Community Psychology in the United States: History & Future Prof. Douglas D. Perkins Community Research & Action Peabody College, Vanderbilt University.

Community Psychology in Community Psychology in the United States: History & the United States: History &

FutureFuture

Prof. Douglas D. PerkinsProf. Douglas D. Perkins

Community Research & ActionCommunity Research & Action

Peabody College, Vanderbilt UniversityPeabody College, Vanderbilt University

Director, Center for Community StudiesDirector, Center for Community Studies

[email protected]@vanderbilt.edu

INTRODUCTIONS EXERCISE:INTRODUCTIONS EXERCISE:

1. Introduce yourself1. Introduce yourself 2. Where have you lived?2. Where have you lived? 3. What do you feel is your "community?" 3. What do you feel is your "community?"

How would you define it? (this is individually How would you define it? (this is individually and subjectively defined; there are no right and subjectively defined; there are no right or wrong answers)or wrong answers)

4. What is your community's most pressing 4. What is your community's most pressing problem? (What are the problem's problem? (What are the problem's psychological or behavioral components?)psychological or behavioral components?)

5. What are your community’s strengths or 5. What are your community’s strengths or assets?assets?

Definitions of Community Definitions of Community Psychology:Psychology:

““the psychological study & the psychological study & solution of community, social & solution of community, social & mental health problems” mental health problems”

OROR “ “the applied study of the the applied study of the

relationship between social relationship between social systems & individual well‑being in systems & individual well‑being in the community context”the community context”

Tenets or Themes of Tenets or Themes of Community Psychology:Community Psychology:

CP is both an CP is both an applied social applied social sciencescience & & vocationvocation

ANDAND

an an analytical analytical perspectiveperspective..

[applicable to any field, career, or life in [applicable to any field, career, or life in general]general]

Tenets or Themes of Tenets or Themes of Community Psychology cont’d:Community Psychology cont’d:

Also extremely central to CP: an ‘Also extremely central to CP: an ‘actionaction’ ’ orientationorientation, i.e. social innovation, change, & , i.e. social innovation, change, & evaluation.evaluation.

• "real world" utility of applied research (e.g., "real world" utility of applied research (e.g., program or policy evaluations) in community program or policy evaluations) in community and organizational settings, not "ivory tower" and organizational settings, not "ivory tower" laboratorylaboratory

• ““praxis”: the process of translating an praxis”: the process of translating an intellectual idea, theory, or lesson into the lived intellectual idea, theory, or lesson into the lived reality of practice, action, and experience.reality of practice, action, and experience.

More Themes of Community More Themes of Community Psychology:Psychology:

CP acknowledges CP acknowledges our humanityour humanity & & thus thus our valuesour values: Positivism is : Positivism is dishonest in pretending to be value-dishonest in pretending to be value-free.free.

CP challenges traditional modes of CP challenges traditional modes of thought and authority: healthy thought and authority: healthy skepticism of established “truths”, the skepticism of established “truths”, the powerful, & “experts”. powerful, & “experts”.

Community Psychology helps you see Community Psychology helps you see the world the world ecologically ecologically (as an (as an

interconnected system):interconnected system):

CP CP person-environment person-environment fit: change the setting fit: change the setting to fit the personto fit the person

multiple levels of multiple levels of analysis & interventionanalysis & intervention

dynamic, naturalistic dynamic, naturalistic processprocess

Community/Society

Organizations (mediating structures)

Individual/family/group

Complexity must match reality: units interact within and across levels:

The meaning of ecology and The meaning of ecology and related conceptsrelated concepts

Bio-ecology, social ecology, human ecology: study of Bio-ecology, social ecology, human ecology: study of organisms and groups in context of multi-level interdependent organisms and groups in context of multi-level interdependent systems and their evolution over timesystems and their evolution over time

OikosOikos (Greek) = house (Greek) = house Habitat: the place or type of site where a plant or animal Habitat: the place or type of site where a plant or animal

naturally or normally lives and grows (Webster’s)naturally or normally lives and grows (Webster’s) Ecosystem: the complex of a community and its environment Ecosystem: the complex of a community and its environment

functioning as an ecological unit in naturefunctioning as an ecological unit in nature Kurt Lewin: "action research," B=f(P,E)Kurt Lewin: "action research," B=f(P,E) Other ecological concepts:Other ecological concepts:

• behavior is nested in a series of concentric contextsbehavior is nested in a series of concentric contexts• a phenomenological (subjectively perceived) orientationa phenomenological (subjectively perceived) orientation• person-environment "fit"person-environment "fit"• reciprocal action between person & environment (coping reciprocal action between person & environment (coping

mechanisms)mechanisms)

Bronfenbrenner (1996)Bronfenbrenner (1996)

Ontogenetic: individual level of developmentOntogenetic: individual level of development

Macrosystem: societal level (politics, economics, mass culture)

Exosystem: community environment

Microsystem & Mesosystem (see below)

Microsystem: immediate social environment (family, classroom, peer group);Mesosystem: relational links between microsystems (eg, work influence on personal life)

Kelly's 4 ecological principles for planning Kelly's 4 ecological principles for planning community interventions:community interventions:

PrinciplePrinciple BasisBasis Lessons for interventionLessons for intervention

InterdependenceInterdependence

Speaks to the existence of mutual influence between Speaks to the existence of mutual influence between elements of a system, in the form of relationships: elements of a system, in the form of relationships: all all humans and our institutions are connected within humans and our institutions are connected within and across levels of analysis in such a way that any and across levels of analysis in such a way that any action by one of them has an impact on the rest of action by one of them has an impact on the rest of the system.the system.

Interventions then must necessarily Interventions then must necessarily (1) be aimed at these multiple layers (1) be aimed at these multiple layers of influence and (2) be conducted so of influence and (2) be conducted so that any changes benefit all invested that any changes benefit all invested parties.parties.

Cycling of Cycling of resourcesresources

Recognizes that resources are ‘re-cycled’ within Recognizes that resources are ‘re-cycled’ within social settings and that there are processes through social settings and that there are processes through which resources are created, defined and which resources are created, defined and distributed. Resources include people’s time and distributed. Resources include people’s time and effort as well as physical resources.effort as well as physical resources.

It is then vital to know how a system It is then vital to know how a system already cycles its resources before already cycles its resources before starting any intervention.starting any intervention.

AdaptationAdaptation

Reflects the process of change elements of a Reflects the process of change elements of a system (people/ groups) often necessarily go system (people/ groups) often necessarily go through in order to cope with a restricted, stressful, through in order to cope with a restricted, stressful, & possibly toxic environment. Key elements:& possibly toxic environment. Key elements:niche = habitat within which a given creature can niche = habitat within which a given creature can survivesurviveniche breadth = the range of habitats w/in which niche breadth = the range of habitats w/in which creatures of the same type are foundcreatures of the same type are found

This calls for consideration of the This calls for consideration of the resources and toxins present in resources and toxins present in people’s lives when attempting to people’s lives when attempting to understand their behaviour.understand their behaviour.

SuccessionSuccession

Stable, orderly social &/or physical change in a Stable, orderly social &/or physical change in a community. Ecommunity. Environments change and that, through nvironments change and that, through these changes, make visible the various groups and these changes, make visible the various groups and resources existing within the social system.resources existing within the social system.

Learn from these changes who has a Learn from these changes who has a stake in the intervention proposed stake in the intervention proposed and how resources are currently and how resources are currently

allocated.allocated.

Levine’s (1969) 5 Ecological principles of Levine’s (1969) 5 Ecological principles of practice in community psychology:practice in community psychology:

1.1. A problem arises in a setting or in a situation; factors A problem arises in a setting or in a situation; factors in the situation cause, trigger, exacerbate and/or in the situation cause, trigger, exacerbate and/or maintain the problem. maintain the problem.

2.2. A problem arises because the problem‑resolving A problem arises because the problem‑resolving (i.e., adaptive) capacity of the social setting is (i.e., adaptive) capacity of the social setting is blocked. blocked.

3.3. To be effective, help has to be located strategically To be effective, help has to be located strategically to the manifestation of the problem. to the manifestation of the problem.

4.4. The goals and values of the helping agent or service The goals and values of the helping agent or service must be consistent with the goals and values of the must be consistent with the goals and values of the setting. setting.

5.5. The form of help should have potential for being The form of help should have potential for being established on a systematic basis, using the natural established on a systematic basis, using the natural resources of the setting, or through introducing resources of the setting, or through introducing resources which can become institutionalized as part resources which can become institutionalized as part of the setting.of the setting.

Ecological Research Methods Example Ecological Research Methods Example (Perkins & Taylor, 1996, AJCP):(Perkins & Taylor, 1996, AJCP):

Multiple MeasuresMultiple Measures (sources of data) to cross- (sources of data) to cross-validate/triangulate:validate/triangulate:• Block Environmental InventoryBlock Environmental Inventory• Resident (or Organization Member or Leader) SurveyResident (or Organization Member or Leader) Survey• Qualitative Methods (Open-ended interviews, Content Qualitative Methods (Open-ended interviews, Content

Analysis)Analysis)• Archival data (e.g., organizational records, police crime Archival data (e.g., organizational records, police crime

reports)reports)• Census and Other Large Sample SurveysCensus and Other Large Sample Surveys

Focused on Focused on ContextContext at at Multiple LevelsMultiple Levels::• IndividualIndividual• Individual Relative to GroupIndividual Relative to Group• Aggregate + Aggregate + truly contextual unitstruly contextual units (Organization, (Organization,

Community)Community)• Multilevel Analysis (eg, HLM, Contextual Analysis, GIS)Multilevel Analysis (eg, HLM, Contextual Analysis, GIS)

Over TimeOver Time::• Longitudinal designs, time seriesLongitudinal designs, time series

More Themes of Community More Themes of Community Psychology:Psychology:

22ndnd-order change-order change: fundamental change : fundamental change in the system’s structure, goals, or values.in the system’s structure, goals, or values.

CP appreciates cultural CP appreciates cultural diversitydiversity & & individual rightsindividual rights, freedom, justice, & , freedom, justice, & dignity.dignity.

4 Key Community Psychology 4 Key Community Psychology Concepts:Concepts:

““SPEC”SPEC”: Strengths, Prevention, : Strengths, Prevention, Empowerment, Empowerment,

Changing Community ConditionsChanging Community Conditions

StrengthsStrengths• individual & community strengths & individual & community strengths &

competencies, not weaknesses, handicaps, competencies, not weaknesses, handicaps, pathology (medical model)pathology (medical model)

4 Key Community Psychology 4 Key Community Psychology Concepts:Concepts:

““SPEC”SPEC”: Strengths, Prevention, : Strengths, Prevention, Empowerment, Empowerment,

Changing Community ConditionsChanging Community Conditions

PreventionPrevention• CP intervenes earlier in the problem development CP intervenes earlier in the problem development

process to be both more effective & more process to be both more effective & more efficient:efficient:

crisis intervention -> early detection & crisis intervention -> early detection & intervention -> primary preventionintervention -> primary prevention

4 Key Community Psychology 4 Key Community Psychology Concepts:Concepts:

““SPEC”SPEC”: Strengths, Prevention, : Strengths, Prevention, Empowerment, Empowerment,

Changing Community ConditionsChanging Community Conditions

EmpowermentEmpowerment• ““voice & choice”voice & choice”• people participating in and taking control over people participating in and taking control over

the institutions that affect their lives; the institutions that affect their lives; professionals & scientists as partners or professionals & scientists as partners or collaborators, not experts.collaborators, not experts.

4 Key Community Psychology 4 Key Community Psychology Concepts:Concepts:

““SPEC”SPEC”: Strengths, Prevention, : Strengths, Prevention, Empowerment, Empowerment,

Changing Community ConditionsChanging Community Conditions

Changing Community ConditionsChanging Community Conditions• CP gets at root causes of problems by addressing CP gets at root causes of problems by addressing

the underlying community conditionsthe underlying community conditions

Dohrenwend applied these ideas in a comprehensive stress & Dohrenwend applied these ideas in a comprehensive stress & intervention model (see Levine et al. Chapter 3)intervention model (see Levine et al. Chapter 3)

Exercise/Discussion:Exercise/Discussion:Split into 4 groupsSplit into 4 groups

Each group take a different SPEC concept Each group take a different SPEC concept [Strengths, Prevention, Empowerment, [Strengths, Prevention, Empowerment, Changing Community Conditions] and Changing Community Conditions] and brainstorm real or hypothetical examples of brainstorm real or hypothetical examples of intervention strategies, programs, or intervention strategies, programs, or policies that apply your concept. How is policies that apply your concept. How is it/could it be implemented? What public it/could it be implemented? What public &/or private sector partners [organizations, &/or private sector partners [organizations, institutions, community groups] should be institutions, community groups] should be involved? How?involved? How?

THE ORIGINS OF THE ORIGINS OF COMMUNITY COMMUNITY

PSYCHOLOGY IN THE PSYCHOLOGY IN THE UNITED STATESUNITED STATES

The Limitations of Clinical, The Limitations of Clinical, Behavioral, Social, & Testing Behavioral, Social, & Testing

Psychology Psychology

Historical Influences on the Development of Community Psychology in the U.S.Decade:Decade: Perceived ThreatPerceived Threat Societal Response:Societal Response: Influential Discipline/Authors:Influential Discipline/Authors:

1880s1880s Genetic “inferiors”Genetic “inferiors” Social DarwinismSocial Darwinism Biology, Ecology/DarwinBiology, Ecology/Darwin

1890s1890s Victorian repressionVictorian repression LiberalismLiberalism Psychology/FreudPsychology/Freud

1900s1900s Illiteracy,immoralityIlliteracy,immorality Pragmatism, democracyPragmatism, democracy Philosophy, Education/Dewey, JamesPhilosophy, Education/Dewey, James

1910s1910s ImmigrantsImmigrants Settlement housesSettlement houses Social work/AddamsSocial work/Addams

1920s1920s Industrial urbanismIndustrial urbanism Chicago SchoolChicago School Sociology, Inst.-Human Relations/Park, Burgess, Sociology, Inst.-Human Relations/Park, Burgess, McKenzie, Wirth, LyndMcKenzie, Wirth, Lynd

1930s1930s Economic Economic depression, Fascismdepression, Fascism

New DealNew Deal Economics, Social Psych/Weber, Durkheim, LewinEconomics, Social Psych/Weber, Durkheim, Lewin

1940s1940s War, genocideWar, genocide GlobalismGlobalism interdisciplinary/Lewin, Warner, Whyte, Mead, Hobbsinterdisciplinary/Lewin, Warner, Whyte, Mead, Hobbs

1950s1950s Legal racismLegal racism Civil RightsCivil Rights Law, Social Sci./Clark, Chein & Cook, Hunter, LongLaw, Social Sci./Clark, Chein & Cook, Hunter, Long

1960s1960s Institutions, povertyInstitutions, poverty Change conditionsChange conditions (CMH, (CMH, Great Society, Head Start)Great Society, Head Start)

Comm. Dev., Policy, Planning, Eco psych/Swampscott, Comm. Dev., Policy, Planning, Eco psych/Swampscott, Biddle, Gans, Sarason, Kelly, Barker, AlbeeBiddle, Gans, Sarason, Kelly, Barker, Albee

1970s1970s Reactive Medical Reactive Medical ModelModel

Primary PreventionPrimary Prevention Public health, Dev. Psy., Env. Psych/Cowen, Public health, Dev. Psy., Env. Psych/Cowen, Dohrenwend, Levine, Newbrough, Altman, Proshansky, Dohrenwend, Levine, Newbrough, Altman, Proshansky, Bronfenbrenner, StokolsBronfenbrenner, Stokols

1980s1980s OppressionOppression EmpowermentEmpowerment Poli.Sci.,Org.Studies/Rappaport, Argyris [since ‘60s], Poli.Sci.,Org.Studies/Rappaport, Argyris [since ‘60s], Heller, Cherniss, Keys, ZimmermanHeller, Cherniss, Keys, Zimmerman

1990s1990s Class/race/sex/cult. Class/race/sex/cult. hegemonyhegemony

Human/method Diversity, Human/method Diversity, StrengthsStrengths, Globalism, Globalism

Anthropology, Eco methods/(Bourdieu, Flyvbjerg, Anthropology, Eco methods/(Bourdieu, Flyvbjerg, Freire), Riger, ShinnFreire), Riger, Shinn

2 current/ 2 current/ future future directions:directions:

1. Disease1. Disease Tech. innovationTech. innovation Bio, redux/ (CP w/in Psych in flux, shrinking)Bio, redux/ (CP w/in Psych in flux, shrinking)

2. Simplistic 2. Simplistic reductionismreductionism

Interdisciplinarity (to Interdisciplinarity (to integrate all the above)integrate all the above)

Transdisciplinary eco-psycho-political action-research/ Transdisciplinary eco-psycho-political action-research/ Saegert, Maton, Watts, (Perkins, Prilleltensky, Speer)Saegert, Maton, Watts, (Perkins, Prilleltensky, Speer)

Community Psych as a Community Psych as a Paradigm ShiftParadigm Shift

"paradigm""paradigm": theoretical or : theoretical or methodological model, or a methodological model, or a conventionally accepted way of conventionally accepted way of looking at, understanding, or doing looking at, understanding, or doing things (Kuhn)things (Kuhn)

"paradigm shifts""paradigm shifts" caused by faith, caused by faith, values, & politics, esp. in social values, & politics, esp. in social sciences & human services sciences & human services

Each group discuss what you know (or Each group discuss what you know (or think you know) about one of the following think you know) about one of the following

branches of psychology:branches of psychology:• clinical psychology/mental health care (study & treatment clinical psychology/mental health care (study & treatment

of social, behavioral, & emotional dysfunction)of social, behavioral, & emotional dysfunction)• behaviorism/classical & operant learning (study & behaviorism/classical & operant learning (study &

application of control of animal & human behavior application of control of animal & human behavior through extrinsic reinforcers—rewards & punishment)through extrinsic reinforcers—rewards & punishment)

• social psychology (study of interpersonal & group social psychology (study of interpersonal & group perceptions, behavioral interactions, and attitudes)perceptions, behavioral interactions, and attitudes)

• psychometrics/testing psychology (measurement of psychometrics/testing psychology (measurement of human intelligence, aptitudes, personality, performance)human intelligence, aptitudes, personality, performance)

Examples of historical & current research topics and Examples of historical & current research topics and practices?practices?

What does it have to offer a psychology dedicated to solving What does it have to offer a psychology dedicated to solving the problems & promoting the strengths of people in the problems & promoting the strengths of people in communities?communities?

What are its problems & limitations both in general and in its What are its problems & limitations both in general and in its implications for/applications to community psychology?implications for/applications to community psychology?

Problems with behavior theory and Problems with behavior theory and research for Community Psychologyresearch for Community Psychology

Operant psychology: - Operant psychology: - based on lab study of single, based on lab study of single, nonhuman organismsnonhuman organisms

fails to address fails to address powerpower relationships, relationships, operation of social operation of social institutionsinstitutions

power to power to controlcontrol both positive & negative both positive & negative reinforcers reinforcers open to abuseopen to abuse

behaviorism fails to allow for individual & cultural behaviorism fails to allow for individual & cultural diversitydiversity, ,

community, institutional, or societal behaviorism: world of community, institutional, or societal behaviorism: world of conformity & docilityconformity & docility, technology without values , technology without values (Orwell's (Orwell's 19841984 rather than Skinner's rather than Skinner's Walden IIWalden II))

Problems with behavior theory and Problems with behavior theory and research for Community Psychology #2research for Community Psychology #2

behaviorists have behaviorists have notnot shown how human or animal shown how human or animal behavior occurs behavior occurs naturallynaturally (anthropology, ethology), only (anthropology, ethology), only how it how it cancan be manipulated in a laboratory, workplace, or be manipulated in a laboratory, workplace, or similarly controlled institutional settingsimilarly controlled institutional setting

behaviorism unable to account for creativity & behaviorism unable to account for creativity & culturally‑specific behavior (ignores activities that are culturally‑specific behavior (ignores activities that are intrinsicallyintrinsically reinforcing in favor of reinforcing in favor of extrinsicextrinsic reinforcers, reinforcers, such as money or tokens)such as money or tokens)

ignores structural & institutional constraints, & so may be ignores structural & institutional constraints, & so may be used to justify or maintain the status quo of social used to justify or maintain the status quo of social inequalityinequality

The History & Ideology of Social The History & Ideology of Social PsychologyPsychology

cyclical historycyclical history of social psychology: more applied during of social psychology: more applied during climates of social upheaval & reform. In between & for the last 20 climates of social upheaval & reform. In between & for the last 20 years, social psychology has focused on years, social psychology has focused on laboratory studies of laboratory studies of intra-psychic (cognitive) factors in the social behavior of intra-psychic (cognitive) factors in the social behavior of individuals & small groupsindividuals & small groups..

Conclusion: Conclusion: social psychology has become less & less social psychology has become less & less "social"social" with regard to:" with regard to:

1. the over‑reliance upon laboratory research methods,1. the over‑reliance upon laboratory research methods,2. the exclusive focus on the individual (or dyadic) level of 2. the exclusive focus on the individual (or dyadic) level of analysis, analysis,

3. the social irrelevance of the matters studied3. the social irrelevance of the matters studied

Why community psychologists have been so concerned with: Why community psychologists have been so concerned with: recognizing & embracing their own recognizing & embracing their own valuesvalues, & , & concentrating on concentrating on field researchfield research of of relevant extra-individual relevant extra-individual behaviorbehavior in the in the social environmentsocial environment from an ecological systems from an ecological systems perspective perspective

Limitations of psychometrics (testing Limitations of psychometrics (testing psychology) from a community perspective: psychology) from a community perspective:

Social Darwinism, eugenicsSocial Darwinism, eugenics

Sir Francis Galton, Darwin’s cousin: no coincidence that Sir Francis Galton, Darwin’s cousin: no coincidence that father of testing also a eugenicistfather of testing also a eugenicist

American psychologists used Alfred Binet's IQ test to:American psychologists used Alfred Binet's IQ test to:• label children & limit educational opportunities to them, label children & limit educational opportunities to them, • to isolate people in institutions & to isolate people in institutions & • to limit immigration of ‘undesirables’to limit immigration of ‘undesirables’

Some of the most distinguished American psychologists were Some of the most distinguished American psychologists were behind such ventures. For example, Henry behind such ventures. For example, Henry GoddardGoddard used used 'mental tests' to examine large numbers of immigrants & 'mental tests' to examine large numbers of immigrants & concluded that 83% of Jews, 80% of Hungarians, 79% of concluded that 83% of Jews, 80% of Hungarians, 79% of Italians, & 87% of Poles & Russians were "feeble minded."Italians, & 87% of Poles & Russians were "feeble minded."

Limitations of psychometrics #2Limitations of psychometrics #2

Lewis Lewis TermanTerman, in his famous book , in his famous book The Measurement of The Measurement of IntelligenceIntelligence (1916), suggested that children of genetically (1916), suggested that children of genetically "inferior races...should be segregated in special classes... They "inferior races...should be segregated in special classes... They cannot master abstractions, but they can often be made efficient cannot master abstractions, but they can often be made efficient workers... There is no possibility at present of convincing workers... There is no possibility at present of convincing society that they should not be allowed to reproduce, although society that they should not be allowed to reproduce, although from a eugenic point of view they constitute a grave problem from a eugenic point of view they constitute a grave problem because of their unusually prolific breeding” (quoted in Ryan, because of their unusually prolific breeding” (quoted in Ryan, 1976, p.306).1976, p.306).

Similarly, the renowned experimental psychologists Robert M. Similarly, the renowned experimental psychologists Robert M. YerkesYerkes & Carl & Carl BrighamBrigham used the results of the U.S. Army's WWI used the results of the U.S. Army's WWI testing of recruits to argue that Blacks & Southern Europeans testing of recruits to argue that Blacks & Southern Europeans are intellectually inferior to those of Nordic descent. (It is worth are intellectually inferior to those of Nordic descent. (It is worth noting that, not coincidentally, it was the same Carl Brigham noting that, not coincidentally, it was the same Carl Brigham who later developed the who later developed the Scholastic Aptitude TestScholastic Aptitude Test & served on & served on the College Entrance Examination Board.)the College Entrance Examination Board.)

Limitations of psychometrics #3Limitations of psychometrics #3

We now know that tests of mental ability were We now know that tests of mental ability were culturally & linguistically biased culturally & linguistically biased (Q: Are (Q: Are they still?)they still?) & that, in any case, they do not & that, in any case, they do not measure purely innate intelligence. measure purely innate intelligence.

In the 1920s & 30s, however, the conclusions of In the 1920s & 30s, however, the conclusions of testing psychologists were used to keep out testing psychologists were used to keep out "undesirable" immigrants, hundreds of thousands "undesirable" immigrants, hundreds of thousands of whom would suffer & die because of the of whom would suffer & die because of the holocaust, which was simply Nazi‑style eugenics.holocaust, which was simply Nazi‑style eugenics.

Conclusions re testing:Conclusions re testing: For community psychologists, there are For community psychologists, there are four important pointsfour important points

to note in the preceding history of psychometrics: to note in the preceding history of psychometrics:

1.1. psychology based on psychology based on the study of individual differences the study of individual differences is often misusedis often misused when drawing conclusions about groups when drawing conclusions about groups

2.2. fairnessfairness to individuals & disadvantaged groups should to individuals & disadvantaged groups should come come before institutional/scientific interestsbefore institutional/scientific interests

3.3. scientists must remain alert to the easy misinterpretation & scientists must remain alert to the easy misinterpretation & misapplication of their datamisapplication of their data

4.4. experimental & professional psychologists have never been experimental & professional psychologists have never been isolated from social & political influence, & so should not isolated from social & political influence, & so should not hide behind a hide behind a false mantlefalse mantle of scientific or professional of scientific or professional authorityauthority

The "Progressive" View of The History The "Progressive" View of The History of Mental Health Careof Mental Health Care

4 Revolutions in MH Care --> (population encompassed)4 Revolutions in MH Care --> (population encompassed)

1.1. Pinel, Dix & "Moral Treatment" (1800) -------> (psychotics)Pinel, Dix & "Moral Treatment" (1800) -------> (psychotics)

2.2. Freud & insanity continuum (1900) ---------> (neurotics)Freud & insanity continuum (1900) ---------> (neurotics)

3.3. Community MH Centers (1963) --> (victims of social pathology)Community MH Centers (1963) --> (victims of social pathology)

4.4. Milestone Primary Prevention (1970s, 1980s) ----> (everyone)Milestone Primary Prevention (1970s, 1980s) ----> (everyone)

PROGRESSIVE THEMESPROGRESSIVE THEMES in history in history of psychopathology & MH care:of psychopathology & MH care:

locus of causality:locus of causality: internal (intra- internal (intra-psychic)psychic) external (environment) external (environment)

causal determinism:causal determinism: religious/moral religious/moral genetic (Social Darwinism)genetic (Social Darwinism)cultural cultural (Lewis)(Lewis)social construction of social construction of pathology (Szasz)pathology (Szasz)

PROGRESSIVE THEMESPROGRESSIVE THEMES in history in history of psychopathology & MH care #2of psychopathology & MH care #2

treatment approachtreatment approach: burning->imprisonment->: burning->imprisonment->

therapy->preventiontherapy->prevention

treatment orientationtreatment orientation: deficit(deviant, : deficit(deviant, weakness)/labels-> competency, strengthsweakness)/labels-> competency, strengths

corresponding ideologycorresponding ideology: discriminatory->: discriminatory->

humanistic/civil rights/ humanistic/civil rights/ equalityequality

PROGRESSIVE THEMESPROGRESSIVE THEMES in history in history of psychopathology & MH care #3of psychopathology & MH care #3

prevention stageprevention stage::• tertiary->secondary->primarytertiary->secondary->primary

intervention ageintervention age: adult->teen->early : adult->teen->early childhood->pre/peri‑natal childhood->pre/peri‑natal

level of analysis/interventionlevel of analysis/intervention:: individual->groups, families->organizations-> individual->groups, families->organizations->

institutions, communities institutions, communities

The "Revisionist" View of the The "Revisionist" View of the History of Mental Health CareHistory of Mental Health Care

"progressive" view encourages the temporal "progressive" view encourages the temporal bias of "bias of "presentismpresentism””

Revisionist historyRevisionist history shows inconsistent shows inconsistent progress & a more progress & a more cyclical patterncyclical pattern of reform of reform & concern over & concern over environmental causesenvironmental causes (e.g., (e.g., during settlement house movement) alternate during settlement house movement) alternate with periods of conservative retrenchment & with periods of conservative retrenchment & intra-psychic or moralistic determinismintra-psychic or moralistic determinism (Levine & Levine, 1970), i.e., approach to (Levine & Levine, 1970), i.e., approach to solving social & mental health problems solving social & mental health problems related to related to political climate of the timespolitical climate of the times

The "Revisionist" View of the History The "Revisionist" View of the History of Mental Health Care #2of Mental Health Care #2

poor & "deviant" removed from society poor & "deviant" removed from society for for whose "protection"whose "protection"? (Erikson, 1966: Wayward ? (Erikson, 1966: Wayward Puritans)Puritans)

poor more likely to receive "physical" treatments poor more likely to receive "physical" treatments & neglect (Grobb, 1973; Hollingshead & Redlich, & neglect (Grobb, 1973; Hollingshead & Redlich, 1958)1958)

other cyclical patterns: periods of other cyclical patterns: periods of genetic, intra-genetic, intra-psychic &/or cultural determinismpsychic &/or cultural determinism & tendency & tendency to "oversell" new treatments & policies as to "oversell" new treatments & policies as panaceaspanaceas (or cure‑all "fads") (or cure‑all "fads")

An Important Example of a Revisionist An Important Example of a Revisionist Cycle and Unintended Consequences:Cycle and Unintended Consequences:

DeinstitutionalizationDeinstitutionalization reduction of hospitalized psychiatric reduction of hospitalized psychiatric

population (& other kinds of institutions, e.g., population (& other kinds of institutions, e.g., mentally retarded, prisons & reform schools) mentally retarded, prisons & reform schools) through release of long-term, "warehoused" through release of long-term, "warehoused" patients into the community, shorter stays for patients into the community, shorter stays for all admissions & fewer admissionsall admissions & fewer admissions

placement in alternative community settings placement in alternative community settings (e.g., "half-way houses," supported (e.g., "half-way houses," supported employment, outpatient services, crisis employment, outpatient services, crisis intervention) is more feasible, may be more intervention) is more feasible, may be more effective & certainly more efficient than effective & certainly more efficient than hospitalizationhospitalization

Causes of Causes of deinstitutionalizationdeinstitutionalization

1.1. change in change in involuntary involuntary commitment lawscommitment laws (effective (effective treatment, "danger to self or others")treatment, "danger to self or others")

2.2. psychotropic medicationspsychotropic medications

3.3. CMH Centers ActCMH Centers Act (1963) (1963)

Effects of Effects of deinstitutionalizationdeinstitutionalization

more more humanehumane & effective treatment & effective treatment

greater greater quality quality & use& use of of theirtheir lives lives

BUT, also…BUT, also… increased homelessnessincreased homelessness (1/3 mentally (1/3 mentally

ill, 1/3 alcohol & drug abusers, 1/3 ill, 1/3 alcohol & drug abusers, 1/3 un/under-employed)un/under-employed)

inadequate "aftercareinadequate "aftercare””

"revolving door" phenomenon"revolving door" phenomenon

Conclusions about the history of Conclusions about the history of Mental Health CareMental Health Care

social change made old approaches to mental health social change made old approaches to mental health care inadequatecare inadequate

ideology determined treatment lawsideology determined treatment laws economic & political concerns killed humane efforts & economic & political concerns killed humane efforts &

led to "warehousing"led to "warehousing" legal, economic, & political factors continue to shape legal, economic, & political factors continue to shape

the changes in mental health care the changes in mental health care From From bothboth historical perspectives (Progressive & historical perspectives (Progressive &

Revisionist), the history of mental health care points to Revisionist), the history of mental health care points to needneed for prevention & more humane treatment & for prevention & more humane treatment & "empowerment" of the broadest variety of "empowerment" of the broadest variety of disadvantaged populations. disadvantaged populations.

Foreword to Foreword to Principles of Community Principles of Community PsychologyPsychology by Seymour Sarason by Seymour Sarason

““Prior to this edition, this book was unrivaled for its Prior to this edition, this book was unrivaled for its scope and depth of the obvious and not-so-obvious scope and depth of the obvious and not-so-obvious psychological implications of what American psychological implications of what American communities are: what problems they face, how they communities are: what problems they face, how they do and do not change. do and do not change.

What this new edition makes abundantly clear is that What this new edition makes abundantly clear is that what we call a community is glaringly porous: what we call a community is glaringly porous: in the modern, highly technical, mobile world, in the modern, highly technical, mobile world, a community is affected by events near and far a community is affected by events near and far from its borders, events that are from its borders, events that are psychological, sociological, economic, political, psychological, sociological, economic, political, and legaland legal…”…”

The Future of Community The Future of Community PsychologyPsychology

International Community PsychologyInternational Community Psychology Interdisciplinary Community Psychology, but using Interdisciplinary Community Psychology, but using

what paradigm?what paradigm?• Same 2 CP options of the past 4 decades but applying Same 2 CP options of the past 4 decades but applying

international and interdisciplinary work more international and interdisciplinary work more systematically:systematically:

1.1. Psychosocial stress process (prevention) model Psychosocial stress process (prevention) model (Dohrenwend, 1978).(Dohrenwend, 1978).

2.2. Comprehensive, interdisciplinary model for ecologically & Comprehensive, interdisciplinary model for ecologically & “psycho-politically” valid action-research (Prilleltensky; “psycho-politically” valid action-research (Prilleltensky; Christens & Perkins, in press) (“empowerment-plus”)Christens & Perkins, in press) (“empowerment-plus”)

• Which paradigm should CP choose? If neither, what Which paradigm should CP choose? If neither, what should be the paradigm for CP in the future? Does should be the paradigm for CP in the future? Does CP CP needneed a paradigm? a paradigm?

Figure: A model of the process whereby psychosocial stress induces psychopathology and some conceptions of how to counteract this process (from Dohrenwend, 1978).

Psycho-Pathology

PoliticalAction

Community & Organizational Development

General Education & Socialization

IndividualSkill

Training

CrisisIntervention

CorrectiveTherapies

PsychologicalGrowth

No SubstantialPermanent

Psychological Change

TransientStress

Reaction

StressfulLife

Event

SituationIn

Environment

Psychological Characteristics of Person in Event

Situational Mediators,Material Supports or Handicaps,

Social Supports or Handicaps

Psychological Mediators,Aspirations and Values,

Coping Abilities/Disabilities

Discussion Question:Discussion Question:

Where do poverty, unemployment, Where do poverty, unemployment, and related social problems fit into and related social problems fit into Dohrenwend’s model? How can Dohrenwend’s model? How can psychology in general and CP in psychology in general and CP in particular address such problems?particular address such problems?

Discuss in pairs [you don’t have to Discuss in pairs [you don’t have to share this with class]:share this with class]:

1.1. Describe a major or minor Describe a major or minor stressful life eventstressful life event you have experienced you have experienced [anything you don’t mind discussing].[anything you don’t mind discussing].

2.2. What were the What were the personal factorspersonal factors [personality, resilience, skills, [personality, resilience, skills, knowledge, habits, needs, etc.] that led to the event or helped or knowledge, habits, needs, etc.] that led to the event or helped or hindered your stress response?hindered your stress response?

3.3. What were the What were the environmental factorsenvironmental factors [social/people, physical, [social/people, physical, cultural, political, economic…] that caused the stress &/or added to it?cultural, political, economic…] that caused the stress &/or added to it?

4.4. What was the What was the outcomeoutcome of the event and its negative &/or positive of the event and its negative &/or positive impact on you? impact on you?

Opportunities for Intervention Based on Above & Dohrenwend:Opportunities for Intervention Based on Above & Dohrenwend:1.1. Did you receive any “Did you receive any “crisis interventioncrisis intervention” of any kind? Did/would it ” of any kind? Did/would it

help?help?2.2. How could you have How could you have coped with, or adapted to, the stress coped with, or adapted to, the stress

psychologically or behaviorallypsychologically or behaviorally??3.3. What kinds of What kinds of social or material supportssocial or material supports might have helped you might have helped you

cope with the stress situation? Were they available to you?cope with the stress situation? Were they available to you?4.4. Do you have any Do you have any personal psychological characteristicspersonal psychological characteristics that that

increased the likelihood of the stressful event? What kind of increased the likelihood of the stressful event? What kind of intervention could address those characteristics to intervention could address those characteristics to preventprevent the event? the event?

5.5. What What situation in the environmentsituation in the environment increased the risk of the stressful increased the risk of the stressful event? How could that have been dealt with or event? How could that have been dealt with or preventedprevented??

Comprehensive Ecological Model for Analyzing power Comprehensive Ecological Model for Analyzing power

Dynamics across 4 Domains of Capital & 3 LevelsDynamics across 4 Domains of Capital & 3 Levels Consequence or stage of empowerment/wellness: Oppression Liberation/Empowerment Wellness

(state) (process) (outcome)

Domain of Political: [POLITICAL CAPITAL]Environment/Capital:

Economic: [FINANCIAL CAPITAL]

Physical: [PHYSICAL CAPITAL]Level of Analysis/Intervention: Socio-cultural: [SOCIAL CAPITAL]

Macro/ Collective/ Structural/ Community

political & economic structures in society that threaten social wellness; both oppressed populations & reactive actions of policy makers & stakeholders.

collective social action, community organizing & networks; movements, techniques, community processes & societal policies that lead to attainment of popular goals

macro-level social variables that affect human wellness. Scrutinizes social policies for optimal promotion of community wellness

Meso/Organizational Group/Relational

organizations that violate standards of social justice for workers & communities; group inequities in social wellness

both change in organizations creating social problems & organizational learning, decision-making, & development in groups & institutions addressing social oppression & justice

Identifies/promotes participatory organizational opportunities & methods of reducing social threats & enhancing social wellness

Micro/IndividualPersonal/Psychological (emotional, cognitive, behavioral, spiritual):

relationship between setting-level social conditions & individual powerlessness, helplessness, internalized oppression, guilt, & physical & mental problems

Individual human capital (skills, knowledge), behaviors, & beliefs that affect immediate conditions; social & political consciousness, activism, leadership, & self-efficacy

relationship between social variables & personal wellness; dynamics promoting self-determination, pride, empowerment, health, personal growth, meaning & spirituality

Think about your research &/or intervention interests Think about your research &/or intervention interests or a project you have worked on & consider the or a project you have worked on & consider the following following Questions related to oppression:Questions related to oppression:

The following questions need to be repeated for the 3 levels of analysis The following questions need to be repeated for the 3 levels of analysis and can be applied to any one of the 4 environmental domains. Your and can be applied to any one of the 4 environmental domains. Your research may lend itself to one or more of the environmental research may lend itself to one or more of the environmental domains, in which case you would ask these questions to all domains, in which case you would ask these questions to all applicable domains.  applicable domains.  

1.1. What are the What are the power relationspower relations present at the macro, meso, and present at the macro, meso, and micro levels of analysis?micro levels of analysis?

Who are the players in the relationship? There may be multiple Who are the players in the relationship? There may be multiple relationships at play. Some players may be oppressors in one relationships at play. Some players may be oppressors in one setting and oppressed in others.setting and oppressed in others.

2.2. What What exchangesexchanges take place over time among the various players at take place over time among the various players at the various levels? the various levels?

How do people in various power positions interact with each other. How do people in various power positions interact with each other. What are the dynamics operating here? How do people in various What are the dynamics operating here? How do people in various power positions engage with each other? What techniques do power positions engage with each other? What techniques do people use to oppress others or to resist oppression?people use to oppress others or to resist oppression?

3.3. What are the What are the consequencesconsequences of these power relations at the various of these power relations at the various levels of analysis?levels of analysis?What are the effects of power relations at the different levels for the What are the effects of power relations at the different levels for the multiple players involved? What are the repercussions of oppression multiple players involved? What are the repercussions of oppression for the various individuals or groups?for the various individuals or groups?

Questions related to Questions related to liberation/empowerment:liberation/empowerment:

We are conceptualizing We are conceptualizing liberation and empowerment as a liberation and empowerment as a process.process. This process may be naturally occurring in the environment, This process may be naturally occurring in the environment, without external intervention, or it may be the result of a planned without external intervention, or it may be the result of a planned intervention. intervention.

  1. What 1. What strategiesstrategies are being implemented at each level of analysis to are being implemented at each level of analysis to change the oppressive power relations? change the oppressive power relations?

  What are the formal and informal strategies people use to resist What are the formal and informal strategies people use to resist oppression and pursue liberation? These may be naturally occurring oppression and pursue liberation? These may be naturally occurring processes or generated by a planned intervention. If you are studying a processes or generated by a planned intervention. If you are studying a social phenomenon, there may be resistance processes taking place in social phenomenon, there may be resistance processes taking place in the environment already.the environment already.

  2. What 2. What inhibitinginhibiting and and facilitativefacilitative factors influence the strategies factors influence the strategies and change processes discussed in question 1 above? and change processes discussed in question 1 above?

  Here we would like to know what factors help or hinder strategies to Here we would like to know what factors help or hinder strategies to empower and liberate individuals and groups. What kinds of conditions empower and liberate individuals and groups. What kinds of conditions enable people and groups to resist? What circumstances block the enable people and groups to resist? What circumstances block the development of consciousness and empowerment actions?development of consciousness and empowerment actions?

  3. What 3. What tacticstactics are used to strengthen the facilitative factors and to are used to strengthen the facilitative factors and to reduce the inhibiting factors?reduce the inhibiting factors?

  Once you have identified inhibiting and facilitative factors, we would Once you have identified inhibiting and facilitative factors, we would like to know what tactics individuals and groups use to address them. like to know what tactics individuals and groups use to address them. How do they overcome barriers? How do they reinforce positive How do they overcome barriers? How do they reinforce positive directions toward liberation?directions toward liberation?

Questions related to wellnessQuestions related to wellness We are conceptualizing wellness as an We are conceptualizing wellness as an outcome.outcome.1.1. What was the What was the idealideal outcomeoutcome of your overall strategies in terms of of your overall strategies in terms of

power relations?power relations?As a researcher, what do you consider the ideal outcomes of As a researcher, what do you consider the ideal outcomes of

empowering and liberation processes? empowering and liberation processes? 2.2. What was the What was the expectedexpected immediateimmediate outcome of your tactics in outcome of your tactics in

terms of power relations? terms of power relations? Whereas #1 refers to the best ideal scenario, #2 refers to your Whereas #1 refers to the best ideal scenario, #2 refers to your

more realistic expectations of what can be achieved under the more realistic expectations of what can be achieved under the existing circumstances. existing circumstances.

3.3.   What were the What were the obtainedobtained or or actualactual outcomes of your tactics in outcomes of your tactics in terms of power relations?terms of power relations?Looking at natural and/or planned change processes, what were the Looking at natural and/or planned change processes, what were the

actual outcomes for the people involved? Did they last? If so, for actual outcomes for the people involved? Did they last? If so, for how long did the effects last? Was there an improvement in terms how long did the effects last? Was there an improvement in terms of wellness because of power equalization across people, groups, of wellness because of power equalization across people, groups, communities, nations?communities, nations?

4.4. How do you How do you explainexplain the outcomes? the outcomes?How do you explain potential gaps between actual and ideal or How do you explain potential gaps between actual and ideal or

expected outcomes. What is your theory for explaining how expected outcomes. What is your theory for explaining how wellness is or is not achieved at the various levels of analysis? Is wellness is or is not achieved at the various levels of analysis? Is it possible that wellness is easier to achieve at the lower levels of it possible that wellness is easier to achieve at the lower levels of analysis than at higher levels? How does power equalization analysis than at higher levels? How does power equalization affect wellness at various levels of analysis?affect wellness at various levels of analysis?

Final Questions:Final Questions:

1.1. Can Community Psychology survive Can Community Psychology survive in the future within departments and in the future within departments and organizations of psychology?organizations of psychology?

2.2. Should it become a more truly Should it become a more truly interdisciplinary field (“community interdisciplinary field (“community research & action”)?research & action”)?

3.3. What are the possible costs and What are the possible costs and benefits of #1 and #2?benefits of #1 and #2?

Where to find full text explanation & Where to find full text explanation & argument for the last model:argument for the last model:

http://www.http://www.powercommunitypowercommunity..blogspotblogspot.com/.com/ Prilleltensky, I. (in press). The role of power in wellness, Prilleltensky, I. (in press). The role of power in wellness,

oppression, and liberation: the promise of psychopolitical oppression, and liberation: the promise of psychopolitical validity. Journal of Community Psychology.validity. Journal of Community Psychology. http://people.vanderbilt.edu/~isaac.prilleltensky/power.htmhttp://people.vanderbilt.edu/~isaac.prilleltensky/power.htm

Christens, B., & Perkins, D.D. (in press). Transdisciplinary, Christens, B., & Perkins, D.D. (in press). Transdisciplinary, multilevel action research to enhance ecological and psycho-multilevel action research to enhance ecological and psycho-political validity. political validity. Journal of Community PsychologyJournal of Community Psychology. . http://www.people.vanderbilt.edu/~douglas.d.perkins/ChristensPerkins.Jhttp://www.people.vanderbilt.edu/~douglas.d.perkins/ChristensPerkins.JCP7.rtfCP7.rtf

Center for Community Studies Center for Community Studies http://peabody.vanderbilt.edu/ccs/http://peabody.vanderbilt.edu/ccs/

Monterey Declaration of Critical Community Psychology: Monterey Declaration of Critical Community Psychology: http://www.people.http://www.people.vanderbiltvanderbilt..eduedu/~/~douglasdouglas.d..d.perkinsperkins//ccpdeclccpdecl..htmhtm