Comp Question 3 (March 10)

Running Head: COMP QUESTION 3 1

The School of Education and Urban Studies

A Written Response to Comprehensive Examination

Question 3

For the Requirements for the Degree

Doctor of Philosophy in Higher Education Administration

Reginald Mathes

Morgan State University

COMP QUESTION 3 2

Executive Summary

There is a significant debate in the literature regarding qualitative and

quantitative research methods (Creswell, 2011). The debate in the literature provides

assumptions from epistemological and ontological views and ultimately calls for

researchers to consider a mixed methods approach. The purpose of this analysis is to

compare and contrast quantitative and qualitative research methodologies from an

ontological and epistemological perspectives. In addition, the purpose of this analysis is

to show the relative strengths and weaknesses of each general approach. Also, within

this analyses, I illuminate why phenomenology is best suited for my study regarding the

lived experiences of African – American students at PWIs.

Furthermore, this analysis provides readers with an understanding of how I would

approach my investigation from a quantitative approach. In regards to a

phenomenological approach, I discuss my choice of research designs as well as my

particular strategies of data analyses and data collection I will use. The procedures that

I will utilize to assist me with investigating the lived experiences of African – American

students at PWIs are revealed as well. Lastly, this analysis illuminates the processes of

gathering, interpretation of findings, my role as the researcher, validity, reliability, and

trustworthiness that my study will encounter.

COMP QUESTION 3 3

Table of Contents

Executive Summary ………………………………………………………………………… 2

Introduction ………………………………………………………………………………….. 4

Ontological and Epistemological Perspectives ………………………………………….. 5

Epistemological Assumptions ……………………………………………………… 6

Interpretivism ……………………………………………………………………….. 6

Positivism …………………………………………………………………………….7

Ontological Assumptions ………………………………………………………………….. 8

Constructivism ……………………………………………………………………….9

Objectivism …………………………………………………………………………. 9

Strengthens and Weaknesses of Quantitative and Qualitative Research ……... 9 – 12

A Quantitative Approach …………………………………………………………………..12

Selecting Comparison Groups ……………………………………………………13

Data Collection ……………………………………………………………………..13

Data Analysis ……………………………………………………………………… 14

Interpretations and Findings …………………………………………………….. 14

A Qualitative Phenomenological Approach ……………………………………………. 15

Phenomenology ……………………………………………………………………15

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Procedures ……………………………………………………………………….. 16

Data Collection …………………………………………………………………… 17

Data Analysis ………………………………………………………………………17

Validity …………………………………………………………………………………….. 18

Peer Critiques …………………………………………………………………….. 18

Structure Resonance …………………………………………………………….. 19

Participant Verification …………………………………………………………… 19

Trustworthiness …………………………………………………………………… 20

Reliability …………………………………………………………………………………... 21

References ………………………………………………………………………………… 22

COMP QUESTION 3 5

In order to define, discover and understand social phenomena, researchers

within social science use different research methodologies. These methodologies are

generally subdivided into quantitative and qualitative research methodologies. This

analysis will discuss the scholarship in the methodology literature and compare and

contrast quantitative and qualitative research methodologies from an ontological

perspective and an epistemological perspective. In addition, I discuss the relative

strengths and weaknesses of each general approach. I contend that my research

investigation regarding the lived experiences of African – American students at PWIs is

best suited for qualitative research because qualitative inquiry represents a valid mode

of social and human science investigation, without apology or comparisons to

quantitative research (Creswell, 2013). Moreover, I contend that qualitative research is

best suited for my inquiry regarding the lived experiences of African-American students

because qualitative research is the study of human behavior (Creswell, 2013).

Furthermore, I contend that a phenomenological qualitative research inquiry is

best suited for my investigation of African – American students at PWIs because the

aim of research practice should be to focus on understanding the meaning that events

have for the individuals being studied. Research suggest that understanding these

meanings is the reasons quantitative researchers have shifted from quantitative inquiry

to qualitative inquiry over the last decades (Tuli, 2010). According to Tuli (2010)

quantitative research was not assisting social scientist with understanding why things

are the way they are in the social world and why people act the ways they do. As a

consequence of this academic debate quests have emerged on both sides of the

research paradigms. Therefore, I presume that qualitative research is more beneficial

COMP QUESTION 3 6

for my investigation of the lived experiences of African – American students because it

will allow me to better understand why White faculty, staff, and students at PWIs treat

African – American students the way research has illuminated.

Ontological and Epistemological Perspectives of Quantitative and Qualitative

Research

Qualitative and Quantitative researchers make dissimilar epistemological

assumptions about the nature of scientific knowledge and how to obtain it. Research

suggest that if you favor one set of assumptions, you will conduct one type of

educational research. In contrast, if you favor another set of assumptions, you will

conduct a different type (Gall, Gall, & Borg, 2007). Epistemological and Ontological

assumptions highlight the fact that the two types of research differ in the nature of the

data that are collected. Quantitative research is practically synonymous with positivist

research. In contrast, qualitative research is virtually synonymous with constructivist

research (Shank, 2002).

Ontology is referred to as the study of being (Crotty, 2003). Ontological

questions in social science inquiry are linked to the nature of reality (Tuli, 2010). In

contrast, epistemology is referred to as the study of efforts to gain philosophical

understanding or knowledge of the nature and scope of human knowledge (Gall, Gall, &

Borg, 2007). In regards to ontological assumptions and quantitative research

ontological assumptions contribute to objectivism for quantitative research strategies

(Bahari, 2010). After reviewing the literature on quantitative and qualitative research

methods, I discovered that it is essential for researchers to understand the philosophies

of quantitative and qualitative research paradigms because it can help clarify research

designs. In addition, research suggest that an understanding of the philosophies of

COMP QUESTION 3 7

quantitative and qualitative research assist social scientist and educational researchers

about which design will actually work for their particular study.

Furthermore, qualitative research and quantitative research are distinct in several

aspects. For example, qualitative researchers usually make knowledge claims based

on constructivist perspectives (Creswell, 2011). In contrast, quantitative research

focuses on the question of scale or depth (Bryman, 2006). Therefore, qualitative and

quantitative research approaches are inconsumable in regards to their paradigms and

worldviews and reflect epistemological and ontological assumptions (Creswell, 2003).

Moreover, research suggest that the principle orientation to the role of theory in relation

to research qualitative research focuses on inductive generation of theory. In

dissimilarity, the principle orientation to the role of theory in relation to research within

the quantitative paradigm focuses on deductive testing of theory (Bryman, 2007).

Epistemological Assumptions

Interpretivism. While reviewing the literature on the quantitative and qualitative

research paradigms, I discovered that the epistemological orientation of qualitative

research is interpretivism and the epistemological orientation of quantitative research is

positivism. Interpretivism refers to the immediate and local meanings of social actions.

In fact, Bahari (2010) states “interpretivism is an epistemology that it is necessary for

the researchers to understand differences between humans in our role as social actors”

(p.22). In fact, Bahari (2010) contends that interpretivism is also associated with

phenomenology. Therefore, I will consider myself an interpretivist since I will be

conducting research on the lived experiences of African – American students at PWIs.

COMP QUESTION 3 8

Gall, Gall, and Gorg (2007) contend that interpretivism is also consistent with

constructivist epistemology. In regards to quantitative research Gall, Gall, and Borg

(2007) refer to positivism as the epistemological doctrine that physical and social reality

is independent of those who observe it, and that observations of this reality if unbiased,

constitute scientific knowledge. However, the weaknesses associated with positivism

as an epistemology have caused social science researchers to adopt the epistemology

of postpositivism.

Positivism. Positivism assumes that that there are social facts with an objective

reality apart from the beliefs of individuals (Bahari, 2010). Positivist believe that

knowledge is only of significance if it is based on observations of this external reality.

Therefore, if I was conducting research on the lived experiences of African – American

students at PWIs, I would believe the social the social world exist externally.

In addition, if I was conducting a quantitative study regarding the lived

experiences of African – American students at PWIs, I would conduct my research

independently and the properties of my research would be measured through objective

methods. For example, these methods may consist of experimental testing of theory or

hypothesis. Moreover, I would believe that there is a clear cut relationship between

things and events in the outside world and peoples knowledge of them (Staiton-Rogers,

2006). If I was conducting research regarding the lived experiences of African –

American students at PWIs in a quantitative paradigm and using a positivist

philosophical assumption, I would attempt to explain and predict what happens in the

social world by searching regularities and causal relationships between its constituent

COMP QUESTION 3 9

elements. As a quantitative researcher and a positivist, my views would be influenced

by the logic of experimental designs derived from natural science.

Ontological Assumptions

Constructivism. As a constructivist, my views of social life are the product of

social interactions and the beliefs of the social actors. Therefore, my approach to the

lived experiences of African – American students at PWIs a phenomenological

qualitative approach. Constructivism refers to beliefs that social phenomena is created

from the perceptions and the following actions of those social actors concerned with

their existence (Saunders et al., 2007). Bahari (2010) states “the core of ontological

assumptions on subjectivist approaches to social science is that reality is a projection of

human imagination” (p. 24). Therefore, as a constructivist conducting qualitative

research on the lived experiences of African – American students at PWIs, I oppose the

epistemological position to positivism by presuming that social reality is constructed by

the individual who participate in it. Furthermore, as a constructivist I plan on interacting

with a specific environment that is both physical and social (Gall, Gall, & Borg, 2007).

Furthermore, Gall, Gall, and Borg (2007) contend that constructivism is an

opposing epistemological position to positivism and it’s grounded on the assumption

that social reality is constructed by the individuals who participate in it. This form of

ontological orientation takes the form of interpretations. In addition, this ontological

orientation of qualitative research focuses on the ascriptions of meanings to the social

environment (Gall, Gall, & Borg, 2007). In contrast, the ontological orientation of

quantitative inquiry is objectivism.

COMP QUESTION 3 10

Objectivism. In contrast to constructivist view, as an objectivist, I would believe

that social phenomena and their meanings have an existence that is independent of

social actors (Maxwell, 2005). In addition, if I was conducting quantitative research on

the lived experiences of African – American students at PWIs as objectivist using a

quantitative research approach, I would believe that social phenomena and the

categories that we use in everyday discussions have an existence that is independent

or separate from actors (Bahari, 2010). Bahari (2010) states “in brief it can be said that

objectivist view about the social world is as concrete and reas as the natural world”

(p.25). Therefore, objectivist believe that, reality is to be found in the concrete behavior

and stresses the importance of researching the nature of relationship among the

elements in their constituents (Bahari, 2010).

Strengths and Weaknesses of Quantitative and Qualitative Research

Research suggest that one of the strengths of qualitative research is that it

produces numbers as data and this production demonstrates an order system (Carr,

1994). In contrast, Cormack (1991) contends that the invalidity of numerical findings

does not display the significance of the phenomena being studied and are often times

neglected. In addition, Cormack (1991) presumes that another weakness of

quantitative research is its focus on a minority of respondents leaving the majority

unexplained. This weakness of quantitative inquiry distorts the evaluation of data. In

dissimilarity, the soft data collected in qualitative inquiry identity and account for any

deviant cases (Cormack, 1991).

Furthermore, research suggest that one of the main strengths of quantitative

research is that it can control or eliminate extraneous variables within the internal

COMP QUESTION 3 11

structure of the investigation (Carr, 1994). In difference, the reliability of qualitative

research is weakened by the fact the process is understanderdized and relies on

insights and the abilities of the observer, and makes the making an assessment of

reliability difficult (Duffy, 1985). Moreover, research suggest that another weakness of

qualitative research concerns the likelihood that some researchers can become

overwhelmed by the data being collected. In fact, research suggest that qualitative

researchers become confused by their inability to limit the scope of the study,

concentrating on a few manageable areas.

Quantitative research is known for its weaknesses in validity. For example,

researchers indicate that in quantitative research designs the more tightly controlled the

investigation the more difficult it is to confirm that the research situation is like real life

(Carr, 1994). Carr (1994) states:

the very components of scientific research that demand control of variables can

therefore be argued as operating against external validity and subsequent

generalizability that maintain that the more similar the research experiment is to

the natural setting the greater is the validity and thus generalizability of the

findings (p.719)

In contrast, Carr (1994) presumes that the main strength of qualitative research is in the

claim that there are fewer threats to external validity. There are fewer threats to

external validity because participants are studied in their ordinary settings and

encounter fewer controlling factors compared with quantitative research conditions.

In addition, the literature regarding qualitative methods revealed that one of the

most significant strength is that researchers become so immersed in the context and

COMP QUESTION 3 12

individual states of the research participants that they are able to give the assurance

that the data are representative of the phenomena and participants being studied (Carr,

1994). Paradoxically, I discovered in the research that one of the weaknesses of

qualitative research that researchers can become so close with the participants or the

phenomena that they threaten the validity of the study if they become unable to uphold

the distance required to define or interpret experiences in a meaningful way.

Yauch and Steudel (2003) illuminate in the literature regarding the strengths of

qualitative research is that it has the ability to probe for underlying values, beliefs, and

assumptions. In addition, Yauch and Steudel (2003) contend that another strength of

qualitative research is that it is broad and open – ended inquiry and participants can

raise issues that matter most to them. In contrast, Yacuh and Steudel (2003) contend

that one of the most significant weaknesses is the process is time consuming. In

addition, Yacuh and Steudel (2003) presume that another weakness of qualitative

research is that an important issue could be overlooked and observations and results

depend on interpretations of a positioned participant. Also, Yacuh and Steudel (2003)

contend that another weakness of qualitative research is that within this method

participants have more control over the process than they do within the quantitative

methods paradigm.

In contrast, Yacuh and Steudel (2003) assert that the most significant strength of

quantitative research is that it has the ability of rapid data collection and analysis.

According Yauch and Steudel (2003) contend that this ability to rapidly collect data and

conduct analyses allows researchers to facilitate comparisons easier. In addition,

Yacuh and Steudel (2003) indicate that quantitative research can be administered and

COMP QUESTION 3 13

evaluated quickly. In contrast, Yauch and Steudel (2003) indicate that the most

significant weakness of quantitative research is the fact that respondents may not be

able to read and understand the questions provided in surveys. In addition, their article

regarding complimentary uses of qualitative and quantitative cultural assessment

methods reveals that another weakness of quantitative research is that the

interpretation process cannot be discussed and it is left to the respondent’s discretion.

Moreover, Yacuh and Steudel (2003) asserts that one of the most well-known

weaknesses of quantitative research is that important issues could be overlooked and it

focuses only on preconceived issues and concepts. In addition, Yacuh and Steudel

(2003) indicate that quantitative weaknesses are engrained in the fact that assumptions

must be made about the appropriate group or groups to sample, depending on the view

of the culture. Furthermore, I discovered in the literature that the debate concerning

quantitative and qualitative research methods calls for an alternative research strategy

known as mixed-methods. Bahari (2010) states “mixed methods research strategies

refer to combining qualitative and quantitative methods” (p.27). In addition, Bahari

(2010) contend that “the goal of mixed method is not to take the place of the former

approach but attempts to maximize the strengths and minimize the weaknesses of

qualitative and quantitative research strategies” (p.27).

A Quantitative Approach as a Paradigm to Investigate the Lived Experiences of

African- American – Students at PWIs

Statement of the research problem. I am conducting a qualitative investigation

regarding the lived experiences of African – American students at PWIs. However, if I

was going to conduct my research regarding the lived experiences of African –

COMP QUESTION 3 14

American students at PWIs, I would use a non- experimental research design.

Specifically, I would conduct a causal – comparison study (Gall, Gall, & Borg, 2007).

First, I would speculate about the causes or effects of the lived experiences of African –

American students at PWIs. My speculations would be based on previous research

findings and theory. In addition, my speculations would be based on my own

observations of the lived experiences of African – American students at PWIs. After I

have identified possible causes and effects of the phenomenon, I would incorporate

them into the statement of the research problem. In this quantitative research

paradigm, I would state the research problem in the form of a hypothesis.

Selecting Comparison Groups. In addition, I would attempt to state and test

alternative hypothesis about other factors that might explain observed differences

between two groups. In addition, I Furthermore, if I was conducting a causal –

comparative study, I would define the groups that possesses the characteristics, I wish

to study. In my case, the groups being defined would be African-American students at

two different PWIs in the metropolitan area of Baltimore, Maryland. The results of

selecting comparison groups would provide me with a sample of African – American

students at two different PWIs.

Data Collection. If I was conducting a causal – comparative study, I would use

standardized test, questionnaires, interviews or I would use naturalistic observations. In

this case, I would use an interview schedule that measures African – American

student’s experiences with racism, hidden curriculum, and discrimination at the two

different particular PWIs chosen. Next, I would code the responses into categories

derived from previous discrimination research on PWI campuses. In addition, I would

COMP QUESTION 3 15

discover a percentage agreement on their coding. This would allow me to give one

point for each discriminatory acknowledgement and strategy they mentioned.

Data Analysis. My first step in the analysis of causal-comparative data would be

to conduct an exploratory data analysis and compute descriptive statistics for each

comparison group in the study. The statistics revealed would include the group mean

and standard deviation. In my study of discrimination at PWIs, if the mean and standard

deviation for the number of times my participants experienced would be computed.

Next, I would test the statistical significance. My choice of a significance test would be

a ț test. I would use the conventional alpha level of .05 to assist me with finding the

number of t test that were statistically significant. Moreover, I would compare the mean

scores of two samples to determine whether they are significantly different from each

other. A t test for a single mean test whether a sample mean differs significantly from a

specified population mean.

Interpretation of findings. In regards to interpreting my findings, I would do

subsequent experiments in which the presumed cause or causes of the outcomes being

studied would be manipulated. For example, I would design an experiment in which

one group of African- American students would be considered the treatment group and

the other group would be considered the control group. Specifically, the treatment

group might be trained in strategies to overcome discrimination and unfair treatment

and the control group would not receive any training. If the two different groups have a

causal influence on coping with feelings of alienation and hostile racial climates, I would

expect that the treatment group would outperform the control group in regards to coping

with feelings of alienation and hostile racial climates.

COMP QUESTION 3 16

A Qualitative Phenomenological Approach for Conducting Research on the Lived

Experiences of African – American Students at PWIs.

Phenomenology. Creswell (2013) states “a phenomenological study describes

the common meaning for several individuals of their lived experiences of a concept or a

phenomenon” (p.76). In addition, Creswell (2013) asserts that phenomenologist focus

on describing what all participants have in common as they experience a phenomenon.

Therefore, I selected phenomenology as a qualitative approach to assist me with

describing what African – American students at PWIs have in common in regards to

their experiences with racism, discrimination and hostile racial climates. Also, I chose

phenomenology to assist me with discovering the common experiences African-

American students at PWIs have with hidden curriculum and colorblindness.

Moreover, phenomenology will assist me with reducing individualized

experiences with racism to a description of the universal essence. This description will

allow me to grasp the very nature of the thing (Van Manen, 1990). As a

phenomenologist, I believe the reality of an object is only perceived within the meaning

of the experience of an individual (Moustakas, 1994).

Procedures. My first step in this phenomenological study is determining if

phenomenology is best suited for this form of research. I contend that phenomenology

is best suited for my investigation of African – American students at PWIs because this

method is one in which it is important to understand several individuals’ common or

shared experiences of a phenomenon. Furthermore, I would identify and specify the

broad philosophical assumptions of phenomenology. I would write about the

combination of objective reality and individual experiences (Creswell, 2013). In order to

COMP QUESTION 3 17

fully describe how participants view the phenomenon, I would bracket out as much as

possible in regards to my own experiences.

Data Collection. I will collect data from the African – American students at PWIs

who have experienced racism, feelings of alienation and hostile racial climates through

multiple in –depth interviews (Creswell, 2013). Specifically, I would interview 5 to 25

African-American students who have all experienced hostile racial climates,

discrimination, and feelings of alienation. (Polkinghorne, 1999). In addition, I would

collect data through observations, and journals. In regards to the interviews, I would

ask two broad questions. For example, what have you experienced in terms of racism?

Furthermore, my interview questions would also consist of other open ended questions

(Creswell, 2011).

Data Analysis. In regards to my investigation concerning the lived experiences

of African – American students at PWIs, I would go through the data and highlight

significant statements, sentences and quotes provide from the results of interviews to

discover an understanding of how the participants experienced the phenomenon.

According to Moustakas (1994) step is considered horizontilization. After this process

known as horizontilization, I would develop clusters of means from the significant

statements and construct them into themes. Moreover, I would use these significant

statements and themes to write a description of what the participants experienced. The

significant statements will also be used to write an account of the context or setting that

influenced how the participants experiment the phenomenon. According to Creswell

(2013) this process is called imaginative variation or structural description.

Validity

COMP QUESTION 3 18

Validity in phenomenological research is embodied in the plausibility of the relationship

between data and concepts (Hancock, 2002). Therefore, my interpretations of the data

must be compelling and convincing. Neuman (2006) argues that a phenomenological

approach to validity focuses on plausibility and the accumulation and

interconnectedness of evidence. Neuman (2006) states “plausible means that the data

and statements about it are not exclusive; they are not the only possible claims nor are

they exact accounts of the one truth in the world” (p.126). Validity in phenomenological

research grows as I recognize a dense connectivity in disparate details. Furthermore,

as a researcher conducting a qualitative phenomenological investigation, I am

responsible for ensuring my interpretations of the data and the interpretive process is

transparent. I will use other forms of strategies to show validity in my study. These

forms include: peer critiques, structure resonance, participant verification and

triangulation.

Peer critiques. As a qualitative research, I have the opportunity to use a peer

group to critique the stages of the research, to check the descriptive validity but more

importantly to comment on the transparency of the interpretation of data and theory

building. This critiques the stages of the actual research. In addition, if I use the

method of peer critiquing to show validity, I will have my peers act as a jury that have to

be convinced by coherent arguments (Polkinghome, 1983). However, the jury must be

able to follow the process that have led to the conclusions and to accept them as valid.

Researcher does indicate that it is not easy to arrange such a critique.

Structure Resonance. As a phenomenologist, I have the option of getting other

people who have not participated in the study, but who have experienced the same

COMP QUESTION 3 19

phenomenon to comment on my findings. As the researcher, I have the opportunity to

attempt to discover if the findings reverberate with another similar group to the subjects.

Seeking alike groups may also lead to rather traditional interpretations.

Participant Verification. Another strategy that I have to show validity is to seek

if participants in the research would offer a perspective on veracity and credibility of my

interpretations. This procedure is referred to as member checking (Creswell, 2013).

However, research suggest that that this but one perspective and subjects

interpretations should not necessarily be privileged over anyone else’s. In addition,

research suggest that it is unlikely that all participants are going to agree on the extent

to which the research outcomes fit my view of reality.

Triangulation. Triangulation is a well know validation strategy in

phenomenological research. If I use triangulation as a validation strategy, I will make

use of multiple and different sources, methods, investigators, and theories to provide

verifying evidence (Creswell, 2013). Furthermore, I will use a variety of methods to

collect data and differentiate researcher’s perspectives. In addition, triangulation will

allow me to form different conceptual frames for different perspectives. Research

suggest that trustworthiness of phenomenological research is enhanced when several

people conduct the interviews as this supposedly results in a broader and more richly

nuanced picture of themes.

Trustworthiness. As a qualitative researcher conducting a phenomenological

study, I am required to demonstrate that my study can be trusted. Golafshani (2003)

states “for example, proposes that validity is more appropriately described in terms of

rigor, quality and trustworthiness” (p.602). In fact, as a potential phenomenologist, I

COMP QUESTION 3 20

Will be responsible for showing that my work is well grounded and to make clear the

premises that are being used Golafshani (2003). Furthermore, in regards to

trustworthiness, I will utilize elements of descriptive validity. As a phenomenologist, I

would recognize that research into the personal lives and experiences of people will

result in contradictory accounts because there is not a single objective reality. I would

understand that there is nothing wrong with two different accounts that give different

weights to the same events.

Reliability

As a phenomenologist, I will address reliability by obtaining detailed field notes

by employing a good-quality tape for recording and by transcribing the tape (Creswell,

2013). In addition, I will ensure the tape will be transcribed to indicate the trivial, but

often crucial, pauses and overlaps. Furthermore, I will use multiple coders to analyze

transcript data (Creswell, 2013). To ensure the reliability in my study is sufficient, I will

determine what exactly the coding are agreeing on, whether they seek agreement on

code names, the coded passages or the same passages coded the same way. In

addition, I will decide on whether to seek agreement based on codes, themes, or both

codes and themes (Creswell, 2013). To further assist me with coding, I will develop a

codebook of codes that would be stable and represent the coding analysis.

I will use NVivo as a software program to help in this coding (Creswell, 2013). As

a phenomenologist, I will read through several transcripts independently and code each

manuscript (Creswell, 2013). After I code approximately three to four transcripts, I will

examine the codes, their names, and the text segments that I coded. Therefore, a

COMP QUESTION 3 21

preliminary qualitative codebook would be developed. I would focus more on the major

codes I discovered in the database than in my exhaustive list.

Next, I would actually compare my codes. After coding, I would ask myself

whether I assigned the same code word to the passage based on my tentative

definitions in the codebook that we developed. I will seek to establish 80% agreement

of coding on the passages (Creswell, 2013). After, I collapsed codes into broader

themes, I would conduct the same process with themes, to see if the passages we all

coded as themes were consistent in the use of the same theme (Creswell, 2013). After

this process is continued through several more transcripts, I would revise the codebook

and conduct a new assessment of passages that I codded and determined if I used the

same or different codes.

COMP QUESTION 3 22

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Shank, G. D. (2002). Qualitative Research: A Personal Skills Approach. Upper Saddle River: Merrill Prentice Hall .

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