an anxiety state lies at the core of
the anxiety process, this process also involves stress, threat, physiological
changes, and behavioural reaction.
The common referents for anxiety words are listed in given the wide
range of meaning, it is safe to say that a variety of psychological and biological
processes are involved. Virtually all area of theoretical psychology is relevant-
innate biological defence, models of stress, self-conception, social evaluation,
skill and competence, cognition, problem-solving, learning and so on.
AGGRESSION
Sports competition without “Aggression” is body without soul.
Competition and aggression are twins. There is clear evidence that, in general
aggression is more boisterous games, help performance because it arouses
players overly to put in harder effort, and “do or die” for the success of the team.
Aggression comes from the Latin work aggress, ‘ad’ (to or toward) and greater
(walk). Literally then the word means to “to work towards or approach”.
Many professional psychologists have studied the effects of frustration
upon the elicitation of anger and the amount of anger required to lead to various
forms of aggression; direct or verbal aggression. Direct aggression might entail
shocking a person in a psychology lab with a buss aggression machine. Indirect
(or verbal) aggression might entail making some insulting comments to
someone, or even yelling at them. Any goal block-age, to use miller’s terminology,
which does not included cues of attack, such as shocks, exposed weapons,
aggressive films or insults by a superior held in high esteem who is visible to the
subject, frustrating. This sort of frustration produces an angry subject, but not a
directly aggressive one, according to Buss. Direct aggression, however, may be a
function of cues of attack if those cues are paired with some form of painful
stimulation, as well. In this regard shocks serve to heighten pain awareness in
the subject, who is “to retaliate aggressively by delivering shocks himself to the
instigator, experimenter, or another subject as confederate.
In real life situations subjects do have the opportunity to withdraw from
frustrating stimulation, or even aversive ones, more often than not; so that
aggression is often checked prior to erupting. The expression of hostility is often
able to eradicate the angry outburst, or to make it subside somewhat. The
laboratory approach seems inadequate for making continuous longitudinal
studies of aggression interaction between stressed dyadic pairs. E.G.,Burgess
insists in his Ph.D. dissertation that experimentation brings situational variable
under tighter control, important variables are as likely to be found during an
experimental as in the filed by ordinary observation, smaller groups allow one to
conceptualise at a higher more general level, the artificiality of the filed data
keyed to casual events is as debilitating as the artificiality of an experimental
setting, and since natural events tend to be cryptic, we require to make them
more readily visible by such things as experimental control, separation of sample
points, refinement of data and adumbration of measurement. All in all, burgess
considers experiment to be nothing more than a controlled observation. Any
hypotheses that hold in the real world must also hold in a simplified
environmental setting or laboratory need not hold up in the real world.
Sociology of aggression has just been propounded in the last two decade
by various sociologists, social psychologists and anthropologists in America.
Several divergent schools seem to be in evidence, as a consequence, including the
social historical school of coercive organisation the natural disaster school of
cohesion in the stressed groups under emergency conditions, the social (or
symbolic) intersectional school of learned aggression, through socialization or
culture factors, and the competition school of aggression.
It is common sense hypothesis that where there is no military
organization there is little direct aggression, as defined. Connected with
hypothesis is very sophisticated social psychology of group, directed behaviour
i.e. the leader of a group does not direct the group, but is simply the best
representative of the average person recruited to same, or the people in the
group, overall the leader reflects the needs of the group, rather than the group
taking on the features of the charismatic military leader also. The more coercive
a military organization, the more violent do its members become. Hence, the
more violent leaders in any military organisation, as well, become.
Notwithstanding the fact that only civilized man is capable of organized,
aggression, but unorganized (or spontaneous) aggression also occurs.
Palaeolithic and Neolithic man was fully capable of protracted aggression,
resulting in the elimination of Neanderthal man from western central Europe,
contents for the Daubing plains and southern France, and great wars in Asia
minor and the middle east. In these instances, social organisation alone, without
any military infrastructure, was to blame for the wholesale slaughter of peoples,
races, or even a species.
The dawn of civilisation after the birth of Egypt and summer results in
numerous wars between contending powers in the region of the Fertile Crescent.
The battle between Assyria and Egypt in particular, reached a new height of
destructiveness due to the introduction of the horsed chariot by both sides.
These battles were every bit as aggressive as those of Alexandra the great against
Persia, or of Yawn and Xerxes during the Greek Persian wars. War was on a
massive scale, because the entire population could be recruited for war –making
purposes, and often was, technically lethal weapons, however, was only in its
infancy. More importantly however, were the war of ancient china, involving
contending dynasties of alliances of the northern or the southern province and
territories of the eastern realm. The style of warfare was advanced in that it
revolved about horsemanship, larger congeries of soldiers or infantry divisions,
and the use of “military strategy,” not just the positioning of troops on the field,
the contending forces opposed to one. This was a signal advance over the mere
conglomerations of the ancient kingdoms. Yet, the Chinese armies still lacked the
tactical expertise of roman legions, and had many no – medic forces in their
midst. There was no concept here of the phalanx, which the very best soldier are
supposed to hold the canter.
Types of pre-modern military organisation have been studied by many
authors involving several levels of aggression organisation, used in Western
Europe from form 750 A.D. to 1600A.D. many more studies have emerged about
world war 2nd and the phenomenon of Nazi aggression, though little is known
about the causes and conduct of world war 2nd these levels of social organisation
included, throughout recorded history: the tribal level, tribal alliances, the
dynastic coalitions, the urban level, the inter-urban level, the provincial level,
provincial coalitions, the state level, national alliances, and the world level.
Hence, the very scope of war is useful parameters for predicting the amount of
potential violence that may result or has resulted in the past. The more
devastating the social (or military) organization, the more destructive the effects
of the war on the civilian population. But this is not the only the parameter
involved. The scope of warfare is also the results of the degree of technical
sophistication. The personalities of leaders and the amount of power invested in
command structures, and the historical context of war. There are national and
religious wars, e.g. Toynbee’s study of warfare in Universal states seems to
support this hypothesis resting upon the tacit assertion that organization in and
by itself is a source of aggression or that the mere mechanism of society, large
social groupings, and like, can encourage feelings of leading to open violence
against so-called weaker peoples. By social (or military) organisation, we have in
mind Spencer’s notion of “dynamic bureaucracy”, or even Weber’s concept of
military charisma”, which according to Lehman entails very few status levels and
highly concentrated authority. It is a traditional super-structure Also, the
Peloponnesian war resulted from too much unity in Athens and Sparta, which
silenced potential opponents to that gruesome war. Criticism against the city-
state was no longer tolerated in Athens and had never been tolerated in Sparta.
Hence, this was the end of the Greek system, as Hamilton has intimated in the
Federalist papers. In conference any citizen who was the against war was simply
shouted down, according to Thucydides, once the war was underway by virtue of
the machinations of Corinth, a member of the Aegean League. Little did they
know that they would effectively ruin Greece and lose in the bargain, control
over Sicily. This philosophical disagreement of the citizenry resulted in
distortion of the purposes of allies or enemies alike, resulting in an over harsh
reaction to same, ultimatums and precarious expeditions, usually under the
leadership of some young and inexperienced aristocrats if Athens. Undoubtedly,
the same situation must have take place in Sparta? Leadership during the war
was very poor, due to the ideological conformity demanded by the citizenry,
though Sparta was more successful in its early choice of generals. After Athens
has ostensibly won and Sparta had sued for an early peace, the war continued on
anyway, because of the economic greed of the higher classes of Athens. After
many more bloody years, and the death of the official historians, Thucydides,
Athens lost the war to Sparta and forfeited her dominion over Greece.
This is not the view we get the Roman Empire, however, by reading
Tacitus. Indeed, we see Roman fighting one another more often than not, on
foreign territory as well as at home, and recruiting the barbarians on occasion.
Hence, the Roman experience seemed to demonstrate that the Empire, rather
than being dominated by the Emperor, was run by the Senate, which got rid the
military riff-raff of society by sending them upon long arduous journeys. The
hatred of the ordinary solider for the Senate was due not only to his economic
plight, which was deteriorating rapidly because of a declining economy, but also
the lower social status he possessed in the Empire, by comparison to the early
days of the Republic.
It has been emphasized since few decades that aggression or aggressive
behaviour plays a vital role in different sports or games according to nature of
activity. Some time it gives good results and sometimes it may cause very
dangerous. Aggression directly effects on the sportsman’s performance.
Aggression is as old as human race. Beginning with Cain’s Murder of Abe
and expending through-out history, wars, world wise wars, religious wars and in
worldwide conflicts. Today man continues to do so. It appears that the technical
and cultural ‘advance’ of man has led to more violent and destructive behaviour.
What is aggression and why it is so commonly manifested by supposedly
higher form of intelligence such as man? Such as man, In lieu of this paper we try
to address some of these important issues as they related to sports. We begin by
defining aggressive behaviour and differentiating it from assertive behaviour in
sports contexts. The word aggression comes from Latin root aggedi ad (to or
toward) and grader walk, literally then t he word means to walk or approach, to
“move against” or to “move with intent to hurt or harm”. Most psychologists
describe aggression in terms of behaviour has been associated genital activity,
drug and alcohol addiction, sports and exercise, crying, completing waging war
etc.
Human beings are capable of a wide range of behaviour. On one hand,
they may show compassion and help each other; on the other hand, they may
seek harm to each other through aggressive actions. The term aggression in
sports has become all too common. Behaviour is obvious in sports and physical
activities. Motivation is a critical determinant of athletic success, most coaches or
athletes strive for high level of motivation to ensure maximum performance.
However, motivation, motivation can some time become too strong, misdirected
or uncontrolled. When this occurs motivated behaviour can easily turn into
aggressive and violent behaviour, which may results injury to another player. In
last twenty years sports, games and physical activity has become more violent.
Not at all aggressive sports behaviour is violent. In fact many forms of aggressive
behaviour are accepted and even promoted; often aggression is a part of game.
Aggression has many meanings in sports. In much publicized case, lateral
Sprewell, NBA star, was fired and suspended league for a year after he attacked
and threatened to kill his coach, P.J.Carlesimo. In another case, professional
boxer Mike Tyson become frustrated in ring and respond by biting off part of his
opponent’s ear. Unfortunately, incidents like these are well publicized and that
takes place through the sports world. We have all witnessed the increased
violence in our modern society.
Using term aggression to refer to such a wide range of behaviour can
cause confusion. We label violent and burst in sport as aggression buy also talk
about “aggression” player who takes chance in a close contest.
The moral and ethical social climate of sport may be at time condone
aggression while at sometime removing or lowering the guile of those who
aggress, both male and female who participated frequently in contexts do
encourage aggression. An athlete’s feeling about individual aggression
responsibility may be coupled with other conditions including aggressive
models, to produce aggressive behaviour. The lack of responsibility, an athlete
might feel for aggressive actions may also combine with situational factors to
heighten the probability of aggressive acts. Some researchers who have found
aggression of its participants, aggression that moulds the aggression of its
participants. Aggression in sports may also occur simply because a lot of people
are highly activated in conditions that are likely to produce negative judgements
if failure is experienced or perceived. The moods of players and athletes moulded
by whether they are wining ahead or losing, may also influenced by other sports
related various to produce aggression types. To be good in sports, you have to be
bad, or so many athletes, coaches and sports fans believe. Heavy weight
champion Larry Holmes, for example, revealed a key to his success during a one
hour interview with Morley Safer: before he enters the ring, he said, “I have to
change, I have to leave the goodness out and bring all the bad in”. He suggested
that normally inappropriate ways of thinking and acting are acceptable in sports.
He reported that you can feel clean hatred for your opponent.
Sports are “world with in a world” (with its own unique convention and
moral understanding). The Bruise brothers – “we do not want to hurt you, just
make you hurt”.
As social scientists, we are interested in the moral meaning athletes and
fans attach aggression in moral terms? Does maturity of athlete’s moral
reasoning influence their aggressive behaviour? What are unique characteristics
of sports morality and how does this “game reasoning” influence the perceived
legitimacy of aggression? We believe that aggression is more than convention; it
is moral issue which can be investigated as such. If this is true, there should be an
inverse relationship between the maturities of athlete’s moral reasoning and
their acceptance of aggression establishing a link between moral reasoning and
aggression is only the first step in understanding it. It is not clear why many
people find everyday aggression objectionable but have few moral qualms when
they or orders hurt a bean ball at batter. We can develop a more complete
portrait of sport aggression by exploring the unique patters of moral reasoning
that sport encourages.
Establishing a link between moral reasoning and sport aggression is only
the first step in understanding it. There several reasons may elicit an egocentric
style of game reasoning. The very nature of competition requires that self
interest be temporarily adopted while the athlete strives to win. In everyday life,
such pre-occupation with self almost inevitably leads to moral failings. But in
sports, participants are freed to concentrate on self interest by carefully
balanced rule structure that equalizes opportunity. Players are guarded the oral
defaults of others by protective rules and by officials who impose sanctions for
violations. Moral responsibility is thus transferred from the shoulders of players
to those of officials, enforces of rule and to coaches, whom the players learn to
see as responsible for all decisions.
Not in all sports, lack real implications. In boxing for example, where the
goal involves damage to another person, serious injury or even death is possible.
Collegiate and high school sports, where winners may receive prizes, bigger pay
checks, more perks or expanded educational and professional opportunities. The
moral implication of harm as sport goal and extrinsic reward contingent on
sports performance still need to be investigated. Does success today really
depend on how well an athlete or team has mastered the art of aggression? The
question usually answered more by ideology than by evidence. But there is more
fundamental question that needs to be asked: Is it really OK to be bad in sports.
In particular, is aggression an acceptable tactic or playing field? If it is morally
unacceptable, most recommendations for reducing sports aggression have
focused on rules and penalties against fighting, slugging and other forms of
violence. We believe, however, that reducing athletic aggression requires that the
transformation of external sports structures such as rules and penalties and
internal reasoning structures. To reduce aggression, we must first understand
the meaning athletes attach to it. There are several reasons sports may elicit on
egocentric styles of game reasoning. The very nature of competition requires
that self interest be temporarily adopted while the athlete strives to win. In
everyday life, such preoccupation with self almost inevitably leads to moral
failings, but in sports, participants are feed to concentrate on self-interest by a
carefully balance rule structure that equalizes opportunity. Players are guarded
against the moral defaults of others by protective rules and by officials who
impose sanctions for violations. Moral responsibility is thus transferred from the
shoulders of players to those of officials, the enforcers of the rules, and to
coaches whom the players learn to see as responsible for all decisions.
Physical strength and skill are no more the only factors determining the
outcome of any sports competition. The psychological variables also play an
important role in such outcomes and the psychologists conducting research in
sports are trying to study psychological characteristic which help in predicting
success in sports. Practical and theoretical questions of interest to sports
psychologist include how to maintain athlete’s mental balance in the midst of
competitive stress. Generally, sports psychology is concerned with structured
competitive sports in which the purpose is to outdo one’s opponent in
competitive encounters. The psychological preparation is planned and carried
out with aim of enabling the sports persons to be in an optimum psychological
state at the time of competition so that the athlete can achieve the maximum
possible performance. According to Jerson (1970) success in high level
competition is 10-20 % of physiological and 80-90 percent psychological. Cratty
(1989) is of the view that psychological preparedness differentials the best out of
the rest.
Alderman (1974) while emphasizing the significance of psychological
factors comments, “one essential point which must be stressed is that regardless
of how a person possesses for a particular task or sports, the success or the
quality of his performance will in the final analysis probably depends on his
particular psychological make-ups.
In the competitive setting an athlete has to put certain checks on his inner
self i.e. psycho regulate himself in order to produced best results. At the same
time he must counter the provoking stimulus rationally. Such experiences of
overcoming stress, strain and aggression may help him make the required
emotional adjustment in routine settings. In the game an athlete in action has to
in encounter numerous predictable and unpredictable situations. His
psychological technical and physical powerless help him adapt to these
situations. Many scholars have in the recent past, studied the psychological
make-up of athlete of the team and individual events involving closed and open
skills, wherein the performance must assess the situation, then chose the
movement to make and decide how best and to execute the movement. It is of
interest to note that closed and open skill attract different individuals to
participate and put different psychological demands on them for better results.
No other activity programme of physical education and sports is so
vigorously interesting up such qualities such as courage, self- confidence,
resilience etc. in the youth. There are simple contact which are held between two
individuals and three are mass contact in which team participate. In both case
the aim of the participants is to gain supremacy over the opponents. The
investigator has, therefore, chosen to explore the two very pertinent and
interconnected psychological variables i.e. aggression, anxiety and emotional
intelligence among the teams and individual events in the presents study.
Psychological factors like aggression can affect the performance of an
individual and of the whole team. The affect of aggression on motor performance
has become a major topic of interest to sports psychologist. The problems of
aggression have been considered important in all area of human activity
including sports. To the one and the same stimulus individual respond
differently and their anxiety level also varies. Psychology, and aggression are
very important phenomena.
The last few decades have evidenced renewed interest in the phenomena
of violent and aggression behaviour in sports. Aggressive behaviour in sports has
been investigated by many scholars from different filed of behavioural sciences.
What follow is a review the origins and characteristics of aggressive behaviour.
Aggression is a term that used in extensively in sports. If coaches for the
people in sports are surveyed and asked to identify the characteristics of
successful athletes, aggression would be high on the list. Being aggressive ploys
are used in volleyball by players, who dive on the floor at every opportunity to
attempt an apparently impossible save, and in badminton when players rush to
the net at every opportunity, its playing aggressive in the sports.
Anger is another human trait which drives its origin since human
evolution. It has resulted in producing aggression, be itself directed or
outwardly. Inwardly directly aggression destroys the self whereas aggression
directed outwards harm the others. Both ways, the same is a socially undesirable
trait. However without aggression it would be just impossible to visualize many
sports. A boxer who is not aggressive to legitimately cause injury to the other is
bound to lose. On the contrary, exhibiting aggression transgressing the
prescribed boundaries would result in his disqualification, being thrown out of
the contest. As a double edged weapon, it harms both ways.
Aggression carries numerous connotations in sports psychologists have
explained aggression in term of behaviour. Dollard and his colleagues (1939)
suggest that aggression is nay sequence of behaviour, the goal of which is to do
injury to the person towards whom it is delivered. Aronson (1977) describes
aggression behaviour intended to cause harm or pain. The key to this definition
is the word “intend”. If an athlete fractures another athlete nose by accident, the
fracture is not the results of aggression. But if the athlete intended to fracture the
nose he or she was being aggressive in the negative sense of the words. Similarly,
aggression has been defined as an intention to inflict injury. Tatum (1980)
viewed aggression as the deliberate intent to harm another person. This includes
physical, psychological or social harm, but in sports, physical harm is the primary
focus.
Many other psychologists have tried to distinguish the two types of
aggression. According to Hunsman (1954), aggression is of two types, the
primary goal is to inflict injury or psychological harm to someone. Instrumental
aggression, on the other hand, occurs in the quest of some non-aggressive goal
Why the athletes aggress in the sports? Number of reasons has been
proposed to explain why the athletes engage in reflationary aggression-n in the
sports. The aggression that transcends hard play and the spirit and meaning of
the rules.
Sports competition without aggression is a body without soul.
Competition and aggression are twins. There is clear evidence that, in, general,
aggression in more boisterous games may help in performance because it
arouses players overtly to put in harder efforts, and keep them to motivate to do
and die for the success of the team. Contrarily aggression committed by player in
certain contexts, situation or position e.g. (defensive players) may impede
performance of individual skill as well as success of the team. This paradoxical
view may be attributed to differences in individual and the game situations. The
intensity of aggression manifested by players in sports or a particular match may
greatly depend on the prevailing circumstances and ground realities i.e. the same
individuals behaving much more aggressively in one situation but not in other.
The mood (mental disposition or state of body and mind) of the player weather
they are winning or losing is also an important consideration in the quantity and
the quality of aggression expressed. Carrty (1989) very apply point out that
aggression and athlete may admit to be experiencing may be influenced by
combination of factors, including role perceptions. The manner in which
aggression interact with skill, the folklore surrounding the sports.
Another popular conception is that aggression is a reaction to frustration
experiences. This theory called the frustration aggression hypothesis was
proposed by Dollard and his colleagues (1939). The suggests that frustration, the
blocking of goal directed behaviour, creates a drive to aggress against a person
or object. Through aggression the drive is dissipated. The social learning theory
probably has more implications for coaches then the first two theories.
According to this theory, the causes of aggression, originally has three modelling
influences: family, subculture and symbolic modelling, (Bandura, 1976).
Aggression therefore need to be regulated and appropriately to be
regulated and appropriately applied in each sports situation. Where one has to
put the opponent to the floor but is equally important in game where personal,
physical contact, becomes inevitable.
Aggression is also defined as the infliction of an aversive stimulus
physical, verbal, or gestural, upon one by another Aggression is not an attitude
but behaviour and most critically, it is reflected in acts committed with the
interest to injure (Leunes and Nation, 1989). This definition of coaches and
spectators, as physically lifting another individual and verbal abuse.
Aggression has long been a part of the sport domain. Russell (1993)
suggested that outside of war time, sports is perhaps the only setting in which
acts of interpersonal aggression are not only tolerated but enthusiastically
applauded by large segment of society.
EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE
To progress and let other progress and to live and let other live are thus
the ultimate goals of any education or training provided for developing one’s
potential of emotional intelligence. The measures may help in this direction try
to help you. Help yourself and the youngsters in developing the ability to
correctly perceive feeling both in oneself and other. Give up the misgivings and
misperception of the feeling in other. It leads to a hostile attribution bias.
Remember that love always begets love, while suspicion, heatedness and
aggressions are rewarded likewise. The word ‘emotion’ has been derived from
the Latin word ‘Emovere’ which means ‘to excite’, or ‘shudder. According to
P.T.Young “An emotion is disturbed state of organism: an emotion includes
visceral changes due to increased activity of autonomic nervous system and an
emotion originates within the psychological situation.” The word intelligence is
believed to be greatest parameter for measure of success in life.
Emotion is a rather neglected area of study in comparison with other area
in psychology. Although early pioneers, for example Darwin, James and Freud,
had shown interest, relatively fewer attempts were made during the twentieth
century to take up emotion as a serious area of research. Two major reasons
were put forward by Leventhal and Tomarken (1986) for this paucity of
research. One, the experience of emotion was not considered an element of study
by the behaviouristic ally oriented theorists, and two, emotion was conceived as
a product of arousal and cognition by the traditional cognitive theorists. In
addition, the biologically, oriented theorists, who accepted the concept of
emotion rather reluctantly, preferred to substitute the concept with a more
pervasive element of our psychobiological state, namely, motivation.
Nevertheless, studies on emotion by some prominent workers during the
last three decades have revived the interest in this area. In this context, Ekman's
(1982, 1992a) and Izard's (1979, 1994) contributions are significant, who raised
new questions and conducted innovative research. The most important question
these investigators posed is about the universality and ontogenetic root of the
expression of emotion. More than a century ago, they had anticipated this
question and the appearance of his work in 1872 had triggered a tremendous
interest in emotion. The issue was revived by Ekman (1992b) who, on the basis
of cross-cultural researches, proposed that the (spontaneous) facial expressions
of emotion serve important adaptation functions and are universal in nature:
Also, he suggested that the deliberately posed facial expressions of emotion may
be culture-specific, that is, the cultural norms to a large extent determine how
identities are encoded and performed. Accommodating the universal and
culture-specific elements of the facial expressions, Ekman concluded that the
field of emotion touches upon such key issues as nature vs. nurture, emotion-
specific physiological changes, events preceding emotion, ontogenetic root of
emotion, discrete states of emotion, and fundamental categories of emotion.
Izard (1979, 1994), in his search for the ontogenetic root of emotion
conducted studies on the preverbal infants facial expressions. He found that
infants are capable of expressing all the discrete emotions that are fundamental
to humans. This empirical finding led him to conclude that the facial expressions
of emotion are innate in nature. He, however, distinguished between the innate
and universal components of the expression of emotion on the basis of cross-
cultural data. To him “an expression may be conceived as universal without
having the properties of innateness, simply because of culture-constant learning”
(Izard, 1994, 291).
Both Ekman and Izard were influenced by the writings of Tomkins (1962)
who considered that the study of face is, in other words, the study of emotion.
The assertion got an impetus by the confirmation of the facial feedback
hypothesis. In this hypothesis the overt facial expressions are presumed to be an
essential ingredient of the experience of emotion (for a review, see Leventhal
and Tomarken, 1986). The hypothesis generated a renewed interest in and fresh
views on emotion).
This text considers the basic issues and current trends in emotion. In so
doing, it lays a special emphasis on the work that has been carried out on the
facial expressions of emotion. The basic issues have primarily been derived from
those psychological investigations that have looked for a general rule in the
expression-experience link. The discussion on the current trends, on the other
hand, has been guided by those cross-cultural researches that have looked for
the universality in the expression and understanding of emotion. These two
aspects (i.e., basic issues and current trends) may be treated with the necessary
precondition that the mental universals do not emerge from the study of brain
(Shepard, 2001).
Emotions are easy to understand but difficult to define. One may easily
explain the emotional tone in an individual's behaviour but find difficulty in
defining the emotion involved for instance, an angry face conveys the same
message to all yet there may be great individual differences in defining anger or
even labelling the face with emotion word anger. The difficulty arises from the
term definition itself by definition; we mean several things, for example, a
cultural definition, a biological definition, an overt expressional definition, an
observer’s definition, and a contextual definition. Some people may like to define
emotion on the basis of the quality of experience (positive / negative) the degree
of arousal (high/low), or the meteoric direction embodied in the action
(approach / withdrawal) The pervasiveness of the term also creates a difficulty
in defining it. For instance, the categories happiness, sadness, fear, anger,
surprise, and disgust are accepted by all as emotions but opinions differ on such
categories as sex and aggression. To include these letter categories in the term,
theorists sometimes use a more pervasive term, viz., motivation. Abnormal
emotional reactions, e.g. anxiety, depression, and guilt, pose a different problem.
Opinions differ in considering them as variants of natural emotion.
Difficulties in defining emotion also arise due to the changes it produces
in the organism, such as changes in the physiological system (body) and in the
psychological state (mind). For many years, psychologists were engaged in
examining the temporal sequence of these changes (in mind and body) that
accompany an emotion.
To reduce the conceptual complexity, it is important that we discuss the
theoretical perspectives and behavioural components associated with emotion.
Research on emotion has given rise to four major theoretical perspectives,
namely, (a) cognitive perspective that puts emphasis on cognition of
environmental cue and physiological arousal, (b) evolutionary perspective that
stresses adaptation functions, (c) behavioural perspective, that emphasizes
conditioned response, and (d) psycho-dynamic perspective, that highlights the
role of unconsciousness in emotion regulation. The cognitive perspective was
developed on the basis of the notion that an understanding of an emotional state
is contingent upon the cognition of an external (environmental) or an internal
(physiological) cue. An empirical support for this notion has been available from
the classic study of Schachter and Singer (1962). In this study, the subjects were
injected epinephrine, a petrochemical substance that produces an autonomic
arousal.
The evolutionary perspective was drawn from Darwin (1972) 1965 who
thought that emotions serve important adaptation functions.
The expressions of emotions, in annuals or in human beings, send signals
only to the members of their respective species and these signals (Westen,
1996). To establish his notion, Darwin considered the Physlogenetic and
ontogenetic roots of emotion expressions.
The behavioural perspective considers emotion as a conditioned response
to a situation that is associated with a certain unconditioned physiological
change.
The psychodynamic perspective grew out of the Freudian view on
emotion. Freud (1920) divided personality into three distinct systems, the id, the
ego, and the superego. The id (the unconscious and obscured part of
personality), which is the oldest mental system, seeks to gratify wishes that are
instinctual in nature. Emotions are expressed via verbal and nonverbal channels
of communication. The verbal channel of communication is used more often to
establish the logical connections between facts and events (Danziger, 1976).
The nonverbal channels of communication are used to convey affective message
and to regulate interpersonal ex-changes. The channels of nonverbal
communication that transmit emotional messages are facial expression.
Paralanguage (nonverbal aspects of voice and temporal characteristics of
speech), and kinesics (gesture, posture, movement of the body) and proximal
(physical distance during face to face interaction) behaviours
Happiness is a positive emotion which is most conveniently recognized
and frequently expressed during a social interaction. The experience of
happiness may stem from different sources, such as relief from pain, anticipation
of a positive outcome of an event, an event that either enhances self-concept or
allows social approval, and physical pleasure. The source of happiness depends
on the personality of the individual (Ekman and Friesen, 1975).
Sadness is a negative emotion that is experienced in the event of loss of
certain forms. The level of arousal associated with sadness is generally low,
although the emotion may vary in intensity. The extreme form of sadness is grief
and a mild form of sadness is pensiveness (Plutchik, 1980b). In sadness, the
individual experiences pain (which is not physical) and the degree of suffering
depends on the form of distress. The sources of distress may be loss of someone,
denial by a loved one, loss of an opportunity and so on (Ekman and Friesen,
1975). These external sources of distress interact with certain factors internal to
the organism e.g. gender, age, and personality. When sadness pervades the
emotional life over a continued period, abnormal reactions, such as depression,
take place.
Fear is also a negative emotion and is generally accompanied by a high
degree of arousal. It generates activation in the internal mechanism of the body
as well as in the outward expression. Under its influence, the organism develops
preparedness to avoid a threat full situation. In this sense, fear is an adaptive
response and almost reflexively triggered in the face of a dangerous situation.
Because of its link with survival, the sources of fearfulness may be many ranging
from a minor physical injury to death. The complexity with which fearfulness is
evoked depends on the level of conditioning or on the cognitive appraisal of the
threat full situation, event or object. The emotion of fear varies in intensity. The
extreme form of fear is terror and in its mild form it is known as apprehension
(Plutchik, 1980b). The continued presence of fear may produce anxiety or worry
in the organism.
Surprise is an emotion of a very short duration with a positive or a
negative emotional tone. We are surprised at events that are not expected to
occur. The surprise emotion becomes positively valence if the unexpected event
brings delight (for example, seeing an old friend after a long time. In the ancient
Indian literature, anger is illustrated as “inflaming of the mind” or “blazing up of
the mind” due to such sources as thwarting of desire, persecution, misconduct,
contempt, and injury. The three forms of anger are Kroch (a stormy passion
which persists in an aggressive person), kop (a mild form of anger that is quickly
controlled and prevented from realizing its end), and rose (anger directed to a
beloved person or an object).
Disgust is a negative emotion that triggers a feeling of aversion. The
sources of disgust may be many, ranging from an aversive taste to an aversive
thought. Painful events or thoughts may induce disgust.
There are multiple mechanisms, namely, cortical, subcritical, autonomic,
and hormonal, controlling the experience and expression of emotion. Likewise,
there are various study areas, e.g. neurophysiology, neurochemistry, and
neuropsychology, examining the emotional behaviour in human and non-human
primates. The focus of neuron-physiology is to explicate the role of the nervous
system, peripheral and central, in the regulation of emotion. Neurochemistry
deals with the chemical agents altering the nervous system function. The subject
studies the process and regulation of metabolic activity and the changes in
neurotransmitters and hormones during the emotional reaction.
Neuropsychological studies are conducted to ascertain the role of the cerebral
hemispheres and lobes in the mediation of emotional functions, factors
influencing emotion.
Different emotions produce characteristic bodily changes. These changes
occur either at the physiological or at the overt behavioural level. The
physiological changes are measured by three methods, in general. In one, the
changes in emotional response following a lesion /task. For example, an electro
dermal response may vary as a function of such factors as affect valence, affect
intensity, sex and basal sweat gland activity. The interacting effects of these
factors may prevent one from making an accurate inference (Cacioppo and
Tassinary, 1990). These authors further noted that the advancement in
technology. As a result, the psycho physiological inference has become more
problematic. Related to this issue is the assumption of psycho physiological
isomorphism that does not accommodate the concept of multiple determinants
of a physiological response. This problem applies both to autonomic and central
measure of cognitive / affective activity (Coles et al, 1987; see also Caciopo and
Tassinary, 1990).
The theories of emotion are many and diverse. Approximately fifty
theories exist in psychological literature, each with a different view point about
the process by which we experience emotion. It is not advisable to discuss each
of these theories separately as such an attempt may reduce clarity about the
conceptual distinctions among them. Some reviewers, therefore, have attempted
to organize these theories into fewer heads, for example, chronological order
Some emotional intelligence measures which have a limited value or
somewhat meant just for a fun or amusement. However, these may provide vital
clue of what is expected from an emotional intelligent person in an arbitrary
assumed emotional situation.
Emotional intelligence has been conceptualised as a multidimensional
construct as proposed by Goleman and Mayer and salovey. According to this
conceptualization, emotional intelligence consists of “abilities such as being able
to motivate one and persist in the face of frustrations; to control impulses and
delay gratification; to regulate one’s moods and keep distress from swamping
the ability to think; to empathize and hope.” Further research in this area has
indicated that an emotionally intelligent person is be skilled in two key areas
within one’s emotional competence framework, namely “personal competence”-
how one manages the self; and ‘social competence’ – how one manages
relationship. While the essentially implies self-awareness (of internal states,
preferences, resource and inhibitions), self-regulation (of internal states,
impulses and resources) and motivation (traits that facilitate accomplishing
goals); the later comprises empathy (the ability to understand other’s emotions,
and other’s talents or skills needed to influence, communicate, lead, develop
others, manage conflicts, promote team work, or catalyse change), and social
skills such as expertise in inculcating desirable in others. Thus, emotional
intelligence is made up of a set of skills and these skills can be improved through
education. Schools serve as the prime location for the promotion of emotional
intelligence (Tiwari and and srivastava 2004). Goleman (1998) considered
school as one place which can turn to compensate children’s deficiencies in
emotional and social competence. As such schools face the challenge to teaching
as well as nurturing the emotional skills of children.
Emotional intelligence (EI) has emerged as a key concept among
researchers and practitioners alike, and is subject to growing interest in sport
psychology. Further to this, met analysis results indicate positive relationship
between EI and health-related variables and performance variables. To date,
only a few studies have examined E.I in sport but the early studies point to
encouraging results
1.1 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
Comparative Study of Anxiety, Aggression and Emotional Intelligence
among Team and Individual Sportsmen
1.2 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY
The results of the present study will help to identify anxiety, aggression
and emotional intelligence of sportsman representing university in team and
individual events. This will further help to identify sportsmen who may have
potential to be of high calibre. Competitive sports are full of challenges, so
youngsters taken to competitive sports must display the required psychological
attributes including aggression, anxiety and emotional intelligence to meet the
challenges successfully.
The variables anxiety, aggression and emotional intelligence need to be
studied properly, both from the theoretical and practical point of view. The
knowledge about the variables may enable the teacher and coaches to takes
decisions in their work with young players taking part at different levels and
train them in a proper way. The investigation can help the University coaches
who are attached with University camps to find out the talent and how to wide
out them so as to enable them to perform better in future in the teams and
individual games and find out the weakness of the sportsmen who are attending
the coaching camps.
1.3 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY
The following objectives lay down for the present study:
� To study the nature of distribution of scores for sportsmen representing university in Team events on the variables of ‘Anxiety’.
� To study the nature of distribution of scores for sportsmen representing university in Individual events on the variables of ‘Anxiety’.
� To study the nature of distribution of scores for sportsmen representing university in Team events on the variables of ‘Aggression’.
� To study the nature of distribution of scores for sportsmen representing university in Individual events on the variables of ‘Aggression’.
� To study the nature of distribution of scores for sportsmen representing university in Team events on the variables of ‘Intra-Personal Awareness’ (own emotions).
� To study the nature of distribution of scores for sportsmen representing university in Individual events on the variables of ‘Intra-Personal Awareness’ (own emotions).
� To study the nature of distribution of scores for sportsmen representing university in Team events on the variables of ‘Inter-Personal Awareness’ (others emotions).
� To study the nature of distribution of scores for sportsmen representing university in Individual events on the variables of ‘Inter-Personal Awareness’ (others emotions).
� To study the nature of distribution of scores for sportsmen representing university in Team events on the variables of ‘Intra-Personal Management’ (own emotions).
� To study the nature of distribution of scores for sportsmen representing university in Individual events on the variables of ‘Intra-Personal Management’ (own emotions).
� To study the nature of distribution of scores for sportsmen representing university in Team events on the variables of ‘Inter-Personal Management’ (others emotions).
� To study the nature of distribution of scores for sportsmen representing university in Individual events on the variables of ‘Inter-Personal Management’ (others emotions).
� To study the nature of distribution of scores for sportsmen representing university in Team events on the variables of ‘Total Emotional Intelligence’.
� To study the nature of distribution of scores for sportsmen representing university in Individual events on the variables of ‘Total Emotional Intelligence’.
� To compare the Sportsmen representing university in Team and Individual events with respect to their mean scores on the variables of ‘Anxiety’.
� To compare the Sportsmen representing university in Team and Individual events with respect to their mean scores on the variables of ‘Aggression’.
� To compare the Sportsmen representing university in Team and Individual events with respect to their mean scores on the variables of ‘Intra-Personal Awareness’ (own emotions).
� To compare the Sportsmen representing university in Team and Individual events with respect to their mean scores on the variables of ‘Inter-Personal Awareness’ (others emotions).
� To compare the Sportsmen representing university in Team and Individual events with respect to their mean scores on the variables of ‘Intra-Personal Management’ (own emotions).
� To compare the Sportsmen representing university in Team and Individual events with respect to their mean scores on the variables of ‘Inter-Personal Management’ (others emotions).
� To compare the Sportsmen representing university in Team and Individual events with respect to their mean scores on the variables of ‘Total Emotional Intelligence’.
1.4 HYPOTHESES
The following hypotheses are formulated which will be tested in the
present study:
� The Sportsmen representing university in Team and Individual Events
differ significantly with respect to their level of Anxiety.
� The Sportsmen representing university in Team and Individual Events
differ significantly with respect to their level of Aggression.
� The Sportsmen representing university in Team and Individual Events
differ significantly with respect to their level of Intra-Personal Awareness
(Own Emotions) component of Emotional Intelligence.
� The Sportsmen representing university in Team and Individual Events
differ significantly with respect to their level of Inter-Personal Awareness
(Others Emotions) component of Emotional Intelligence.
� The Sportsmen representing university in Team and Individual Events
differ significantly with respect to their level of Intra-Personal
Management (Own Emotions) component of Emotional Intelligence.
� The Sportsmen representing university in Team and Individual Events
differ significantly with respect to their level of Inter-Personal
Management (Others Emotions) component of Emotional Intelligence.
� Sportsmen representing university in Team and Individual Events differ
significantly with respect to their level of ‘Total Emotional Intelligence’.
1.5 DELIMITATION OF THE STUDY
The study had been delimited as stated below:
� Aggression levels of the sportsmen representing Himachal Pradesh
University Shimla were measured through aggression scale constructed
by Roma pal and Tasneem Nagavi (1980) consists 30 items.
� Anxiety levels of the sportsmen representing Himachal Pradesh
University Shimla were measured through Anxiety Test constructed by
A.K.P. Sinha and L.N.K. Sinha’s comprehensive anxiety test consists 90
items.
� Emotional Intelligence of the sportsmen representing Himachal Pradesh
University Shimla was measured through Emotional Intelligence
Inventory constructed by Dr.S.K. Mangal and Shubhra Mangal consisted
100 items.
� Only male sportsmen, who were representing Himachal Pradesh
University Shimla in team and individual events at inter-university level,
were selected for the investigation.
1.6 OPERATIONAL DEFINITION OF KEY TERMS
Terms used in the present study having different connotations may be
defined as under:-
� Aggression: Is behaviour directed towards the goal of having or injuring
another living being. The term seems to draw automatic associations and
produce positive or negative value judgements and emotional responses.
� Classification: The placement of individual into groups for a particular
purpose.
� Behaviour: Technically the observable activity of muscle and glands of
external secretion.
� Team Events: It refers to the players who representing university in
team sports events.
� Individual Events: It refers to the players who representing university in
the individual sports events.
� Anxiety: The term anxiety is also used to refer to a complex psychological
process in essence, the concept of anxiety as process implies a theory of
anxiety that includes stress as fundamental constructs.
� Emotion: The word emotion is a derivative of Latin word ‘emorer’ which
mean to excite or shudder. Thus emotion is a state of the individual which
deprives him equilibrium.
� Emotional Intelligence: It refers to the area of emotional experience and
behaviour
REFERENCES USED IN CHAPTER 1
Alderman, R.B. (1974) “Psychological Behaviour in Sports”. Philadelphia W.B.Saunders
Company.
Arnold ,M. (1960). “Emotion and Personality”. New York Columbia University Press.
Aronson, E. (1977) “The Social Animal”. San Francisco W.H. Freeman and co. Bandura (1956)
Aggression: A Social Learning Analysis. Englewood Cliffs, NJ : Prentice-Hall. Borrett,N.F.
(1950) Improving your Hockey (London: Faber and Catty. Faber Ltd.,) p. 11.B.J. (1989)
Psychology in Contemporary Sport (Third ed.) Englewood Cliffs, N.J. Prentice Hall.Brog,
G.(1998). Borg’s Percelved Exertion and Pain Scales.
Basu, J. (1991) “Study on Influence of Gender Stereotype on Projection of Aggression and
4.2 COMPARISON OF SPORTSMEN REPRESENTING UNIVERSITY
IN INDIVIDUAL AND TEAM EVENTS ON DIFFERENT
VARIABLES USING ‘T’-TEST
One of the objectives of the present study was to compare sportsmen
representing university in Individual and Team Events in respect to their means
on the variables of Aggression, Anxiety and Emotional Intelligence. To serve this
purpose, the use of t-test was made. The results of t-test in respects of the three
variables are presented as under.
4-2.1 Comparison of Sportsmen representing university in Team
and Individual Events with Respect to their Mean Scores
on the Variable of Anxiety
The t-value along with number, means, mean difference, standard
deviations and standard errors of means for two groups of sportsmen on the
variable of Anxiety is presented in Table 4.29.
Table 4.29: t-Value for Two Groups of Sportsmen on the Variable of Anxiety
Group N Mean Mean Diff. S.D. SEM ‘t’
Sportsmen
representing university in
Team Events
43 19.16
5.1
9.68 1.48
1.92 Sportsmen
representing university in
Individual Events
43 24.26 14.41 2.20
Not Significant at 0.05 Level
It is evident from Table 4.29 that the t-value for the means of two groups
of sportsmen on the variable of anxiety came out to be 1.92, which is not
significant at 0.05 level of confidence. This indicates that sportsmen representing
university in Team and Individual Events do not differ significantly with respect
to their mean scores on anxiety. Hence, the hypothesis that
“Sportsmen representing university in Team and Individual Events differ
significantly with respect to their mean scores on anxiety” is rejected.
From this, it may be inferred that sportsmen representing university in
Individual and Team Events exhibit more or less similar level of anxiety.
4-2.2 Comparison of Sportsmen representing university in Team
and Individual Events with Respect to their Mean Scores
on the Variable of Aggression
The t-value along with number, means, mean difference, standard
deviations and standard errors of means for two groups of sportsmen on the
variable of Aggression is presented in Table 4.30.
Table 4.30: t-Value for Two Groups of Sportsmen on the Variable of
Aggression
Group N Mean Mean
Diff.
S.D. SEM ‘t’
Sportsmen
representing university in
Team Events
43 72.16
5.28
10.62 1.62
1.66 Sportsmen
representing university in
Individual Events
43 77.44 17.97 2.74
Not Significant at 0.05 Level
It is evident from Table 4.30 that the t-value for the means of two groups
of sportsmen on the variable of aggression came out to be 1.66, which is not
significant at 0.05 level of confidence. This indicates that sportsmen representing
university in Team and Individual Events do not differ significantly with respect
to their mean scores on aggression. Hence, the hypothesis that “Sportsmen
representing university in Team and Individual Events differ significantly with
respect to their mean scores on aggression” is rejected.
From this, it may be inferred that sportsmen representing university in
Individual and Team Events exhibit more or less similar level of aggression.
4-2.3 Comparison of Sportsmen representing university in Team
and Individual Events with Respect to their Mean Scores
on “Intra-Personal Awareness (Own Emotions)”
Component of Emotional Intelligence
The t-value along with number, means, mean difference, standard
deviations and standard errors of means for two groups of sportsmen on “Intra-
Personal Awareness (Own Emotions)” component of Emotional Intelligence is
presented in Table 4.31.
Table 4.31: t-Value for Two Groups of Sportsmen on “Intra-Personal
Awareness (Own Emotions)” Component of Emotional Intelligence
Group N Mean Mean Diff. S.D. SEM ‘t’
Sportsmen
representing university in
Team Events
43 14.07
2.53
3.78 .58
3.14* Sportsmen
representing university in
Individual Events
43 16.60 3.71 .57
* Significant at 0.05 Level
It is evident from Table 4.31 that the t-value for the means of two groups
of sportsmen on “Intra-Personal Awareness (Own Emotions)” component of
Emotional Intelligence came out to be 3.14, which is significant at 0.05 level of
confidence. This indicates that sportsmen representing university in Team and
Individual Events differ significantly with respect to their mean scores on “Intra-
Personal Awareness (Own Emotions)” component of Emotional Intelligence.
Hence, the hypothesis that “Sportsmen representing university in Team and
Individual Events differ significantly with respect to their mean scores on Intra-
Personal Awareness (Own Emotions) component of Emotional Intelligence” is
accepted.
It is revealed from Table 4.31 that the mean score on “Intra-Personal
Awareness (Own Emotions)” component of Emotional Intelligence for sportsmen
representing university in Individual Events is higher in comparison to their
counterparts representing university in Team Events. From this, it may be
inferred that sportsmen representing university in Individual Events exhibit
superior emotional intelligence as far as its component of “Intra-Personal
Awareness (Own Emotions)” is concerned.
4-2.4 Comparison of Sportsmen representing university in Team
and Individual Events with Respect to their Mean Scores
on “Inter-Personal Awareness (Others Emotions)”
Component of Emotional Intelligence
The t-value along with number, means, mean difference, standard
deviations and standard errors of means for two groups of sportsmen on “Inter-
Personal Awareness (Others Emotions)” component of Emotional Intelligence is
presented in Table 4.32.
Table 4.32: t-Value for Two Groups of Sportsmen on “Inter-Personal
Awareness (Others Emotions)” Component of Emotional Intelligence
Group N Mean Mean Diff. S.D. SEM ‘t’
Sportsmen
representing
university in
Team Events
43 13.02
1.98
4.09 .62
2.44* Sportsmen
representing
university in
Individual Events
43 15.00 3.39 .52
* Significant at 0.05 Level
It is evident from Table 4.32 that the t-value for the means of two groups
of sportsmen on “Inter-Personal Awareness (Others Emotions)” component of
Emotional Intelligence came out to be 2.44, which is significant at 0.05 level of
confidence. This indicates that sportsmen representing university in Team and
Individual Events differ significantly with respect to their mean scores on “Inter-
Personal Awareness (Others Emotions)” component of Emotional Intelligence.
Hence, the hypothesis that “Sportsmen representing university in Team and
Individual Events differ significantly with respect to their mean scores on Inter-
Personal Awareness (Others Emotions) component of Emotional Intelligence” is
accepted.
It is revealed from Table 4.32 that the mean score on “Inter-Personal
Awareness (Others Emotions)” component of Emotional Intelligence for
sportsmen representing university in Individual Events is higher in comparison
to their counterparts representing university in Team Events. From this, it may
be inferred that sportsmen representing university in Individual Events exhibit
superior emotional intelligence as far as its component of “Inter-Personal
Awareness (Others Emotions)” is concerned.
4-2.5 Comparison of Sportsmen representing university in Team
and individual Events with Respect to their Mean Scores on
“Intra Personal Management (Own Emotions)” Component
of Emotional Intelligence
The t-value along with number, means, mean difference, standard
deviations and standard errors of means for two groups of sportsmen on “Intra-
Personal Management (Own Emotions)” component of Emotional Intelligence is
presented in Table 4.33.
Table 4.33: t-Value for Two Groups of Sportsmen on “Intra-Personal
Management (Own Emotions)” Component of Emotional Intelligence
Group N Mean Mean Diff. S.D. SEM ‘t’
Sportsmen
representing university in
Team Events
43 14.26
4.25
4.27 .65
5.34* Sportsmen
representing university in
Individual Events
43 18.51 3.00 .46
* Significant at 0.05 Level
It is evident from Table 4.33 that the t-value for the means of two groups
of sportsmen on “Intra-Personal Management (Own Emotions)” component of
Emotional Intelligence came out to be 5.34, which is significant at 0.05 level of
confidence. This indicates that sportsmen participating in Team and Individual
Events differ significantly with respect to their mean scores on “Intra-Personal
Management (Own Emotions)” component of Emotional Intelligence. Hence, the
hypothesis that “Sportsmen representing university in Team and Individual Events
differ significantly with respect to their mean scores on Intra-Personal
Management (Own Emotions) component of Emotional Intelligence” is accepted.
It is revealed from Table 4.33 that the mean score on “Intra-Personal
Management (Own Emotions)” component of Emotional Intelligence for
sportsmen representing university in Individual Events is higher in comparison
to their counterparts representing university in Team Events. From this, it may
be inferred that sportsmen representing university in Individual Events exhibit
superior emotional intelligence as far as its component of “Intra-Personal
Management (Own Emotions)” is concerned.
4-2.6 Comparison of Sportsmen representing university in Team
Individual Events with Respect to their Mean Scores on
“Inter-Personal Management (Others Emotions)”
Component of Emotional Intelligence
The t-value along with number, means, mean difference, standard
deviations and standard errors of means for two groups of sportsmen on “Inter-
Personal Management (Others Emotions)” component of Emotional Intelligence
is presented in Table 4.34.
Table 4.34: t-Value for Two Groups of Sportsmen on “Inter-Personal
Management (Others Emotions)” Component of Emotional Intelligence
Group N Mean Mean Diff. S.D. SEM ‘t’
Sportsmen
representing university in
Team Events
43 12.72
1.77
3.95 .60
2.45* Sportsmen
representing university in
Individual Events
43 14.49 2.58 .39
* Significant at 0.05 Level
It is evident from Table 4.34 that the t-value for the means of two groups
of sportsmen on “Inter-Personal Management (Others Emotions)” component of
Emotional Intelligence came out to be 2.45, which is significant at 0.05 level of
confidence. This indicates that sportsmen representing university in Team and
Individual Events differ significantly with respect to their mean scores on “Inter-
Personal Management (Others Emotions)” component of Emotional Intelligence.
Hence, the hypothesis that “Sportsmen representing university in Team and
Individual Events differ significantly with respect to their mean scores on Inter-
Personal Management (Others Emotions) component of Emotional Intelligence” is
accepted.
It is revealed from Table 4.34 that the mean score on “Inter-Personal
Management (Others Emotions)” component of Emotional Intelligence for
sportsmen representing university in Individual Events is higher in comparison
to their counterparts representing university in Team Events. From this, it may
be inferred that sportsmen representing university in Individual Events exhibit
superior emotional intelligence as far as its component of “Inter-Personal
Management (Others Emotions)” is concerned.
4-2.7 Comparison of Sportsmen representing university in Team
and Individual Events with Respect to their Mean Scores
on Total Emotional Intelligence
The t-value along with number, means, mean difference, standard
deviations and standard errors of means for two groups of sportsmen on
Emotional Intelligence is presented in Table 4.35.
Table 4.35: t-Value for Two Groups of Sportsmen on Total Emotional
Intelligence
Group N Mean Mean Diff. S.D. SEM ‘t’
Sportsmen
representing university in
Team Events
43 54.30
10.37
12.21 1.86
4.58* Sportsmen
representing university in
Individual Events
43 64.67 8.45 1.29
* Significant at 0.05 Level
It is evident from Table 4.35 that the t-value for the means of two groups
of sportsmen on Emotional Intelligence came out to be 4.58, which is significant
at 0.01 level of confidence. This indicates that sportsmen representing university
in Team and Individual Events differ significantly with respect to their mean
scores on Emotional Intelligence. Hence, the hypothesis that “Sportsmen
representing university in Team and Individual Events differ significantly with
respect to their mean scores on “Emotional Intelligence” is accepted.
It is revealed from Table 4.35 that the mean score on Emotional
Intelligence for sportsmen representing university in Individual Events is higher
in comparison to their counterparts representing university in Team Events.
From this, it may be inferred that sportsmen representing university in
Individual Events exhibit superior emotional intelligence.
CHAPTER 5
SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Present world is scientific world. There is no denying the fact that man
has covered a long journey starting from caves to big sky scrapers man has left
no stone unturned to reach height but as it has been proved that in order to gain
something we have to pay a price for it human being has paid a huge cost for this
development and is still in its way of Dearing the debt. Human beings have lost
their basic values. If we are winners at the materialistic front at the same time
we have lost the battle at the psychological level.
SUMMARY
If people sports are surveyed and asked to identify the characteristics of
successful athletes, anxiety, aggression and emotional intelligence would be high
on the list in sports; anxieties, aggressive and emotional behaviour have positive
meaning in popular culture. The successful athlete is often described as one who
is hungry, anxious, aggressive, and emotional, competitor on the other hand.
Teacher often describe trouble making or destructive students as anxious,
aggressive, and emotional. But such behaviour in athletes is demanded by
coaches; it may be discouraged in students and be prohibited by teachers. The
last decade has evidenced renewed interest in the phenomenon of anxieties,
aggressive emotional intelligence in sports. Anxieties, aggressive and emotional
intelligence in sports have been investigated by many scholars from different
fields of behavioural science. Keeping in view the determining role of anxieties,
aggressiveness and emotional behaviour in competitive performance, the
investigator decided to undertake this study at the inter-university level team
events and individual events. The investigator is of the opinion that such a study
would not only reveal the phenomenon of anxiety, aggression and emotional
intelligence but also enable us to make overall assessments of inter-university
level teams and individual events with respect to variables like anxieties,
aggression and emotional intelligence.
To Summarise, Forty three teams and forty three individual events
players of various colleges has been taken the subjects for every variables who
have represented the Himachal Pradesh University in inter-University camps
2010-11.
1. Boxing camp held at Indira Gandhi sports complex Shimla.
2. Judo camp held at P.G.College Hmirpur.
3. Athletics camps held at P.G.College Hmirpur.
4. Cross-country camps held at govt. College Nalagarh.
5. Kabaddi camp held at P.G.College Bilaspur.
6. Cricket camp held at M.L.S.N.College Sunder Nager.
7. Hockey camp held at M.L.S.N.College Sunder Nager
5.1 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
Comparative Study of Anxiety, Aggression and Emotional Intelligence
among Team and Individual Sportsmen
5.2 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY
The results of the present study will help to identify anxiety, aggression
and emotional intelligence of sportsman representing university in team and
individual events. This will further help to identify sportsmen who may have
potential to be of high calibre. Competitive sports are full of challenges, so
youngsters taken to competitive sports must display the required psychological
attributes including aggression, anxiety and emotional intelligence to meet the
challenges successfully.
The variables anxiety, aggression and emotional intelligence need to be
studied properly, both from the theoretical and practical point of view. The
knowledge about the variables may enable the teacher and coaches to takes
decisions in their work with young players taking part at different levels and
train them in a proper way. The investigation can help the University coaches
who are attached with University camps to find out the talent and how to wide
out them so as to enable them to perform better in future in the teams and
individual games and find out the weakness of the sportsmen who are attending
the coaching camps.
5.3 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY
The following objectives lay down for the present study:
� To study the nature of distribution of scores for sportsmen representing university in Team events on the variables of ‘Anxiety’.
� To study the nature of distribution of scores for sportsmen representing university in Individual events on the variables of ‘Anxiety’.
� To study the nature of distribution of scores for sportsmen representing university in Team events on the variables of ‘Aggression’.
� To study the nature of distribution of scores for sportsmen representing university in Individual events on the variables of ‘Aggression’.
� To study the nature of distribution of scores for sportsmen representing university in Team events on the variables of ‘Intra-Personal Awareness (own emotions).
� To study the nature of distribution of scores for sportsmen representing university in Individual events on the variables of ‘Intra-Personal Awareness (own emotions).
� To study the nature of distribution of scores for sportsmen representing university in Team events on the variables of ‘Inter-Personal Awareness (others emotions).
� To study the nature of distribution of scores for sportsmen representing university in Individual events on the variables of ‘Inter-Personal Awareness (others emotions).
� To study the nature of distribution of scores for sportsmen representing university in Team events on the variables of ‘Intra-Personal Management (own emotions).
� To study the nature of distribution of scores for sportsmen representing university in Individual events on the variables of ‘Intra-Personal Management (own emotions).
� To study the nature of distribution of scores for sportsmen representing university in Team events on the variables of ‘Inter-Personal Management (others emotions).
� To study the nature of distribution of scores for sportsmen representing university in Individual events on the variables of ‘Inter-Personal Management (others emotions).
� To study the nature of distribution of scores for sportsmen representing university in Team events on the variables of ‘Total Emotional Intelligence’.
� To study the nature of distribution of scores for sportsmen representing university in Individual events on the variables of ‘Total Emotional Intelligence”.
� To compare the Sportsmen representing university in Team and Individual events with respect to their mean scores on the variables of Anxiety.
� To compare the Sportsmen representing university in Team and Individual events with respect to their mean scores on the variables of Aggression.
� To compare the Sportsmen representing university in Team and Individual events with respect to their mean scores on the variables of Intra-Personal Awareness (own emotions).
� To compare the Sportsmen representing university in Team and Individual events with respect to their mean scores on the variables of Inter-Personal Awareness (others emotions).
� To compare the Sportsmen representing university in Team and Individual events with respect to their mean scores on the variables of Intra-Personal Management (own emotions).
� To compare the Sportsmen representing university in Team and Individual events with respect to their mean scores on the variables of Inter-Personal Management (others emotions).
� To compare the Sportsmen representing university in Team and Individual events with respect to their mean scores on the variables of ‘Total Emotional Intelligence’.
5.4 HYPOTHESES
The following hypotheses are formulated which will be tested in the
present study:
� The Sportsmen representing university in Team and Individual Events
differ significantly with respect to their level of Anxiety.
� The Sportsmen representing university in Team and Individual Events
differ significantly with respect to their level of Aggression.
� The Sportsmen representing university in Team and Individual Events
differ significantly with respect to their level of Intra-Personal Awareness
(Own Emotions) component of Emotional Intelligence.
� The Sportsmen representing university in Team and Individual Events
differ significantly with respect to their level of Inter-Personal Awareness
(Others Emotions) component of Emotional Intelligence.
� The Sportsmen representing university in Team and Individual Events
differ significantly with respect to their level of Intra-Personal
Management (Own Emotions) component of Emotional Intelligence.
� The Sportsmen representing university in Team and Individual Events
differ significantly with respect to their level of Inter-Personal
Management (Others Emotions) component of Emotional Intelligence.
� Sportsmen representing university in Team and Individual Events differ
significantly with respect to their level of “Emotional Intelligence”.
5.5 DELIMITATION OF THE STUDY
The study had been delimited as stated below:
� Aggression levels of the sportsmen representing Himachal Pradesh
University Shimla were measured through aggression scale constructed
by Roma pal and Tasneem Nagavi (1980) consists 30 items.
� Anxiety levels of the sportsmen representing Himachal Pradesh
University Shimla were measured through Anxiety Test constructed by
A.K.P. Sinha and L.N.K. Sinha’s comprehensive anxiety test consists 90
items.
� Emotional Intelligence of the sportsmen representing Himachal Pradesh
University Shimla was measured through Emotional Intelligence
Inventory constructed by Dr.S.K. Mangal and Shubhra Mangal consisted
100 items.
� Only male sportsmen, who were representing Himachal Pradesh
University Shimla in team and individual events at inter-university level,
were selected for the investigation.
5.6 OPERATIONAL DEFINITION OF KEY TERMS
Terms used in the present study having different connotations may be
defined as under:-
� Aggression: Is behaviour directed towards the goal of having or injuring
another living being. The term seems to draw automatic associations and
produce positive or negative value judgements and emotional responses.
� Classification: The placement of individual into groups for a particular
purpose.
� Behaviour: Technically the observable activity of muscle and glands of
external secretion.
� Team Events: It refers to the players who representing university in
team sports events.
� Individual Events: It refers to the players who representing university in
the individual sports events.
� Anxiety: The term anxiety is also used to refer to a complex psychological
process in essence, the concept of anxiety as process implies a theory of
anxiety that includes stress as fundamental constructs.
� Emotion: The word emotion is a derivative of Latin word ‘emorer’ which
mean to excite or shudder. Thus emotion is a state of the individual which
deprives him equilibrium.
� Emotional Intelligence: It refers to the area of emotional experience and
behaviour.
5.7 LIMITATION OF THE STUDY
The following had the Limitation of the study
� The present study is limited to the university campers of team and
individual games players.
� The present study is limited to senior players of the teams and individual
games.
� The factor such as socio-economic status, family environment, health
status, health status, etc. the subject were not controlled.
� The questionnaire itself has some limitations which served as limitations
of the study.
5.8 SAMPLING
The samples for the present study included all male sportsmen who were
selected to representing, the Himachal Pradesh University Shimla in inter-
university level tournaments in various team and individual sports events.
For this purpose first of all two groups were selected.
1). Team events
2). Individual events.
5.9 TOOLS USED
The following tool was used to investigate the variable selected for the
purpose of the study:
1). To measure the anxiety test (SCAT) constructed by the A.K.P.Sinha and
L.N.K.Sinha was administered (1980).
2). To measure the aggression level the aggression scale constructed by
Roma pal and Tasneem Naque (1980) was administered.
3). To measure the emotional intelligence, the emotional intelligence
inventory constructed by Dr.S.K.Mangal and Dr.Subhra Mangal. (1971)
was administered
5.10 ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATIONS OF DATA
The investigator has employed ‘t’ test.
1). The data pertaining to Aggression, Anxiety and Emotional intelligence
were analysed for the two groups of sport’s man on the base of given
respective manual.
2). Significant difference in Aggression, Anxiety and Emotional intelligence
towards physical activity and two groups of sport’s men were determined
through ‘t’ test.
5.11 CONCLUSIONS
On the basis of analysis and interpretation of data, following conclusions
may be drawn for the present study:
1. The scores on Anxiety for the sportsmen representing university in team
events were spread over a range of 36, minimum and maximum being 2
and 38. The mean and standard deviation for the scores on Anxiety came
out to be 19.16 and 9.68 respectively. Further, the Kurtosis and Skewness
for the distribution was -0.75and 0.3 respectively. Further 17 (39.6%)
sportsmen fell between the scores 15 to 24. The rest of the sportsmen
were more or less evenly distributed below and above this range.
On comparing the scores with the norms given in the manual of the test,
the sportsmen representing university in team events were grouped on
the basis of anxiety as under.
Group Level of Anxiety No. of Sportsmen
1 Extremely High Anxiety 8
2 High Anxiety 7
3 Normal Anxiety Level 14
4 Low Anxiety 4
5 Extremely low Anxiety 10
Total 43
2. The scores on anxiety for the sportsmen representing university in
individual events were spread over a range of 59, minimum and
maximum being 2 and 61. The mean and standard deviation for the scores
on Anxiety came out to be 24.26 and 14.41 respectively. Further, the
Kurtosis and Skewness for the distribution was -0.22 and 0.53
respectively.
Further reveals that the scores on anxiety among sportsmen representing
university in individual events were not concentrated over a specific scores
range. Rather the scores were more or less evenly distributed in all the class
intervals.
On comparing the scores with the norms given in the manual of the test,
the sportsmen representing university in individual events were grouped on the
basis of anxiety as under.
Group Level of Anxiety No. of Sportsmen
1 Extremely High Anxiety 14
2 High Anxiety 5
3 Normal Anxiety Level 12
4 Low Anxiety 2
5 Extremely low Anxiety 10
Total 43
3. The scores on Aggression for the sportsmen representing university in
team events were spread over a range of 46, minimum and maximum
being 49 and 95. The mean and standard deviation for the scores on
Aggression came out to be 72.16 and 10.62 respectively. Further, the
Kurtosis and Skewness for the distribution was -0.21 and 0.3 respectively.
Further reveals that 22 (51.2%) sportsmen fell between the scores 70 to
79. The rest of the sportsmen were more or less evenly distributed below
and above this range.
On comparing the scores with the norms given in the manual of the test,
the sportsmen representing university in team events were grouped on the basis
of aggression as under.
4. The scores on Aggression for the sportsmen representing university in
Individual events were spread over a range of 92, minimum and
maximum being 23 and 115. The mean and standard deviation for the
scores on Aggression came out to be 77.44 and 17.96 respectively.
Further, the Kurtosis and Skewness for the distribution was 1.1 and -0.45
respectively. Further reveals that 19 (44.2%) sportsmen fell between the
scores 75 to 89. The rest of the sportsmen were more or less evenly
distributed below and above this range.
Group Level of Aggression No. of Sportsmen
1 The Saturated 0
2 The High 1
3 The Average Level 35
4 The Low 7
5 The Clean 0
Total 43
On comparing the scores with the norms given in the manual of the test,
the sportsmen representing university in individual events were grouped on the
basis of aggression as under.
5. The scores on Intra-Personal Awareness (own emotions) Component of
Emotional Intelligence for the sportsmen representing university in team
events were spread over a range of 17, minimum and maximum being 4
and 21. The mean and standard deviation for the scores on Intra-Personal
Awareness (own emotions) Component of Emotional Intelligence came
out to be 14.07 and 3.78 respectively. Further, the Kurtosis and Skewness
for the distribution was -0.29 and -0.28 respectively. Further reveals that
39 (90.7%) sportsmen fell between the scores 10 to 19. The rest of the
sportsmen were more or less evenly distributed below and above this
range.
Group Level of Aggression No. of Sportsmen
1 The Saturated 3
2 The High 6
3 The Average Level 25
4 The Low 8
5 The Clean 1
Total 43
On comparing the scores with the norms given in the manual of the test,
the sportsmen representing university in team events were grouped on the basis
of intra-personal awareness (own emotions) component of emotional
intelligence as under.
Group Intra-personal awareness
(own emotions)
No. of Sportsmen
1 Very Good 0
2 Good 2
3 Average Level 19
4 Poor 20
5 Very Poor 2
Total 43
6. The scores on Intra-Personal Awareness (own emotions) Component of
Emotional Intelligence for the sportsmen representing university in
individual events were spread over a range of 13, minimum and
maximum being 7 and 20. The mean and standard deviation for the scores
on Intra-Personal Awareness (own emotions) Component of Emotional
Intelligence came out to be 16.60 and 3.39 respectively. Further, the
Kurtosis and Skewness for the distribution was -0.37 and -0.32
respectively. Further reveals that 24(55.8%) sportsmen fell between the
scores 15 to 19. The rest of the sportsmen were more or less evenly
distributed below and above this range.
On comparing the scores with the norms given in the manual of the test,
the sportsmen representing university in individual events were grouped on the
basses of intra-personal awareness (own emotions) component of emotional
intelligence as under.
Group Intra-personal awareness
(own emotions)
No. of Sportsmen
1 Very Good 1
2 Good 9
3 Average Level 24
4 Poor 7
5 Very Poor 2
Total 43
7. The scores on Inter-Personal Awareness (others emotions) Component of
Emotional Intelligence for the sportsmen representing university in team
events were spread over a range of 15, minimum and maximum being 5
and 20. The mean and standard deviation for the scores on Inter-Personal
Awareness (others emotions) Component of Emotional Intelligence came
out to be 13.2 and 4.9 respectively. Further, the Kurtosis and Skewness
for the distribution was -1.7 and -0.19 respectively. Further reveals that
33(76.7%) sportsmen fall between the scores 10 to 19. The rest of the
sportsmen are more or less evenly distributed below and above this
range.
On comparing the scores with the norms given in the manual of the test,
the sportsmen representing university in team events were grouped on the basis
of inter-personal awareness (others emotions) component of emotional
intelligence as under.
Group Inter-personal awareness
(others emotions)
No. of Sportsmen
1 Very Good 0
2 Good 1
3 Average Level 20
4 Poor 14
5 Very Poor 8
Total 43
8. The scores on Inter-Personal Awareness (others emotions) Component of
Emotional Intelligence for the sportsmen representing university in
individual events were spread over a range of 13, minimum and
maximum being 7 and 20. The mean and standard deviation for the scores
on Inter-Personal Awareness (others emotions) Component of Emotional
Intelligence came out to be 15.00 and 3.39 respectively. Further, the
Kurtosis and Skewness for the distribution was -0.37 and -0.32
respectively. Further reveals that 37(86.1%) sportsmen fell between the
scores 10 to 19. The rest of the sportsmen were more or less evenly
distributed below and above this range.
On comparing the scores with the norms given in the manual of the test,
the sportsmen representing university in individual events were grouped on the
basis of inter-personal awareness (others emotions) component of emotional
intelligence as under.
9. The scores on Intra-Personal Management (own emotions) component of
Emotional Intelligence among Sportsmen representing university in Team
Events were spread over a range of 18, minimum and maximum being 3
and 21. The mean and standard deviation for the scores on Intra-Personal
management (others emotions) Component of Emotional Intelligence
came out to be 14.26 and 4.27 respectively. Further, the Kurtosis and
Skewness for the distribution was -0.51 and -0.36 respectively. Further
reveals that 32(74.4%) sportsmen fell between the scores 10 to 19. The
rest of the sportsmen were more or less evenly distributed below and
above this range.
Group Inter-personal awareness
(others emotions)
No. of Sportsmen
1 Very Good 0
2 Good 4
3 Average Level 21
4 Poor 16
5 Very Poor 2
Total 43
On comparing the scores with the norms given in the manual of the test,
the sportsmen representing university in team events were grouped on the basis
of intra-personal management (own emotions) component of emotional
intelligence as under.
Group Intra-personal management
(own emotions )
No. of Sportsmen
1 Very Good 0
2 Good 1
3 Average Level 21
4 Poor 9
5 Very Poor 12
Total 43
10. The scores on Intra-Personal Management (own emotions) component of
Emotional Intelligence among Sportsmen representing university in
Individual Events were spread over a range of 13, minimum and
maximum being 10 and 23. The mean and standard deviation for the
scores on Intra-Personal management (own emotions) Component of
Emotional Intelligence came out to be 18.51 and 3.00 respectively.
Further, the Kurtosis and Skewness for the distribution was 0.12 and -
0.52 respectively. Further reveals that 22(51.2%) sportsmen fell between
the scores 15 to 19. The rest of the sportsmen were more or less evenly
distributed below and above this range.
On comparing the scores with the norms given in the manual of the test,
the sportsmen representing university in individual events were grouped on the
basis of intra-personal management (own emotions) component of emotional
intelligence as under.
Group Intra-personal management (own
emotions )
No. of Sportsmen
1 Very Good 0
2 Good 11
3 Average Level 28
4 Poor 3
5 Very Poor 1
Total 43
11. The scores on Inter-Personal Management (others emotions) component
of Emotional Intelligence among Sportsmen representing university in
Team Events were spread over a range of 17, minimum and maximum
being 4 and 21. The mean and standard deviation for the scores on Inter-
Personal management (others emotions) Component of Emotional
Intelligence came out to be 12.72 and 3.95 respectively. Further, the
Kurtosis and Skewness for the distribution was 0.43 and -0.69
respectively. Further reveals that 32(74.5%) sportsmen fell between the
scores 10 to 19. The rest of the sportsmen were more or less evenly
distributed below and above this range.
On comparing the scores with the norms given in the manual of the test,
the sportsmen representing university in team events were grouped on the basis
of inter-personal management (others emotions) component of emotional
intelligence as under.
12. The scores on Inter-Personal Management (others emotions) component
of Emotional Intelligence among Sportsmen representing university in
Individual Events were spread over a range of 12, minimum and
maximum being 7 and 19. The mean and standard deviation for the scores
on Inter-Personal management (others emotions) Component of
Emotional Intelligence came out to be 14.49 and 2.58 respectively.
Further, the Kurtosis and Skewness for the distribution was 0.50 and 0.66
respectively. Further reveals that 41(95.3%) sportsmen fell in the scores
10 to 19. The rest of the sportsmen were less evenly distributed below
this range.
Group Inter-personal management
(others emotions )
No. of Sportsmen
1 Very Good 0
2 Good 1
3 Average Level 14
4 Poor 17
5 Very Poor 11
Total 43
On comparing the scores with the norms given in the manual of the test,
the sportsmen representing university in individual events were grouped on the
basis of inter-personal management (others emotions) component of emotional
intelligence as under.
Group Inter-personal management
(others emotions )
No. of Sportsmen
1 Very Good 0
2 Good 0
3 Average Level 21
4 Poor 20
5 Very Poor 2
Total 43
13. The scores on Total Emotional Intelligence among Sportsmen
representing university in Team Events were spread over a range of 45,
minimum and maximum being 29 and 74. The mean and standard
deviation for the scores on total Emotional Intelligence came out to be
54.30 and 12.21 respectively. Further, the Kurtosis and Skewness for the
distribution was 0.54 and 0.63 respectively. Further reveals that
21(48.9%) sportsmen fell in the scores 50 to 64. The rest of the
sportsmen were more or less evenly distributed below and above this
range.
On comparing the scores with the norms given in the manual of the test,
the sportsmen representing university in team events were grouped on the
basses of total emotional intelligence as under.
Group Total Emotional Intelligence No. of Sportsmen
1 Very Good 0
2 Good 0
3 Average Level 12
4 Poor 20
5 Very Poor 11
Total 43
14. The scores on Total Emotional Intelligence among Sportsmen
representing university in Individual Events were spread over a range of
34, minimum and maximum being 46 and 80. The mean and standard
deviation for the scores on total Emotional Intelligence came out to be
64.68 and 8.44 respectively. Further, the Kurtosis and Skewness for the
distribution was -0.30 and -0.26 respectively. Further reveals that
23(53.5%) sportsmen fell in the scores 60 to 69. The rest of the
sportsmen were more or less evenly distributed below and above this
range.
On comparing the scores with the norms given in the manual of the test,
the sportsmen representing university in individual events were grouped on the
basses of total emotional intelligence as under.
Group Total Emotional Intelligence No. of Sportsmen
1 Very Good 0
2 Good 4
3 Average Level 9
4 Poor 28
5 Very Poor 2
Total 43
15. Sportsmen representing university in Individual and Team Events exhibit
more or less similar level of anxiety.
16. Sportsmen representing university in Individual and Team Events exhibit
more or less similar level of aggression.
17. Sportsmen representing university in Individual Events exhibit superior
emotional intelligence as far as its component of “Intra-Personal
Awareness (Own Emotions)” were concerned.
18. Sportsmen representing university in Individual Events exhibit superior
emotional intelligence as far as its component of “Inter-Personal
Awareness (Others Emotions)” were concerned.
19. Sportsmen representing university in Individual Events exhibit superior
emotional intelligence as far as its component of “Intra-Personal
Management (Own Emotions)” were concerned.
20. Sportsmen representing university in Individual Events exhibit superior
emotional intelligence as far as its component of “Inter-Personal
Management (Others Emotions)” were concerned.
21. Sportsmen representing university in Individual Events exhibit superior
emotional intelligence.
5.12 EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATIONS
The findings of the present study have obvious applied implications for physical
education and sports in our country. Sportsmen /women, participating in
various categories of sports activities, express significant variations in their
psyche. Sport participation helps in increasing the crystallized adjustment and
managed anxiety, aggression and emotional intelligence that further contribute
to better performance.
Anxiety, Aggression and Emotional Intelligence are highly related to
performance in sports and games. Anxiety, Aggressiveness and Emotional
Intelligence contribute to increment in sports capacity in one category of games
while the same may not help or moderate quantity of anxiety, aggression and
emotional intelligence are essential for sportsmen/women irrespective of their
participation in varied and sometimes opposing sports categories.
This study assumes significance in view of the anxiety, aggression and
emotional intelligence among the team and individual sportsmen of Himachal
Pradesh University Shimla. It has been suggested that team and individual
sportsmen with respect of findings of the present study there are clear linkages
of the variables of perceived impact of life changes. The finding also suggested
that on anxiety, aggression and emotional intelligence individual sportsmen
were high on mean scores. The two variables anxiety and aggression not finding
the significant difference but differ on mean scores. These finding can lead to
indigenous intervention package for coaches belonging to University teams.
Research evidence revealed the level of anxiety, aggression and
emotional intelligence among team and individual sportsmen. These
psychological factors are important in the field of coaching and performance. It is
clear from the review of related literature that anxiety, aggression and emotional
intelligence played significance role in sports performance. The study may help
in developing efficient coaching performance considering the above component
of the psychology in the field of physical education.
5.13 SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER STUDIES
On the base of present study the investigator has recommendations for
further study
i) A similar kind of study may be conducted on the male inter-college teams
and individual events.
ii) A similar kind of study may be conducted on the male national levels
teams and individual events.
iii) A similar kind of study may be conducted on the male state levels teams
and individual events.
iv) A similar kind of study may be conducted on the male district levels teams
and individual events
vi) A similar kind of study may be conducted on the female inter-college
levels teams and individual events.
vii) A similar kind of study may be conducted on the female national levels
teams and individual events.
viii) A similar kind of study may be conducted on the female state levels teams
and individual events.
ix) A similar kind of study may be conducted on the female inter- university
levels teams and individual events.
x) A similar kind of study may be conducted on the female district levels
teams and individual events.
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