Communism and the Emergence of Democracy

8/14/2019 Communism and the Emergence of Democracy

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Communism

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4 Communism and the emer(en)e o! demo)ra)+

demo)ra)+0 1h+ has the .iterature on demo)rati) trans!ormations .ar(e.+dismissed the e5&erien)es0 -e.ie!s0 a.ues0 and &s+)ho.o(+ o! so)ia. moements and dissiden)e -e!ore the i)tor+ o! the &rin)i&.es o! .i-era. &o.iti)a. demo)ra)+Q

A &o.iti)a. anthro&o.o(+ o! trans!ormatie e5&erien)es

Western ana.+sts understood demo)ratisation as the set o! &o.iti)a. &ro)esses in the e5terna. 1or.d o! state institutions2 3he+ !o)us main.+ on theemer(en)e o! demo)rati) e.e)tions0 otin( &ro)edures0 &art+ s+stems0

&ar.iaments0 (oernments0 e)onomi) a(en)ies0 and .e(a. institutions that

1i.. entai. the eDui.i-rium o! a )onstituted &o.iti)a. order2 Conerse.+0 this-ook su((ests that an+ inDuir+ into the emer(en)e o! demo)ra)+ needs to)onsider the as&irations0 e5&e)tations0 and ho&es !ormu.ated -+ &eo&.eunder )onditions o! o&&ression and the denia. o! demo)rati) ri(hts ando&&ortunities2 3o understand the emer(en)e o! demo)ra)+0 there!ore0 1eneed to en(a(e 1ith the e5&erientia. -asis o! )ommunism -+ e5aminin( the&otentia. !or the emer(en)e o! somethin( ne10 1hose authorit+ in thene1.+ )onstituted order ma+ -e .e(itimate and dura-.e2 Histori)a..+0 demo)rati) a)tors )ha..en(ed mono.ithi) &o.iti)a. authorit+ not on the -asis o!).aims that the+ 1ere endo1ed 1ith .e(a. (uarantees0 -ut under )onditionso! e5istentia. un)ertaint+0 e5&osed to threats to their o1n .i!e0 and !undamenta..+ a1are o! the -rokenness o! &o.iti)a. rea.it+2 *emo)ra)+ as a)onstitutiona. !orm has at its root un)onstitutiona. a)ts -e+ond the -oundaries o! e5istin( .a12 Like a.. &ro)esses o! state!ormation or )han(es o!re(ime in the modern 1or.d0 )ommunism and demo)ra)+ hae -een0 to an

im&ortant e5tent0 -ased on a ru&ture o! e.ite )ons)iousness !rom &reiousorders o! re&resentation and &o.iti)a. authorit+2 *emo)ratisation has nota.1a+s ino.ed a meanin(!u. &attern o! (ro1th o! a ne1 re(ime a!ter the

-reakdo1n o! an o.d one2 Contin(ent u&on the )onDuest o! the em&t+s&a)e o! &o1er and its o1n attendant .e(itimisation0 it has -een a .en(th+0on(oin( &ro)ess o! narratie )onstru)tion and s+m-o.i) arti)u.ation2

Rather than ada&t &o.iti)a. rea.it+ to institutions0 a.ues0 and ideo.o(iesdominant in other (eo&o.iti)a. )onte5ts0 one shou.d tr+ to &ro-.ematise

their emer(en)e2 Whi.e &o.iti)a. s)ien)e is .ar(e.+ interested in s&e)i!+in(aria-.es and attri-utes o! demo)ra)+ that distin(uish it !rom non

demo)ra)+0 the inDuir+ into !oundations o! demo)ra)+ shou.d take theana.+st dee&er into histor+ than he has )ommon.+ -een 1i..in( to (o2

8o.iti)a. ana.+sis shou.d de.ineate its o-%e)t o! stud+ -+ takin( into

Rusto10 3ransitions to *emo)ra)+;2


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A(nes HoraGth and Ar&a

Communism and demo)ra)+ a &ro-.ematisation @

a))ount ha&haard and )ontin(ent histori)a. rea.it+2 Whi.e man+ assumea )ausa.it+; o! demo)ra)+0 1hi)h 1ou.d -e %usti!ied -+ the out)ome;0 ortr+ to measure its adeDua)+ 1ith a &redominant mode.;0 the histori)a.eo.ution o! demo)ra)+ has not -een a &redetermined )ourse to1ards anend (oa. o! dee.o&ment2 In Ma5 We-er;s terms0 i! there is an+ meanin(!u. usa(e o! o-%e)t; at a..0 it )an on.+ -e a histori)a. indiidua. that is a)om&.e5 set o! )orre.ations in histori)a. rea.it+ that )an -e )onne)ted as)u.tura..+ meanin(!u.2> Whereas the distant ana.+st )an &res)ri-e 1hatdemo)ra)+ is;0 the mani!o.d so)ia. !oundations o! a histori)a..+ arti)u.ated&ro)ess are not mere.+ rei!ied .e(a)ies;0 )onditions;0 or ariations inout)omes;0 -ut themse.es de!ine the o-%e)t o! stud+2

3his -ook sets demo)ra)+ into the dramati) and )ontin(ent )onte5t o!hi(h.+ disru&tie eents )hara)teristi) o! the rise and !a.. o! )ommunism2A num-er o! re)ent studies hae sho1n ho1 to inte(rate the )ommuniste5&erien)e and its &ra)ti)es in the &rodu)tion o! ne1 meanin(s ands+m-o.s2"= :imi.ar.+0 re)ent 1ork on demo)ratisation has em&hasisedthe im&ortan)e o! domesti) )u.tura. as&e)ts a(ainst dominant a.ue

-ased inter&retations o! Westernt+&e demo)ra)+2"" 3he em&iri)a.!o)us o! this -ook is an inter&retie understandin( o! (reat eents su)has the O)to-er Reo.ution0 the :e)ond Wor.d War0 the sma..; reo.utions in eastern 'uro&e0 and the disarti)u.ation o! )ommunism2 Whi.ethese eents entai.ed momentous trans!ormations in the &o.iti)a. andso)ia. 1or.d0 the+ 1ere a.so e5istentia. )rises entai.in( si(ni!i)ant disru&tions not on.+ -e)ause &o.iti)a. authorit+ 1as dee&.+ )ontested -ut a.so

-e)ause a)Duired meanin(s disso.ed0 &uttin( &asts and !utures at stake23hese )rises 1ere0 to an im&ortant e5tent0 &ro)esses o! )ommunion

amon( those de&endent on a )ommon )ause0 as&irin( to a )o..e)tieidentit+0 1hi)h 1ou.d -e determined a(ainst the outside2

> Ma5 We-er01esammelte Au$sat)e )ur #eligionsso)iologie63u-in(enP Mohr0 ">70 ?="2"= Gd:ako.)ai0TheDissolutiono$CommunistPower!TheCaseo$

2ungary6LondonP Rout.ed(e0 ">>7 :te&hen Fotkin0agnetic ountain! Stalinism as aCivili)ation6,erke.e+P 9niersit+ o! Ca.i!ornia 8ress0 ">>@7 :te&hen '2 Hanson0Timeand #evolution! arxism and the Design o$ Soviet Institutions 6Cha&e. Hi.. and LondonP

9niersit+ o! orth Caro.ina 8ress0 ">>7 Mi)hae. 9r-an et a.20The #e3irth o$ Politicsin #ussia6Cam-rid(eP Cam-rid(e 9niersit+ 8ress0 ">>7 O.e( Fharkhordin0TheCollective and the Individual in #ussia! A Study o$ Practices 6,erke.e+P 9niersit+ o!Ca.i!ornia 8ress0 ">>>72

"" i)o.ai 8etro0The #e3irth o$ #ussian Democracy! An Interpretation o$ Political Culture6Cam-rid(e0 MAP Harard 9niersit+ 8ress0 ">>@7 Je!!re+ Isaa)0 Democracy in DarkTimes6Itha)a and LondonP Corne.. 9niersit+ 8ress0 ">>7 Ri)hard :ak1a0 ed20 The"xperience o$ Democratisation6LondonP Ma)mi..an0 ">>>7 John *r+ek and Les.ieHo.mes0Post-Communist Democrati)ation 6Cam-rid(eP Cam-rid(e 9niersit+ 8ress0==7 Lauren)e Whitehead0Democratisation! Theory and "xperience 6O5!ordP O5!ord

9niersit+ 8ress0 ==72


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B Communism and the emer(en)e o! demo)ra)+

I! these eents are in).uded in the stud+ o! demo)ratisation0 it is not-e)ause an+ o! these eents is demo)rati); in terms o! a )onstitutiona.!orm2 Rather0 these e5&erien)es hae had a de)isie in!.uen)e on attitudesand &ra)ti)es o! indiidua.s0 meanin(s o! demo)ra)+0 and the dee.o&ment o! the )on)e&t2 A &o.iti)a. anthro&o.o(+ shi!ts attention a1a+ !rom

&ositiist or a &riori normatie mode.s that &re)ede a)tion and to1ardse5&erien)es o! histori)a. ru&tures2 3he dua.!a)eted a&&roa)h )hara)teristi) o! the modern e&isteme either redu)es e5&erien)e to sense &er)e&tion0 as in the )ase o! em&iri)ism and &ositiism0 or assumes e5&erien)esare )haoti) and unstru)tured0 and there!ore )on)eia-.e on.+ throu(h the)ate(ories o! the mind2 3his -ook0 in )ontrast0 understands trans!orma

tie e5&erien)es in a dou-.e sense2 Ana.+ti)a..+0 trans!ormatie e5&erien)es )an -e )onsidered as a methodo.o(i)a. too. -+ 1hi)h to understandthe rationa.it+; o! a)tion in dramati) reo.utionar+ situations )hara)terised -+ un)ertaint+ and the -rokenness o! &o.iti)a. rea.it+2 :u-stantia..+0trans!ormatie e5&erien)es re!er to the .iin( throu(h o! e5)e&tiona.)ir)umstan)es at )riti)a. %un)tures -+ )ontem&oraries and the emer(en)eo! ne1 states o! )ons)iousness2 A &o.iti)a. anthro&o.o(+ o! trans!ormatiee5&erien)es e5amines ho1 -reakdo1ns o! di!!erent &o.iti)a. orders andtheir attendant s+m-o.i) unierses trans!orm )ons)iousness0 meanin(s0and -e.ie!s in indiidua.s2

In other 1ords0 the -reakdo1n and the )onso.idation o! a re(ime needto -e set in the )onte5t o! an irru&tion in the &er)eied and s+m-o.i)a..+sustained0 ordered )ourse o! .i!e2 In the tradition esta-.ished -+ Eriedri)h

iets)he and Wi.he.m *i.the+0 the &ioneerin( studies -+ Ma5 We-er0'ri) Voe(e.in0 Mi)he. Eou)au.t0 or-ert '.ias0 and C.aude Le!ort hae

su((ested that the )onstitution o! &o.iti)a. su-%e)ts0 )o..e)tie and indiidua.0 o))urs throu(h e5&erien)es and ensuin( !undamenta. )han(es in)ons)iousness2""70 2


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rea.it+ and the disso.ution o! order that make u& the essen)e o! histor+2 I!there is )ontinuit+ and re&etition0 it is the re&etition o! disarti)u.ation01hi)h shou.d in!orm inDuiries into the esta-.ishment o! &o.iti)a. order23his is not -e)ause ru&ture is the ru.e0 -ut -e)ause the e5)e&tiona.

)ondition o! disarti)u.ation o! order 1i.. in!.uen)e the arti)u.ation o!ne1 &o.iti)a. authorit+ most &ro!ound.+2 3his is 1h+ understandin( theemer(en)e o! a )onstitutiona. !orm reDuires re)oerin( the &rima)+ o! thehistori)a. eent 64v4nementialiser72"4It (oes a.on( 1ith the need to disentan(.e the so)ia. !oundations o! underdetermined moments o! disorder0to take into a))ount a ru&ture o! eiden)e or o! the taken!or(ranted2

An understandin( o! the &o.iti)a. as e5&erien)e (oes -e+ond a s)ienti!i)

a&&roa)h in 1hi)h kno1.ed(e !inds its se.!assuran)e -+ de!inin( &o.iti)a.rea.it+ in terms o! a soerei(n distan)e -et1een the su-%e)t and theso)ia.2"@ 3he institution o! the so)ia. order )annot -e .imited to the)om&arison o! stru)tures and s+stems as o-%e)tie !or)es2 Rather0 it issimu.taneous.+ )on!ronted 1ith the Duestion o! its o1n institution2 3hehistori)a. &ro)ess o! human re.ations )reates meanin( and &rodu)esmarkers !or distin(uishin( -et1een true and !a.se0 %ust and un%ust0 andima(inar+ and rea.2 It a.so esta-.ishes the horions o! human -ein(s;re.ations 1ith one another and 1ith the 1or.d2 In Mi)he. Eou)au.t;sterms0 histor+ -e)omes e!!e)tie;; to the de(ree that it introdu)es dis)ontinuit+ into our er+ -ein( as it diides our emotions0 dramatises ourinstin)ts0 mu.ti&.ies our -od+ and sets it a(ainst itse.!;2"B

A &o.iti)a. anthro&o.o(+ o! trans!ormatie e5&erien)es ado&ts threedi!!erent -ut interre.ated &ers&e)ties on dis)ontinuit+ in the histori)a.eo.ution o! )ommunism2 Initia..+0 the emer(en)e o! )ommunism and

demo)ra)+ reDuire understandin( the !ormation o! )ons)iousness anddis&ositions o! a)tors in the authorit+ a)uum o! the em&t+ s&a)e o!&o1er2 Reo.utionar+ situations and )riti)a. %un)tures o! histor+ are noton.+ )haoti) and anar)hi)a. -ut a.so hae their o1n rationa.it+ that&rodu)es ne1 states o! )ons)iousness2 Eurthermore0 reo.utionar+ eents)an -e a&&roa)hed throu(h the a)ts o! s+m-o.isation that reesta-.ish theeDui.i-rium .ost -+ the disso.ution o! order0 stru)tures0 and markers o!)ertaint+2 'entua..+0 one needs to a)kno1.ed(e that su)h eents haehad enormous e!!e)ts on identities as 1e.. as on inter&retations o!

&asts and !utures2 3his is 1h+ inter&retations o! meanin( need to addressthe &o1er o! memor+ and the de)onstru)tion o! se)ond rea.it+; as

"4 Mi)he. Eou)au.t0Dits et 4crits *+5-*+660 o.2 IV 68arisP a..imard0


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t1o )ru)ia. methods o! denoun)in( the .o(i) o! io.en)e )hara)teristi) o!)ommunism2

A&&roa)hin( the em&t+ s&a)e o! &o1er

An im&ortant tradition in demo)rati) theor+ has redu)ed &o1er to the)a&a)it+ o! an institutiona.ised set o! ru.es and norms to )ontro. thea)tions0 -ehaiour0 and res&onses o! )itiens2" 3his 1a+ o! de!inin(

&o.iti)a. authorit+ as a )om&.e5 set o! &ro)edures that )om&e. the )om&.ian)e o! the )itienr+ has !o)used on the .imitin( e!!e)ts o! &o1erthrou(h a))ounta-i.it+ and ru.e o! .a12 :imi.ar.+0 )onstitutiona.ism

in).udes determinants o! (oernmenta. de)isions and &res)ri-ed ru.esthat )ontro. the -ehaiour o! )itiens and in!.uen)e the .e(itimate distri

-ution o! &o1er amon( (oernment o!!i)ia.s2 Histori)a..+ and .o(i)a..+0ho1eer0 the )onstitution o! &o1er in a reo.ution means not the .imitation -ut the !oundation and )orre)t distri-ution o! &o1er2 In the stru((.e oer the Ameri)an Constitution0 !or instan)e0 the main Duestion 1asnot a-out .imited; (oernment -ut a-out ho1 to esta-.ish &o1er2 "

MontesDuieu;s su((estion that &o1er arrests &o1er; is not s+non+mous

1ith a ).aim that the &o1er o! .a1s )he)ks the &o1er o! man2 La1s do not&ree5ist their !orma.isation in the sense o! im&osed standards0 )ommands0 or &ositiist .e(a.it+2

In this s&irit0 a &o.iti)a. anthro&o.o(+ o! trans!ormatie e5&erien)estrans)ends the ).assi!i)ator+ )ate(or+ o! &o.iti)s as )onstituted &o1er2Eo..o1in( C.aude Le!ort;s distin)tion -et1eenla politi7ue6&o.iti)s7 andle politi7ue6the &o.iti)a.70 one must di!!erentiate -et1een t1o rea.itiesP on

the one hand0 a &re)onstituted domain o! &o.iti)s as de.imited 1ithin theso)ia. order a(ainst the non&o.iti)a. !ie.ds o! so)iet+ or the e)onom+ onthe other0 the )onditions under 1hi)h a &o.iti)a. order is instituted inso)ia. and histori)a. rea.it+ 1ith the aim at )onstitutin( order on the -asiso! )onstitutie &rin)i&.es2 3he essen)e o! &o.iti)s is not in the )onstitutedorder o! norms and ru.es -ut is !ound in the e5)e&tion0 1here the &o1er o!rea. .i!e -reaks throu(h the )rust o! a me)hanism that has -e)ome tor&idthrou(h re&etition2">3he essen)e o! soerei(nt+ is not in the mono&o.+ o!

san)tion or &o1er -ut in the mono&o.+ o! de)ision2

" Ro-ert A2 *ah.0A Pre$ace to Democratic Theory6Chi)a(o and LondonP 9niersit+ o!Chi)a(o 8ress0 ">@B70 "? and "?@2

" Hannah Arendt0/n #evolution6LondonP Ea-er and Ea-er0 ">B?70 "4B2"> Car. :)hmitt0The Concept o$ the Political6Chi)a(o and LondonP 9niersit+ o! Chi)a(o

8ress0 ">>B70 "@2


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3he )onditions o! institutiona.ised (oernment )on)ea. that )onstituent &o1er is .o(i)a..+ &rior to )onstitutiona. arran(ements2 Histori)a..+0the stru)ture o! soerei(nt+ is .ike.+ to -e arti)u.ated in e5)e&tiona.situations o! an authorit+ a)uum2 3hus0 it is reasona-.e to assume thatno &o.iti)a. a)t eer )on!orms to the standard o! -ein( .e(itimate in termso! a (enera..+ a))e&ted soerei(n authorit+2= As &o.iti)a. a)ts a.1a+s .a)k!u.. .e(itima)+ 1hen ena)ted0 soerei(nt+ o))urs 1ith a tem&ora. (a&-et1een a)t and the )onsent that a&&roes and ena-.es it2 3he Eren)hReo.ution not on.+ tar(eted the a-so.ute &o1er o! the monar)h0 -ut hadto .e(itimate a ne1.+ ere)ted )onstitutiona. order 1hose !ounders 1erethemse.es un)onstitutiona.2 3heir authorit+ to set do1n the !unda

menta. .a1 re.ied on the need to de!ine identities and interests o! the&eo&.e not -+ means o! )onstitutiona..+ (ranted &o.iti)a. authorit+ -ut ina .e(a. oid2 :ie+eSs;s distin)tion -et1een )onstituent &o1er and )onstituted &o1er su((ested that the authorit+ o! the )onstituted &o1er )ou.dnot -e (uaranteed -+ the )onstituent &o1er0 as the .atter 1as &rior to the)onstitution itse.!2470 ?@2

? C.aude Le!ort0"ssais sur le politi7ue68arisP :eui.0 ">B70 "B2


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in a reo.utionar+ situation reDuired &uttin( the .a1 a-oe man2 >7042


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e5er)ise o! &o1er -e)omes su-%e)t to a &eriodi) )om&etition !or this&o1er2 ,ein( the ru.e o! the &eo&.e in their o1n interest0 &o1er in ademo)ra)+ emanates !rom the &eo&.e -ut it -e.on(s to no3ody2 3hisem&t+ s&a)e o! &o1er )omes a.on( 1ith the disin)or&oration; o! indiidua.s 1ho are se&arated !rom )or&orate -odies or natura.; hierar)hiesto -e)ome the sma..est units o! the ne1 t+&e o! so)ia. re.ations2 3hisdou-.e disin)or&oration o! the so)ia. -od+ and the mono.ithi) &o.iti)a.

-od+ means that demo)ra)+ in the modern era must take a))ount o! thede&th o! histori)a. ru&ture and the &ro!ound reersa.s in meanin(s0re&resentations0 and s+m-o.s2

Whi.e this idea o! )onstituent &o1er is )ru)ia. !or modern )onstitution

a.ism and the idea o! the nationstate0 it a.so intimates that the se&aration-et1een .a1 and io.en)e is not as ).ear as )onstitutiona. (oernment inmodern states 1ou.d su((est2 A.thou(h the state as a s+stem o! )onstitutiona..+ -ased institutions hed(es io.en)e -+ mono&o.isin( it0 the io.entnature o! a &restate )ommunit+ is not remoed2 A.read+ in Ho--es;s%eviathanthe state o! nature suries in the &erson o! the soerei(n2 3hesoerei(n &reseres hisius naturale contra omnesand thus is not su-%e)t to)ii. .a1s2Whi.e in an)ient ree)e)o9did not -e.on( to the &u-.i) rea.m0 modern &o.iti)s is -ased on the entr+

o!)o9into the s&here o! the &o.is2 3he )onstitutiona. !oundation o!modern demo)ra)+ inha3eas corpuso! "B> did not make the o.d su-%e)t


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"< Communism and the emer(en)e o! demo)ra)+

o! !euda. re.ations0 the !ree man0 or the !uture )itien -ut the -od+ 6corpus7the ne1 su-%e)t o! &o.iti)s2 3he reo.utionar+ ru&ture o! "> &ut )ro1da)tion and -are .i!e on to the sta(e o! &o.iti)s2 3he oerthro1 o! !euda.order resu.ted in the )onstitution o! soerei(n &o1er0 1hi)h arti)u.ated

&o.iti)a. so)iet+ -+ in).udin( the &o.iti)isation o! -are .i!e 1ith its &otentia..+ -ene!i)ia. and destru)tie e!!e)ts2 3he soerei(n stru)ture o! .a1deries its &e)u.iar and ori(ina. !or)e !rom the state o! e5)e&tion in 1hi)h!a)t and .a1 are indistin(uisha-.e2?=I! the e5)e&tion is the stru)ture o!soerei(nt+0 then it )eases to -e an e5).usie.+ &o.iti)a. )on)e&t or %uridi)a. )ate(or+2 3he e5)e&tion is the ori(inar+ stru)ture in 1hi)h the )reation o! .a1 re!ers to .i!e and in).udes it in itse.! -+ sus&endin( it2

3he modern se)u.ar state as the ho.der o! the .e(itimate mono&o.+ o!the means o! io.en)e hed(es io.en)e in the interests o! the se)urit+ o!its )itiens -ut it does not make io.en)e disa&&ear2 3he state -rou(ht.i!e into the )entre o! &o.iti)s not on.+ in terms o! &rote)tin( ina.iena-.eri(hts -ut a.so in terms o! .i!e;s &o.iti)isation2 It )ame to dis&ose o! .i!e -+)ontro..in(0 dis)i&.inin(0 and0 i! ne)essar+0 annihi.atin( it as a too. !oresta-.ishin( and maintainin( &o1er2 Whi.e the re!eren)e to the hi(hesta.ue o! the )o..e)tie -od+0 human .i!e0 took the &.a)e o! a trans)endenta.od0 the disru&tions o! norma. &o.iti)s; threatened the -od+&o.iti) -+the dan(erous &assions o! )ro1ds and se.!interested !a)tions0 -ut a.so o!&u-.i) o&inion2 :imi.ar.+0 the state;s )a&a-i.it+ o! 1a(in( 1ar and o!dis&osin( o! the &eo&.e;s .ies im&.ies the dou-.e &ossi-i.it+ o! e5&e)tin(!rom its o1n mem-ers the readiness to unhesitatin(.+ ki.. enemies and todie !or the nation2

In this ein0 modern demo)ra)+ has -een am-ia.ent a-out .i!e as its

hi(hest a.ue0 an am-ia.en)e that is )on)ea.ed in the &rin)i&.e o! &reserin( human .i!e and di(nit+ in )onstituted &o1er0 -ut that -e)omesa&&arent in the em&t+ s&a)e o! &o1er2 3he &eo&.e are simu.taneous.+ thesour)e o! &o1er and its i)tims0 due to the (rantin( o! )ontro. oerindiidua.s; .ies to the state2 Whi.e reo.utionar+ io.en)e e5).udess&e)i!i) &arts o! the &eo&.e 6in terms o! -are .i!e7 -+ mass io.en)e andterror0 it in).udes the &eo&.e; in terms o! arti)u.atin( the nation; or thedi)tatorshi& o! the &ro.etariat; as a re&resentationa. &rin)i&.e 1ith the)a&a)it+ o! )onstituent &o1er2 I! dates su)h as ">0 ">"0 ">@B0 ">B0">=/"0 or ">> arouse emotions een toda+0 this is -e)ause the

)onstitution o! &o.iti)a. authorit+ has not e5).usie.+ -een a matter o!&o.iti)a. reason or &ositiist .e(a.it+0 -ut has -een (enerated throu(h the

?=

A(am-en02omo Sacer0 >2


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Communism and demo)ra)+ a &ro-.ematisation "?

&o.iti)isation o! -are .i!e2 3he reo.utionar+ ru&ture in "> introdu)eddemo)rati) &o.iti)s;0 1ith mode.s o! &o&u.ar soerei(nt+ su)h asthe nation; and re&u-.i)anism;2 Yet0 the demo)rati) moment o! thereo.utionar+ ru&ture )ontained the &otentia. !or tota.itarian &o.iti)s23o)Duei..e;s )on)e&tua.isation o! so)ia. demo)ra)+ 1as )hara)terised-+ the &remonition o! its reersa.0 a.read+ &resa(in( that o.d notions su)has des&otism or t+rann+ 1ou.d not -e su!!i)ient to make sense o! it2?"3he&arado5 o! modern demo)ra)+ )onsists in the !a)t that it 1ants to &ut the!reedom and ha&&iness o! men into &.a+ in the er+ &.a)e -are .i!e that-e!ore had marked their su-%u(ation2?


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a-stra)t theor+ o! )haos &re)edin( order0 -ut it &oints to the histori)a..+)on)rete situation that )omes a-out on)e order is sus&ended2 3hee5)e&tion re&resents the &ermanent.+ &resent as&e)t o! &o.iti)s0 as therea.isation o! the &ermanent &re)ariousness o! .i!e2 3he irru&tion o! )risisand the dis.o)ation o! e5istin( stru)tures is0 in anthro&o.o(i)a. terms0 a.imina. situation0 1here the si(ni!i)ant u&heaa. o! eer+da+ .i!eintrodu)es a dramati) dimension on a so)ia. s)a.e2?@

As the &ath-reakin( 1orks o! Mi)he. *o-r+ and Wi..iam :e1e.. haear(ued0 su)h )on%un)tura. stru)tures; or !.uid )on%un)tures; are notsim&.+ )haoti) -ut sho1 )ertain re(u.arities o! thou(ht0 -ehaiour0 ands+m-o.i) stru)tures;2?B *ramati) e5&erien)es are not s+non+mous 1ith

anar)h+ or so)ia. oid -ut are in themse.es stru)tured and inte..i(i-.e0and )an -e ana.+sed on their o1n terms2 A )entra. )on)ern !or a ne1s)ien)e o! &o.iti)s0 as su((ested -+ 3o)Duei..e0 Voe(e.in0 or Le!ort0 1asto sho1 that the e5isten)e o! &o.iti)a. so)ieties shou.d not -e measured -+)om&arin( order and disorder2? Eor these theorists0 the histor+ o! humanarran(ements has not -een a series o! ariations in s)ienti!i)a..+ measura-.e out)omes -ut an o&enended &ro)ess o! tensions -et1een order anddisorder0 -et1een truth and the de!ormation o! rea.it+2 Histor+ is not a)ontinuous stream o! meanin(!u. e5isten)e -ut s)attered 1ith si(ni!i)antdisru&tions0 1here meanin(!u. e5isten)e0 truth0 and the sense o! rea.it+are de!ormed2 '5isten)e has the stru)ture o! the in-et1een0 o! the8.atoni)metaxy0 and i! an+thin( is )onstant in the histor+ o! mankind itis the .an(ua(e o! tension -et1een .i!e and death0 immorta.it+ and morta.it+0 &er!e)tion and im&er!e)tion0 time and time.essness -et1een orderand disorder0 truth and untruth0 sense and sense.essness o! e5isten)e2; ?

:o)ia. and indiidua. .i!e &ro)eed some1here -et1een the ima(inar+e5tremes o! a-so.ute order and )haoti)0 o!ten anar)hi) )on!.i)t2 Whi.ethere is an end.ess tension -et1een the t1o e5tremes as &otentia. s)enarios0 there is a.so remarka-.e simi.arit+ as re(ards the anthro&o.o(i)a.-asis o! su)h disru&tions2

?@

Vi)tor 3urner0/n the "dge o$ the 8ush63u)sonP 9niersit+ o! Ariona 8ress0 ">@70>B70 4""2

? 3o)Duei..e0Democracy in America0 'ri) Voe(e.in0The ;ew Science o$ Politics! AnIntroduction6Chi)a(o and LondonP 9niersit+ o! Chi)a(o 8ress0 ">7 Le!ort0 "ssais surle politi7ue0 =2

? 'ri) Voe(e.in0The Collected 0orks0 o.2 UII0Pu3lished "ssays *+-*+6


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Criti)a. eents and their s+m-o.isations

8o.iti)a. trans!ormations hin(e on the !.uid )on%un)ture o! )riti)a. eentsas the+ o))ur throu(h the simu.taneous emer(en)e o! )onstitutiona. orderand the )on)ea.ment o! the method o! its esta-.ishment2 *es&ite their&otentia..+ destru)tie e.ements0 e5traordinar+ reo.utionar+ situationsare there!ore not on.+ interru&tions o! &ea)e!u. order -ut the+ a.so )reateinterna. !or)es that 1i.. eentua..+ sustain a ne1 order2 An+ authoritatieand )onstitutie a)t o! !oundation is -ound to reerse )u.tura. re&resentations0 .e(itimate meanin(s0 and the &s+)ho.o(+ o! &u-.i) o&inion2 3hese&ro)esses o! arti)u.ation are re.eant !or demo)ratisation0 as the+ them

se.es )reate s+m-o.s0 -e.ie!s0 and meanin(s0 1hi)h -e)ome dis)ursie&atterns that sustain .e(itima)+2 In man+ 1a+s0 institutions are .ike medi)ines2 3heir su))ess de&ends not on.+ on their Dua.it+ or dosa(e -ut a.soon the nature o! the -od+ the+ are a&&.ied to2 3he+ )an su))eed in the.on( term on.+ i! the -od+ a))e&ts the )ure2

3o so.e the &ro-.em o! )onstitutie !oundations0 1e need to a))e&tthat the notion o! )onstitution har-ours a dou-.e meanin(2 Eirst0 it

)on)erns the resu.ts o! su)h )onstitutie a)ts0 i2e2 )onstitution in the

sense o! a 1ritten do)ument and the ru.es and .a1s emanatin( !romit2?>:e)ond0 it )an re!er to a )onstitutie a)t that &re)edes a re(ime and)onstitutes a &eo&.e as a &o.iti)a. )ommunit+2 In the understandin( o!3homas 8aine0 the Ameri)an Constitution 1as not the a)t o! a (oernment0 -ut o! a &eo&.e )onstitutin( a (oernment2 3he 1riters o! theAmeri)an Constitution understood themse.es as !ounders re.+in( u&onthe authorit+ o! their a)t o! !oundation2 Whi.e the main &ro-.em o!

the !ounders o! the 9nited :tates 1as not a-out ho1 to .imit &o1er -utho1 to esta-.ish it0 the Eren)h reo.utionaries 1ere )on)erned 1ith dismant.in( a !euda. order2 3here!ore0 )onstitutiona. &rin)i&.es su)h as the*e).aration o! the Ri(hts o! Man and the Citien &ostu.ated ri(hts thatdid not indi)ate the .imitations o! .a1!u. (oernment -ut 1ere its er+!oundation2 3he )onstitutiona. &ro)ess in Eran)e -et1een "> and">" 1as )on!ronted 1ith the di!!i)u.t+ o! ho1 to make inte..i(i-.e ane1 )onstitution !or a -od+&o.iti) that had a natura. )onstitution2 4=

Moreoer0 i! the soerei(nt+ o! the nation )ou.d )reate a )onstitutionde novo0 )ou.d it not -e a-o.ished and re&.a)ed on the (rounds o! the same&rin)i&.eQ

?> Arendt0/n #evolution0 "4


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3he nation )an -e desi(nated as the u.timate sour)e o! )onstituent&o1er on.+ i! there is a )redi-.e re)i&ro)it+ -et1een .eaders and !o..o1ers23his )annot -e a)hieed 1ithout the di!!usion o! demo)rati) )ons)iousness into the so)ia. rea.m2 ,e!ore demo)ra)+ is institutiona.ised0 the&eo&.e; must a)Duire a se.!)ons)iousness that &o1er emanates !rom itand is e5er)ised -+ it 6or its re&resentaties7 !or the (ood o! the 1ho.e)ommunit+2 As the idea o! &o&u.ar (oernment rests u&on an un)onstitutiona. a)t0 it must -e ena)ted -+ a s&e)i!i) t+&e o! su-%e)tiit+2 3hes+m-o.ism -+ 1hi)h a )o..e)tie )ommunit+ a))e&ts re&resentation o!its &o1er reDuires that indiidua.s re)o(nise the Other as a !e..o1 human-ein(2

3o m+ kno1.ed(e0 the most !arrea)hin( theor+ that tries to e5&.ain the!oundation o! )u.ture and so)ia. order -+ )onne)tin( the moda.ities o! ahistori)a..+ rea. io.ent )risis 1ith a (eneratin( &rin)i&.e o! )o..e)ties+m-o.ism that is )onstant.+ hidden on)e )u.ture and so)iet+ are instituted is ReneG irard;s mimeti) theor+24"A))ordin( to irard0 )u.tura.and so)ia. order is -ui.t u&on the ritua.isation o! a sa)ri!i)ia. uniDuei)tim2 :o)ia. order emanates !rom an e5)e&tiona..+ traumati) e5&erien)e1here0 in the a-sen)e o! -indin( .e(a. re.ations0 the e5&u.sion o! -are.i!e and the )o..e)tie re)o(nition o! res&onsi-i.it+ !or this a)t &roide the(eneratie &rin)i&.e2 Mimeti) theor+ is )on(ruous 1ith the )entra. idea o!modern &o.iti)a. theor+ that io.en)e and the !ear o! io.en)e are (eneratie o! order2 3he mimeti) h+&othesis0 ho1eer0 does not assume man;sinnate.+ dan(erous nature -ut )on%e)tures that mimeti) -ehaiour is theanthro&o.o(i)a. )onstant in human re.ations2 9nder )onditions o! .e(a..+(uaranteed and )u.tura..+ sustained order0 mimeti) re.ations are un)on

s)ious &ro)esses o! imitation that hae a &ositie; )a&a)it+ !or the dee.o&ment o! )u.ture0 edu)ation0 and kno1.ed(e2 3heir ne(atie; )a&a)it+arises !rom the -ound.essness o! a)tion0 1here .e(a. -oundaries andhierar)hi)a. so)ia. di!!erentiations are sus&ended2 3he re)i&ro)it+ o! a)+).e o! en(ean)e and re&risa.s is -rou(ht to an end -+ the murder0death0 or e5&u.sion o! a sa)ri!i)ia. i)tim u&on 1hi)h the )ommunit+unanimous.+ un-urdens their (ui.t2 3he &h+si)a. annihi.ation o! a i)tim-e)omes the (uarantee !or &ea)e and sta-i.it+ in the )ommunit+2 3he

e5&u.sion o! the s)a&e(oat is not a mere m+tho.o(i)a. narratie -ut a)on)rete murder that -e)omes a so)ia. &ra)ti)e in the ritua.ised )ommemoration o! this ori(ina. unanimit+2470" irard0Things 2idden Since the 'oundation o$ the 0orld 6,a.timoreP Johns Ho&kins9niersit+ 8ress0 ">70 4=2

472

44 Immanue. Fant0 Idea !or a 9niersa. Histor+ 1ith a Cosmo&o.itan Intent;0 in Fant0Perpetual Peace and /ther "ssays0 ed2 3ed Hum&hre+ 6Indiana&o.isP Ha)kett0 ">?70 >4=2

4@ Ho--es0De cive0 ed2 H2 Warrender 6O5!ordP O5!ord 9niersit+ 8ress0 ">?70 >=2


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motiated on.+ -+ his &assions2 In his mode.0 so)ia. and &o.iti)a. re.ationsare a means !or the &ursuit o! se.!&reseration -+ indiidua.s as ana-so.ute end2 3he idea that indiidua.s not +et ino.ed in so)ia. re.ationsori(ina..+ kno1 their o1n interests and the )onseDuen)es o! their )hoi)es0ho1eer0 seems to -e .o(i)a..+ in)oherent2 3his indiidua.isti) theor+ o!so)ia. order does not e5&.ain ho1 se.!&reseration as the )entra. interesto! the indiidua. emer(es under )onditions in 1hi)h indiidua.s are!undamenta..+ iso.ated !rom ea)h other2 Eor a so)ia. order to -e &ossi-.e0indiidua.s must !irst re)o(nise ea)h other;s 1orth o! -ein( &resered2:e.!&reseration is a re.ationa. )on)e&t0 as 1e a.. need to see the 1orth o!our &reseration re)o(nised -+ other human -ein(s24B

Whi.e in Ho--es;s %eviathan the soerei(n is su-stantia..+ in).usie0 ashe in)or&orates his su-%e)t as one &erson0 the oera.. stru)ture o! theso)ia. )ontra)t 1orks on the -asis o! e5).usion2 It .eaes the soerei(noutside the re)i&ro)a. )ontra)t o! eer+one 1ith eer+one0 makin( thisso)ia. )ontra)t a unit+ minus one2 In a simi.ar ein0 Rousseau;s idea o! ademo)ra)+ in a nation reDuires the &resen)e o! an enem+ as a &re)ondition !or a nationa. unit+ and indiisi-i.it+2 :o)ia. )ontra)t theor+0 -+ana.o(+ 1ith ).assi)a. m+ths0 !o..o1s the sa)ri!i)ia. .o(i) 1here-+ a i)timis trans!i(ured -oth !or the 1orse as a s)a&e(oat to -e e5&e..ed and !or the

-etter in terms o! -rin(in( &ea)e to the )ommunit+2 In the anthro&o.o(+&roided -+ mimeti) theor+0 the re)i&ro)it+ o! hatred0 en(ean)e0 andmurder )an -e oer)ome -+ inter&retation2 Rather than to ritua.ise the)o..e)tie.+ a&&roed (ui.t o! the i)tim0 indiidua.s ma+ re)o(nise thei)tim;s inno)en)e2 In this )ase the &a)i!+in( )onseDuen)e o! ritua. is notin the )ommemoration o! the murder0 -ut in the )ommemoration o! the

inno)en)e o! the i)tim2 A))ordin( to irard0 the os&e.s are the on.+te5ts that un)oer the me)hanisms u&on 1hi)h m+ths are -ased2 A i)tim-e)omes a sa)ri!i)ia. one not due to its &h+si)a. state -ut due to themeanin( as)ri-ed to this state2 3his inherent dem+tho.o(isation is dueto the !a)t that the resurre)tion o! Jesus entai.ed a dissident moement inthe so)ia. 1or.d2 3he dissemination o! Christian do)trine throu(h thedis)i&.es insisted on the inno)en)e o! the i)tim and thus -roke the )ir).eo! ritua. sa)ri!i)e as the !oundation m+th o! )u.ture2 I! it had not -een !or

this dissident moement0 the death o! Jesus 1ou.d hae -e)ome %ustanother m+thi)a. a))ount0 1hi)h 1ou.d hae assem-.ed the &er&etratorsaround the i)tim 1ho is -oth sa)ri!i)ed and diinised2

4B A.essandro 8iorno0 On the Indiidua.isti) 3heor+ o! :o)ia. Order;0 in 8ierre ,ourdieuand James Co.eman0 eds20Social Theory $or a Changing Society6,ou.derP Westie1 8ress0

">>"70""2


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3he mimeti) )+).e o! en(ean)e and io.en)e dra1s &eo&.e to !o..o1the )o..e)tie un)ons)ious drie to1ards &erse)ution0 denun)iation0 or1it)h huntin(2 Yet histor+ &roides mani!o.d e5am&.es 1here &eo&.e noton.+ a)t in &ursuit o! their se.!interest and se.!&reseration2 3he+ )ana.so a)t a(ainst their se.!interest i! the+ are 1i..in( to sa)ri!i)e their &ositionin so)iet+0 their &resti(e0 or een their .i!e !or the sake o! denoun)in( thesa)ri!i)ia. .o(i) in the name o! .iin( in truth2 Histori)a..+0 !reedom )annot-e assumed as a )onstituted (ien &rote)ted -+ soerei(nt+ and the .a12 AsJan 8ato)ka has su((ested0 !reedom is &ossi-.e on.+ as a 1ork o! )ons)iousness that re.ies u&on e5&erien)es o! )ommunities o! !ate2 4 3he dire)t)on!rontation 1ith the &re)ariousness o! .i!e in the !ront .ines o! a 1ar or

in the &ersistent humi.iation -+ a tota.itarian re(ime e5&oses .i!e as unshe.tered and un&rote)ted -+ the (uarantees o! the ru.e o! .a12 Ereedom)annot -e assumed to &ree5ist unshe.tered .i!e -ut rather arises !rom theso.idarit+ o! the shakenP that is0 !rom those 1ho hae .earnt to )o&e 1ith&re)arious e5istentia. )onditions and to stand u& a(ainst them in a !ear.essand determined manner2 Hen)e0 an inter&retie inDuir+ into demo)ratisation o! a (ien &o.iti)a. order shou.d aoid the !ata.ist tem&tation o!man;s su-ordination to state io.en)e as 1e.. as the idea.ist tem&tation o!seein( .i-era. demo)ra)+ as a dee.o&menta. (oa.2 Rather0 it needs to&ro-.ematise ho1 )ommunities o! !ate make sense o! the un)onstitutiona.it+ o! &o.iti)a. e5isten)e2

A&&roa)hin( the emer(en)e o! demo)ra)+0 there!ore0 reDuires anen(a(ement 1ith eents in 1hi)h man+ o! the taken!or(ranted essentia.so!demo)ra)+ su)h assoerei(nt+0 ru.eo! .a10 or indiidua. !reedom are noton.+ not (ien -ut su-stantia..+ threatened2 Communities o! !ate )an

&otentia..+ (ie rise to traditions; 1ith a !u..+ dee.o&ed identit+0 or eento moements;0 1hi)h are &o.iti)a..+ a)tie 1ithin histor+ and 1hose!uture -e)omes an e5&.i)it )on)ern o! its mem-ers24 3he !ormation o!meanin( does not de&end on time.ess and transhistori)a. s+m-o.s 1ith anun)han(ea-.e )ontent0 -ut rather emer(es as s+m-o.i) &ro)esses o! si(ni!i)ation that ma+ either &.a)ate or arouse mass &u-.i)s24> In 'ri) Voe(e.in;sie10 s+m-o.isations o! e5&erien)es are attem&ts at makin( sense o! theun)ertaint+ o! e5isten)e -+ restorin( .e(itimate and meanin(!u. e5isten)e2

When stru)tura. )onstraints o! &o.iti)a. authorit+0 so)ia. )ontro.0 .e(a.order0 or tradition are 1eakened0 the )risis threatens the -asis o! human

4 Jan 8ato)ka02eretical "ssays in the Philosophy o$ 2istory0 ed2 James odd 6Chi)a(o andLa :a..eP O&en Court0 ">>B70 ?> and "?4@2

4 :te!an Ross-a)h01nostic 0ars! The Cold 0ar in the Context o$ a 2istory o$ 0esternSpirituality6'din-ur(hP 'din-ur(h 9niersit+ 8ress0 ">>>70 "@2

4> 8eter ,er(er and 3homas Lu)kmann0The Social Construction o$ #eality6London and

e1 YorkP 8en(uin ,ooks0 ">BB70 ""?2


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@4 Le!ort0"ssais sur le politi7ue0


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Part I

3he e5&erientia. -asis o! )ommunism anddemo)ra)+


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< Reo.utions0 transitions0 and un)ertaint+

One;s o1n !ree and un!ettered o.ition0 one;s o1n )a&ri)e0 ho1eer

1i.d0 one;s o1n !an)+0 in!.amed sometimes to the &oint o! madness that is the one -est and (reatest (ood0 1hi)h is neer taken into )onsideration -e)ause it 1i.. not !it into an+ ).assi!i)ation0 and the omission o!1hi)h a.1a+s sends a.. s+stems and theories to the dei.2

E+odor *osto+esk+

3he .o(i) o! out)ome

Reo.utions reerse &o.iti)a. stru)tures to su)h an e5tent that &o.iti)a.ana.+sis )an hard.+ es)a&e a&&roa)hin( them as an out)ome o! a s&e)i!i)histori)a. dee.o&ment2 3he dee& &o.iti)a. and so)ia. trans!ormations inthe 1ake o! reo.utions on -oth the domesti) and internationa. .ee..ar(e.+ e).i&sed the situationa. &remises o! the Eren)h Reo.ution in"> or the Russian Reo.ution in ">"2 3he !o)us on the out)omes o!reo.utions su)h as the -irth o! the nationstate0 re&u-.i)anism0 or the

)onso.idation o! :oiet )ommunism do1n&.a+s the im&ortan)e o! turmoi.0 io.en)e0 and un)ertaint+2 :imi.ar.+0 the reo.utions o! ">> ineastern 'uro&e and soon a!ter in the )o..a&sin( :oiet 9nion 1ere a.mostimmediate.+ a&&roa)hed !rom the dee.o&menta. &ers&e)tie o! transitions to demo)ra)+;2

Animated -+ normatie e5&e)tations o! stru)ture and order0 inter&retations o! radi)a. )han(e in modern &o.iti)a. so)ieties hae &rii.e(ed aie1 on &o.iti)a. trans!ormations that 1as (uided -+ (oa.s o! dee.o&ment

or &o.iti)a. modernisation2"In a simi.ar ein0 the )ata).+smi) &o1er o!histori)a. reo.utions has indu)ed ana.+sts to ie1 their )ausa.it+ as -ein(rooted in somethin( akin to !ateP reo.utions are not made the+ )ome2

" :amue. Huntin(ton0Political /rder in Changing Societies6e1 Haen and LondonP Ya.e9niersit+ 8ress0 ">B70 ">=2

3heda :ko)&o.0States and Social #evolutions! A Comparative Analysis o$ 'rance& #ussia& and

China6Cam-rid(eP Cam-rid(e 9niersit+ 8ress0 ">>70 "2

?"


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:tru)tura. a&&roa)hes hae .ikened reo.utions to o-%e)ts o! histori)a.dee.o&ment0 1here the so)ia. &re)onditions o! the transitiona. or reo.utionar+ &eriod are dis)onne)ted !rom desired or e5&e)ted out)omes23he+ seem to understand &o.iti)a. anta(onism in terms o! o-%e)tie;!or)es that o&&ose ea)h other2 3hus0 the reo.utionar+ ).ass standsa(ainst the -our(eoisie0 so)iet+ )om&etes 1ith the state0 and )ommunismand demo)ra)+ are thou(ht to -e at e5treme ends o! the s&e)trum2 3his

-i!ur)ation o! ana.+ti)a. ie1&oints re!.e)ts the o-serer;s re.u)tan)e toen(a(e in the )haoti) histori)it+ o! su)h &eriods o! un)ertaint+2Reo.utionar+ or transitiona. un)ertaint+ is the e5)e&tion0 1here thesu-stan)e o! histori)a. a)tion is marred -+ disru&tie io.en)e0 turmoi.0

and un)ertaint+2 3he transitiona. un)ertaint+ that seies ho.d o! a &o.iti)a. so)iet+ is seen as a-norma.it+; 1here norma. s)ien)e methodo.o(+;does not a&&.+ ana.+sts are keen to make u& !or this -+ -rid(in( the (a&-et1een one s+stem and another2 3his )ha&ter ar(ues that un)ertaint+)an -e methodo.o(i)a..+ norma.ised2 Rather than a&&roa)hin( dee&un)ertaint+ -+ )onsiderin( the di)hotomi) se&aration -et1een )ausesand out)omes0 I ar(ue that the su-stan)e o! the situationa. &remises)reates )ons)iousness2 Without &retendin( an+ )om&.ete t+&o.o(+0 one)an out.ine three ma%or as&e)ts o! out)ome.o(i) that -+&ass the )haoti)su-stan)e o! the em&t+ s&a)e o! &o1er2

The logic o$ causality

A num-er o! authoritatie studies hae e5amined the ori(ins o! demo)ra)+ and tota.itarianism2? ,arrin(ton Moore;s 1ork on the so)ia. ori(ins

o! demo)ra)+ and di)tatorshi& 1as )on)erned 1ith im&ortant sta(esin a &ro.on(ed so)ia. &ro)ess 1hi)h has 1orked itse.! out in seera.)ountries;24He identi!ied three routes to the modern 1or.d0 1hi)h !o..o1ed &aths to1ards 1hat 1ou.d -e)ome either the demo)rati)0 the !as)ist0or the )ommunist ariant o! modernit+2 In a simi.ar ein0 &o.iti)a. so)io.o(ists intend to retriee a )ausa.it+0 to e5&.ain ho1 and 1h+ a s&e)i!i) orderhad to )o..a&se at the er+ moment o! reo.ution or &o.iti)a. transition2 @

3hus0 Char.es 3i..+;s 1ork on reo.utionar+ io.en)e oer the &ast three

)enturies has di!!erentiated -et1een rea)tie;0 -a)k1ard.ookin(0 .o)a..+

? Hannah Arendt0 The /rigins o$ Totalitarianism 6LondonP eor(e A..en0 ">@"7J2L2 3a.mon0The /rigins o$ Totalitarian Democracy6LondonP :e)ker X War-ur(0 ">@72

4 ,arrin(ton Moore0Social /rigins o$ Dictatorship and Democracy! %ord and Peasant in theaking o$ the odern 0orld6,ostonP ,ea)on 8ress0 ">BB70 i52

@ Eor a )ritiDue0 seeWi..iam :e1e.. %nr0 3hree3em&ora.itiesP3o1ard an 'ent!u. :o)io.o(+;0in 3erren)e M)dona.d0 ed20The 2istoric Turn in the 2uman Sciences6Ann Ar-orP 9niersit+ o!

Mi)hi(an 8ress0 ">>B70 4@=2


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oriented io.en)e0 and &roa)tie;0 !or1ard.ookin(0 nationa..+ orientedio.en)e2B Whi.e 3i..+;s distin)tion -et1een reo.utionar+ situations andreo.utionar+ out)omes is use!u. as !ar as the di!!erentiation -et1een

&o&u.ar )ontention and the trans!ormation o! &o1er is )on)erned0 thereis an im&ortant risk ino.ed2 Eo..o1in( an out)ome.o(i)0 the histori)a.resu.t is not on.+ the -asis !or the e5&.anation o! a ne1 )ondition2 It a.so-e)omes the startin( &oint !or indi)atin( the ori(in o! a re(ime0 ).ass0 oridentit+2 Ca&ita.ist dee.o&ment and state )entra.isation are seen aso))urrin( o!!sta(e0 as eer&resent and eerrisin( !or)es2 3he reo.utionar+ situations and the io.en)e ino.ed hin(e on inisi-.e )auses01hi)h make situations .ar(e.+ e!!e)ts0 neer )auses0 o! )han(e2

3heda :ko)&o.;s )om&aratie 1ork on so)ia. reo.utions in Eran)e0Russia0 and China .o)ates the )auses !or reo.ution in a )om&.e5 set o!!is)a. )rises o! the state -ased on mi.itar+ -a)k1ardness as a resu.t o!interstate )on!.i)t0 1hi)h is e5a)er-ated -+ the resistan)e o! re)a.)itrant.and.ords2 In order to moe !rom &o.iti)a. reo.utions to so)ia. reo.utions 1ith a trans!ormation o! the )ountr+;s ).ass stru)ture0 mass u&risin(s o! a 1e..or(anised and autonomous &easant ).ass are reDuired23hese )ausa. !a)tors are )on)e&tua.ised in this orderP !a)tor one indu)esa &o.iti)a. )risis the addition o! !a)tor t1o turns the &o.iti)a. )risis into a&o.iti)a. reo.ution eentua..+0 !a)tor three turns the &o.iti)a. reo.utioninto a so)ia. reo.ution2 3he )ausa.it+ in this ana.+sis 1orks 1ith se&aratetria.s; o! an e5&eriment0 1hi)h hae to -e -oth eDuia.ent and inde&endent2 3he &rin)i&.e o! eDuia.en)e im&.ies that ea)h ne1 tria. 6in this )ase0ea)h ne1 reo.ution7 shou.d -e a (enuine re&.i)ation o! ear.ier tria.s0 1itha.. re.eant aria-.es he.d )onstant2 3he re.eant tem&ora.it+ in this .o(i)

is &ure.+ interna. to the tria.P the &osited )ausa. !a)tors must e5ist &rior totheir &osited )onseDuen)e2 ConseDuent.+0 the three (reat so)ia. reo.utions -e)ome a uni!orm ).ass o! o-%e)ts (oerned -+ identi)a. )ausa. .a1s01hi)h are seen as )ausa..+ inde&endent !rom ea)h other2

:imi.ar.+0 e5&.anations o! the )o..a&se o! )ommunism hae re&rodu)edassum&tions on the eDuia.en)e o! )ausa. stru)tures0 1here .e(a)ies o! the&ast are not )onne)ted to )on)rete e5&erien)es -ut are su&&osed to -e)ausa..+ inter)onne)ted2 In su)h a ie10 &ost)ommunist states inherit!rom the &ast re(ime materia. .e(a)ies0 )onstraints0 sets o! ha-its0 and)o(nitie !rames2 Eurthermore0 there is a tur-u.ent )on!i(uration o! ne1a)tors and ne1 o&&ortunities that emer(e as the o.d re(ime .oses its

B Char.es 3i..+0"uropean #evolutions *@+-*++6O5!ordP ,.a)k1e..0 ">>?70 ?2 :ko)&o.0States and Social #evolutions2 Jon '.ster et a.20Institutional Design in Post-Communist Societies6Cam-rid(eP Cam-rid(e

9niersit+ 8ress0 ">>72


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?4 3he e5&erientia. -asis o! )ommunism and demo)ra)+

re&ressie (ri& on so)iet+2 Eina..+0 a ne1 )onso.idated institutiona. orderis s.o1.+ a&&earin( 1hi)h is .ike.+ to institutiona.ise a(en)+ and &roide!or a measure o! sustaina-i.it+2 A.thou(h the &o1er o! the &ast is a)kno1.ed(ed0 this !rame1ork oerem&hasises the sta-i.it+ o! .e(a)ies0 takin()ommunism as a )onso.idated s+stem 1here the mono&o.isation o! &o.iti)a. &o1er a.. -ut sus&ended autonom+ o! human a)tion2 Eo..o1in( the1ides&read tenden)+ to ).assi!+ Russian and east 'uro&ean histor+ indee.o&menta. sta(es su)h as &re)ommunist0 )ommunist0 and &ost)ommunist &asts0 the determinants o! the emer(en)e o! the ne1 orderare seen as inde&endent !rom the !a)tors that )aused the -reakdo1n o! theo.d re(ime2

Re)ent resear)h on &o.iti)a. trans!ormation has ar(ued that one has to(o -e+ond the .inear statement that histor+ matters; or histor+ strikes

-a)k;2 Rather0 )ontentious memories and meanin(s o! histori)a. eentsin!.uen)e trans!ormatie &eriods o! re)onstru)tion2> *es&ite their sensitiit+ to the mu.ti&.i)it+ o! &asts and &aths0 ho1eer0 een these

a&&roa)hes tend to see ">> in terms o! a )ausa.it+ that e5&.ains thei)tor+ o! )a&ita.ist demo)ra)+2 3he+ &ostu.ate the out)ome o! &o.iti)a.e)onom+ in a )ountr+ -+ tra)in( -a)k mu.ti&.e &aths !rom 1hi)h &ostso)ia.ist &o.iti)a. and e)onomi) institutions eo.ed2 3he )on)e&t o!re)om-inant )a&ita.ism;0 !or instan)e0 su((ests that e)onomi) re!ormsin eastern 'uro&e !o..o1ed di!!erent &aths o! e5tri)ation -+ re)om-inin(di!!erent institutiona. &atterns !rom their )ommunist &ast2 Ho1eer0 su)ha&&roa)hes ne(.e)t the !a)t that the under.+in( )on)e&tua. and institutiona. rea.it+ o! )a&ita.ism 1ith 1hi)h these a&&roa)hes o&erate is theresu.t o! a.to(ether di!!erent0 )om&.e50 and in themse.es Duite ha&haard

&ro)esses o! &athde&enden)e; in 1estern 'uro&e0 i2e2 in a )om&.ete.+di!!erent histori)a. enironment2"=,+ tr+in( to e5&.ain the out)ome o! atransition &ro)ess usin( a histori)a. seDuen)e0 &athde&enden)e assumesa .a1.ike un!o.din( o! histori)a. dee.o&ment2 It thus attri-utes a s&e)i!i)resu.t to the s&e)i!i)it+ o! its &ath2

The logic o$ heroism

3he a.most o-sessie need to )on)eie a (ien &o.iti)a. order as theout)ome o! a s&e)i!i) )ausa.it+ is )om&.emented -+ the simi.ar.+ o-sessieidea that the &resent is the )onseDuen)e o! the intentions and (oa.s

> Gs.oG ,rust and aid :tark0Post-Socialist Pathways! Trans$orming Politics and Propertyin "ast Central "urope6Cam-rid(eP Cam-rid(e 9niersit+ 8ress0 ">>72

"= Mi)he. *o-r+0 8aths0 Choi)es0 Out)omes0 and 9n)ertaint+;0 in *o-r+0 ed20Democratic

and Capitalist Transitions in "astern "urope6ordre)htP F.u1er0 ===70 @2


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&ursued -+ e5)e&tiona. indiidua.s2 An im&ortant trend in so)ia. e5&.anation su((ests that an indiidua. .eader or )o..e)tie (rou&s su)h as ane.ite or a so)ia. ).ass master a situation o! anar)h+ and disorder2 3histenden)+ has t1o im&ortant sour)es in &o.iti)a. and so)ia. thou(ht2 Eirst0it is asso)iated 1ith the Ma)hiae..ian idea a-out the virtuBo! an indiidua.a)tor as !or(in( a &o.iti)a. order a))ordin( to his .ikin(2 3he )om&.e5

&ro)esses that ushered in the modern nationstate trans!erred the &rin)i&.e o! &o1er &o.iti)s !rom &rin)e.+ soerei(nt+ to the soerei(n )o..e)tiit+ o! the nation and rein!or)ed the heroism in s+m-o.i) atta)hment toand sa)ri!i)e !or the nation2 :e)ond0 there is the in!.uentia. Mar5ista&&roa)h a))ordin( to 1hi)h the )ontinuous stru((.e !or domination

-et1een ).asses 1i.. ineita-.+ .ead to the i)tor+ o! the )o..e)tie ).asso! the &ro.etariat2 In .ine 1ith hero identi!i)ation as one o! the most!undamenta. me)hanisms o! )omin( to terms 1ith a )risis in man+m+ths o! humanit+0 either ie1 %usti!ies out)omes -+ indiidua. heroi)a)tion2"" 3his heroi) i..usion;">470

"?@2


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?B 3he e5&erientia. -asis o! )ommunism and demo)ra)+

ina&&ro&riate !or (ras&in( su)h &ro)esses ana.+ti)a..+2"@ eerthe.ess0the )on)e&t o! transition remained !o)used on the stru)tura. !eatures o!!rom; and to; &hases2 3his di)hotomisation o! &ers&e)ties on the &ost)ommunist &eriod )asts a shado1 on assessments o! the &o.iti)a. eo.ution o! )ommunism itse.!2 :in)e the )on)e&tua. too.s and methods 1ereattuned to the a!termath o! s+stemi) )o..a&se0 the &ro-.ematisation o!reo.utionar+ &hases o! un)ertaint+ &rior to the -reakdo1n o! )ommunism re)eied .ess attention2 ConseDuent.+0 the )om&aratie stud+ o!&ost)ommunist transitions has .ar(e.+ -een !o)used on the &rereDuisites!or the e5&e)ted re(ime t+&e 6su)h as a .i-era.demo)rati) arran(ement70thus e5).udin( )on)e&tua. dis)ussions o! transition2"B 3hus0 transition0

-+ de!au.t0 has 1ide.+ remained a ne(atie )on)e&t0 1hi)h tries to e5&ressthe unstru)tured &eriod -et1een t1o &otentia. e5tremes )hara)terised -+s+stemi) sta-i.it+2

3heorists 1ho &ortra+ re(ime trans!ormations as an irresisti-.e d+nami)s o! indiidua.ism tend to e5).ude the moda.ities o! the emer(en)e o!)ons)iousness0 -e.ie!s0 and attitudes on the (rounds o! a .o(i)a. a-stra)tion2 A re)ent stud+ on re(ime diersit+ a!ter )ommunism &ro&osed anonto.o(i)a. )on)e&tion o! )ausa. me)hanism2" In this ie10 )ausa. me)h

anisms are &ro)esses that )onert )ertain in&uts into out&uts0 -rin(in(a-out the e!!e)ts that )an -e seen as )auses o! so)ia. &henomena2 3heo-%e)tie is to shi!t the .ee. o! )ausa. &ro)ess ana.+sis !rom that o!a((re(ates and stru)tures to indiidua. a)tion under )onstraints2 3hisonto.o(i)a. )on)e&tion re.ies u&on a 1eak methodo.o(i)a. indiidua.ism;0 1hi)h .inks the &re!eren)es and dis&ositions o! &eo&.e to the so)ia.kno1.ed(e the+ hae a)Duired2 eerthe.ess0 onto.o(i)a. sta-i.it+ su(

(ests that indiidua. a)tion )an -e &redi)ted to o-e+ s&e)i!i) .a1.ikeme)hanisms or -e a&&ro&riate 1ith a (ien s+stem o! norms and a.ues2

The logic o$ appropriateness

Out)ome.o(i) tends to measure the dis&ositions and intentions o! &o.iti)a. a)tors on the -asis o! ho1 a&&ro&riate their -ehaiour is 1ith re(ard

"@ ui..ermo O;*onne.. et a.20 eds20Transitions $rom Authoritarian #ule! Prospects $orDemocracy0 o.2 IV0 O;onne.. and 8hi.i&&e :)hmitter0Tentative Conclusions A3out:ncertain Democracies6,a.timore and LondonP Johns Ho&kins 9niersit+ 8ress0 ">>"70B2

"B erardo L2 Mun)k0 3he Re(ime TuestionP 3heor+ ,ui.din( in *emo)ra)+ :tudies;00orld Politics0 @4 6=="70 "4B2

" Her-ert Fits)he.t0 A))ountin( !or 8ost)ommunist Re(ime *iersit+P What Counts as aood CauseQ;0 in re(or 'kiert and :te&hen '2 Hanson0 eds20Capitalism andDemocracy in Central and "astern "urope 6Cam-rid(eP Cam-rid(e 9niersit+ 8ress0

==?704>B2


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to institutiona.ised .o(i)s su)h as ).asses0 .eaders0 or &o.iti)a. re(imes23his .o(i) o! a&&ro&riateness has &ermeated dominant inter&retationso! ma%or reo.utions2 3heorists tend to read meanin(s o! an eent not1ith re(ard to the &otentia. o! the situation -ut 1ith re(ard to the &ostreo.utionar+ order2 A &rominent e5am&.e is the idea that the a-o.ition o!!euda.ism -+ the Eren)h ationa. Assem-.+ on 4 Au(ust "> re&.a)edaristo)rati) ineDua.it+ 1ith -our(eois ineDua.it+2 :u)h a %ud(ement 1ithhindsi(ht ne(.e)ts that mone+ at this )on%un)ture 1as seen as the (reateDua.iser0 as the uniersa. too. !or destro+in( aristo)rati) &rii.e(e2 In asimi.ar ein0 rootin( :oiet )ommunism either in the ineita-i.it+; o! aso)ia.ist reo.ution or in Lenin;s o.untarism !o..o1s a -i!ur)ation o!

ana.+sis motiated -+ e5&ost %usti!i)ation2 :u)h a -i!ur)ation dis)onne)ts the -e!ore;0 i2e2 the so)ia. !or)es o! reo.utionar+ e!!eres)en)e0!rom the a!ter;0 i2e2 the heroi) a)hieement o! Lenin and the &ro.etariat2It ne(.e)ts the !a)t that the o-%e)tie status o! the ,o.sheik &art+ as anoutsider se)t and the &art+;s serious interna. disa(reements throu(hout">" made a ,o.sheik su))ess Duite un.ike.+2 3he re-irth o! )ii. so)iet+under perestroika in the .ate ">=s as a moement !rom -e.o1; is dis)onne)ted !rom state )onso.idation a!ter ">>"0 1hi)h 1as )ondu)ted -+ astron( &residen)+ !rom a-oe;2 3his -i!ur)ation disre(ards the so)ia.e!!eres)en)e and mass a)tiism o! the or-a)he era2 :imi.ar.+0 itino.es im&osin( a .o(i) o! a&&ro&riateness on histori)a. rea.it+0 i!8o.and;s e.itene(otiated reo.ution !rom a-oe; at the roundta-.e in">> is seen as )ausa..+ inde&endent !rom :o.idarnoG)G;s reo.ution !rom-e.o1; in ">=2

3here has -een a noti)ea-.e tenden)+ in transition studies to1ards

)on)eiin( &o.iti)a. )han(e -+ measurin( the a&&ro&riateness o! intentions 1ith re(ard to a normatie.+ desira-.e mode. o! a .i-era. demo)rati)arran(ement o! &o.iti)a. authorit+2 Whether transitions are de!ined as theintera. -et1een one &o.iti)a. re(ime and another0 or as the &assa(e !roma nondemo)rati) to a demo)rati) re(ime0 the )on)e&t;s stron( tenden)+to1ards a me)hanisti) t1oste& moement has -een )ons&i)uous2 3hisreDuires -rid(in( the a&&arent stru)tura. oid -et1een t1o a((re(ate&eriods0 1hen sta-i.it+ (ies 1a+ to !.u5 and un)ertaint+0 1hen ru.esand norms are )ontested and &asts and !utures are at stake2 3ransitionstudies su((est that some indiidua.s or a ).ass inside the &rereo.utionar+s+stem are endo1ed 1ith a trans!ormatie dis&osition that 1ou.d -e intune 1ith the institutiona. .o(i) o! the &ostreo.utionar+ s+stem2 3hus0the+ tend to e5).ude the re.ean)e o! this histori)a. e5&erien)e !or the sakeo! the .o(i)a. )oheren)e o! a normatie mode.2

3he use o! .o(i)a..+ di!!erent aria-.es su((ests a t1oste& moement0

1hi)h dis)onne)ts &o.iti)a. rea.it+ !rom its e5&erientia. -asis2 In &ra)ti)a.


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ien the se.!de)e&tion o! reo.utionaries and momentous o-sta).es!or demo)ratisers;0 theorisin( un)ertaint+ reDuires .inkin( assum&tionson the rationa.it+ o! a)tors and ne)essit+ in a &otentia..+ -ound.esssituation2">

Modern usa(e has esta-.ished a)tion as a .o(i)a..+ )oherent moementto1ards the out)ome or (oa. and thus dierted &o.iti)a. ana.+sis !rom the-ound.essness o! a)tion2 Far. 8o&&er0The Poverty o$ 2istoricism6London and e1 YorkP Rout.ed(e0 ">@70 "?22


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4= 3he e5&erientia. -asis o! )ommunism and demo)ra)+

is the on.+ re.ia-.e -asis o! %ud(ements and e5&e)tations2 3he termunintended )onseDuen)es; %ud(es the !ai.ure o! intentions -+ the )ertaint+ o! the out)ome and thus )on!.ates t1o di!!erent rea.ities2 Eormin(e5&e)tations a))ordin( to une5&e)ted turns is not irrationa.0 -ut isanother !orm o! rationa.it+ that 1orks a))ordin( to a .o(i) that is not)on)eied !rom a )o(nitie distan)e to the situation2 'en i! a)tors in)riti)a. situations hae more )on!iden)e than is %usti!ied in un)ertain)onditions0 kno1.ed(e on 1hi)h to -ase &redi)tions o! the !uture ise5treme.+ inadeDuate2 As John Ma+nard Fe+nes remarked a-out thee5&e)tations o! an inestment;s +ie.d0 the -asis o! kno1.ed(e !or estimatin( the +ie.d ten or een !ie +ears hen)e o! a rai.1a+0 a )o&&er mine0 an

At.anti) .iner0 or a -ui.din( in London amounts to .itt.e and sometimes tonothin(2


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eentsinhistor+0 and )u.tura. as&e)ts o! &o1er stru((.es2


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are no ta3ula rasasituation0 1here &o1er is a-sent2 3he !.uidit+ o! )riti)a.%un)tures is not a.1a+s o&&osed to &reious.+ e5istin( stru)tures0 1hi)h1ou.d intimate a s&ontaneous mar)h o! so)ieties to1ards a so)ia. oid orto1ards the oera.. disa&&earan)e o! a.. stru)ture2 Reo.utions or transitions are not situations 1here disorder interru&ts &eriods o! order2Rather0 disorder is )reatie o! order0 as norms0 ru.es0 and the .a1 areesta-.ished throu(h a)tie and o!ten )ost.+ interention o! so)ia. a)tors o!ten more )ost.+ than the a)tiities o! restoration or maintenan)e o!stru)tures2 'en seera. da+s o! )ro1d (atherin( .inked 1ith the tem&orar+ disa&&earan)e o! authorit+ stru)tures0 or the annihi.ation o! statestru)tures throu(h 1ar or !orei(n o))u&ation0 1i.. not .eae .ar(e &arts o!

so)iet+ in a )om&.ete oid2 'en 1hen re&ressie o))u&ation re(imesden+ an+ ri(ht or &ossi-i.it+ o! so)ieta. se.!or(anisation0 under(roundstates; su)h as 8o.and durin( the :e)ond Wor.d War or Fosoo in the.ate ">=s and ear.+ ">>=s )an -ui.d u& !un)tionin( and e!!e)tiestru)tures o! )ii) edu)ation as 1e.. as o! mora. and &o.iti)a. authorit+2

3he )ru)ia. &oint is to re)o(nise that stru)ture and order are &re(nant1ith disorder2 3his is -e)ause disorder is not -rou(ht !rom outside -ut

-e)ause order.+ stru)tures -ear inside themse.es the &otentia.it+ o! disso.ution o! order2 3he .imitations o! the .a1 are neer entire.+ re.ia-.esa!e(uards a(ainst )rimina. a)ts0 %ust as the -oundaries o! the territor+ areneer entire.+ re.ia-.e sa!e(uards a(ainst !orei(n inasion2 3his -ound.essness o! a)tion is on.+ the other side o! the tremendous.+ &rodu)tie)a&a)it+ o! &o1er2?= Re(ard.ess o! the out)omes0 in reo.utionar+ situations .e(itimate authorit+ is u& !or (ra-s0 is hi(h.+ and )redi-.+ )ontestedor su-%e)t to dou-.e or mu.ti&.e soerei(nties2?" 3he dua.&o1er s)enar

ios o! the Ee-ruar+ Reo.ution in ">" or the !a)tua. dua. &o1er inerman+ in the &ostEirst Wor.d War turmoi. dis&.a+ed the &otentia. o!the authorit+ a)uum2 Ri(ht a!ter the :e)ond Wor.d War0 dua.&o1erstru)tures )ontinued to e5ist in the :oiet 9nion0 as im&ortant resistan)emoements o&erated in the ,a.ti) )ountries and in 1estern 9kraine2 3heHun(arian reo.ution in O)to-er ">@B and the :o.idarnoG)G reo.ution in8o.and in summer ">= 1ere ).ear instan)es o! dua. soerei(nt+2 3heLithuanian and Russian de).arations o! soerei(nt+ in s&rin( ">>= set o!!

a 1ae o! su)h de).arations -+ !ormer :oiet union re&u-.i)s0 autonomous re&u-.i)s0 and &roin)es &rookin( a &arade o! soerei(nties;2:u)h situations o! dua. &o1er 6dvoevlastie7 not on.+ -.urred the distin)tion -et1een authorities and .o1er.ee. institutions -ut a.so &ointed tothe under.+in( simi.arities -et1een reo.ution and nationa.ist se)ession2

?= Arendt0The 2uman Condition0 ">="2

?" Char.es 3i..+0'rom o3ili)ation to #evolution6'n(.e1ood C.i!!sP 8renti)eHa..0 ">72


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44 3he e5&erientia. -asis o! )ommunism and demo)ra)+

3hus0 the )onso.idation o! &o.iti)a. order a!ter reo.utions is not on.+ amatter o! normatie.+ ins&ired and )onstitutiona..+ (uaranteed do)trines

-ut needs to take into a))ount the !.uidit+ o! the )on%un)ture0 1hi)h-ui.ds u& as a &ro)ess o! disorder0 io.en)e0 and so)ia. e!!eres)en)e2 AsWi..iam :e1e.. has ar(ued0 the Eren)h Reo.ution 1as not on.+ the

-irth&.a)e o! demo)rati) &o.iti)s and )onstitutiona.ism2 3he )on%un)ture-et1een the ne1 )on)e&t o! reo.ution and the idea o! soerei(nt+ o! the&eo&.e 1as &rodu)ed in the si(ni!i)ant u&heaa. o! eer+da+ .i!e andso)ia. )ommuni)ation asso)iated 1ith )ro1d io.en)e2 3he .e(a..+ san)tioned stru)tura. trans!ormation o! &o&u.ar soerei(nt+ o))urred in theha&haard )on!i(uration o! )ro1d a)tion2?


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As re(or+ ,ateson has su((ested0 an+ rea. )ommuni)ation -et1een&eo&.e in the su-stan)e o! .ied e5&erien)es in the so)ia. 1or.d is at adi!!erent .ee. !rom ho1 it is &er)eied and inter&reted -+ )on)e&ts0t+&o.o(ies0 or ideas2?4In the heat o! a mi.itar+ -att.e or o! reo.utionar+)ro1d a)tion0 .eaders and &arti)i&ants o!ten )annot distin(uish 1inners!rom .osers0 .et a.one !ormu.ate a ne1 mora. &ur&ose or (oa. o! dee.o&ment2 e1 )on)e&ts0 ideas0 and mode.s; o! &o.iti)a. order arise on.+ as a)onseDuen)e o! su)h materia. a)tion0 -+ means o! de.i-eration0 .in(uisti)di!!erentiation0 and makin( sense o! 1hat o))urred 1ith re(ard to e5istin()u.tura. &atterns2 3his dimension o! !orma.isation0 )ommuni)ation0 anddis)ourse inokes no thin(s0 !or)es0 or im&a)ts -ut on.+ di!!eren)es0

ima(es0 ideas0 and theories2?@

,ased on 1ork in anthro&o.o(+0 )ommuni)ations ana.+sis0 and &s+)hothera&+0 ,ateson;s dou-.e-ind theor+ aims to understand 1h+ thereis a dis)ontinuit+ -et1een a ).ass and its mem-ers2 ra1in( on the theor+o! .o(i)a. t+&es0 the ).ass )annot -e a mem-er o! itse.! nor )an one o! themem-ers -e the ).ass0 sin)e the term used !or the ).ass is o! a di!!erent.ee. o! a-stra)tion a di!!erent .o(i)a. t+&e !rom terms used !ormem-ers2?B In histori)a. e5&erien)e and )ommuni)atie &ra)ti)e0 the)ontinuit+ -et1een a ).ass and its mem-ers is )ontinua..+ and ineita-.+-rea)hed as &eo&.e0 (oernments0 and indiidua.s under(o interna. trans!ormations2 *ou-.e -inds )an -e des)ri-ed as &atterns o! )ommuni)ationthat emanate !rom re&eated e5&erien)es o! -ein( a i)tim2 3he+ re!er tosituations o! de&enden)e o! at .east t1o su-%e)ts in 1hi)h one ma+

&otentia..+ -e)ome a i)tim0 and i)timisation )an -e)ome ha-itua.e5&e)tation2 3he intense re.ationshi& o! a-so.ute de&enden)e on a su&er

ior -ein( or stru)ture reDuires the i)tim to a))urate.+ dis)riminate 1hatsort o! messa(e is -ein( )ommuni)ated in order to res&ond a&&ro&riate.+2In a se)ond &ossi-i.it+0 i)timisation is not a ne)essar+ out)ome o! thisre.ationshi& -ut )an -e aoided -+ shi!tin( to -e)ome a di!!erent sort o!&erson2 Here0 the indiidua. is )au(ht in a situation in 1hi)h the other&erson in the re.ationshi& is e5&ressin( t1o orders o! messa(e and oneo! these )ontradi)ts the other2 Eina..+0 the indiidua. )annot )ommenton the messa(e he )annot make a meta)ommuni)atie statement2In this third &ossi-i.it+0 the su-%e)t neither -e)omes a i)tim nor is hea-.e to shi!t to -e)ome some-od+ e.se2 In this )ase0 identit+ is !ormed

?4 re(or+ ,ateson0Steps to an "cology o$ the ind! Collected "ssays in Anthropology&Psychiatry& "volution& and "pistemology6Chi)a(o and LondonP 9niersit+ o! Chi)a(o8ress0 ===70 42

?@ ,ateson0Steps to an "cology o$ the ind0 "2

?B ,ateson0Steps to an "cology o$ the ind0 ="=2


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4B 3he e5&erientia. -asis o! )ommunism and demo)ra)+

throu(h a dou-.e )onstraint that )annot -e entire.+ reso.ed2 One o!these kee&s -ein( dire)ted to1ards the ro.e o! the i)tim0 1hi.e the se)ondaims to a!!irm a &ersona. identit+ inde&endent !rom and o!ten o&&osin(the !irst2

Whi.e dou-.e-ind theor+ 1as dee.o&ed !or understandin( the -ehaiour o! indiidua.s0 the s&e)i!i) histor+ o! state!ormation in Russia andeastern 'uro&e stron(.+ su((ests its a&&.i)a-i.it+ !or the so)ia. 1or.d2Russia;s se.!&er)e&tion as a -a)k1ard; or underdee.o&ed; )ountr+ori(inated in the -orro1in(s o! adan)ed te)hno.o(+ in the si5teenthand seenteenth )enturies0 as an emer(ent state -eat its 1a+ out o!su-ordination to nei(h-ourin( &o1ers2 3his sense o! -a)k1ardness rein

!or)ed inidious )om&arisons and a drie to )orre)t so)ia. inadeDua)+ -+imitatin( the West; and oer)omin( it2? At the root o! the )ontest

-et1een Russia and the West are not t1o entire.+ di!!erent )ii.isations0-ut Russia;s &s+)ho.o(i)a. desire !or su&rema)+ oer the 'uro&eanmode.2 3he s&.it )an -e !ound in the di!!erent 1a+ in 1hi)h &atterns o!a-so.utism and &o1er .e(itimisation dee.o&ed in 1estern 'uro&e and inRussia &rior to the se)ond ha.! o! the nineteenth )entur+2 ?3he Russiannation 1as !or(ed -+ an e5tension o! the im&eria. Russian !rame1ork intoeer+ as&e)t o! &o.iti)a. and so)ia. .i!e2?> Whi.e Western a-so.utismde).ared the .e(itima)+ o! &o1er0 'astern a-so.utism de).ared the m+sti)truth; o! &o1er0 !or)in( its su-%e)ts to a))e&t this !rame1ork2 In order to)om&ete 1ith the e)onomi)a..+ e5&andin( West0 Russian a-so.utism hadto (ie u& its se&arate 1or.d e)onom+; and o&en u& a 1indo1 to 'uro&e0a &ro)ess main.+ initiated -+ 8eter I2 3he Russian state neer assumed ane5isten)e inde&endent !rom the &erson o! the monar)h as it did in Eran)e

or ,ritain2 Ho1eer0 the &ro)ess o! 'uro&eanisation asso)iated theem&eror;s diine ri(ht o! .e(itima)+ 1ith the se)u.ar state0 thus .inkin(the traditiona. Russian &attern o! dee.o&ment to 'uro&ean Dua.ities;su)h as e)onomi) and te)hno.o(i)a. &ro(ress0 and the e5&ansion andstren(thenin( o! the state24=

As mimeti) theor+ su((ests0 )+).es o! en(ean)e and io.en)e &rodu)edou-.e -inds -et1een &eo&.e 1ho are un)ons)ious.+ )ontaminated -+ there)i&ro)it+ o! desires2 When )onta(ion 1ith emotions sus&ends indiid

ua. %ud(ement0 a)tion )eases to -e indiidua..+ motiated or stru)tura..+

? aid Jorask+0 Communism in Histori)a. 8ers&e)tie;& American 2istorical #eview0 >>0? 6">>470@42

? Jeno :u)s0 3hree Histori)a. Re(ions o! 'uro&e;0 in John Feane0 ed20Civil Society and theState6LondonP Verso0 ">70 ?"@2

?> Ri)hard 8i&es0#ussia :nder the /ld #egime0 nd edn 6LondonP 8en(uin ,ooks0 ">>@724= Ri)hard Wortman0Scenarios o$ PowerPyth and Ceremony in #ussian onarchy0 o.2 II

68rin)etonP 8rin)eton 9niersit+ 8ress0 ===70 2


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Reo.utions0 transitions0 and un)ertaint+ 4

)onstrained -ut is (uided -+ interdiidua.it+;24" Vio.en)e arises as theo-%e)t o! )ontention .oses im&ortan)e0 1hi.e the ria.s are )au(ht u& in adou-.e -ind0 1here the ).oser the imitator (ets to the mode.0 the more themode. -e)omes an o-sta).e2 ,o.sheik &ro&a(anda radi)a.ised &easantsin an atmos&here o! (ro1in( so)ia. &o.arisation2 3his tren)h ,o.sheism;identi!ied the enemies o! the ,o.sheiks as ).ass enemies; and 1as )ru)ia.to the (ro1in( &o&u.arit+ o! ,o.sheism amon( &easantso.diers2 3hestream.inin( o! identit+ in the Russian Cii. War radi)a..+ sim&.i!ied &re)risis so)ia. hierar)hies0 s1e&t aside estate0 ).ass0 and ethnos0 and .e!t astark )on!rontation -et1een Whites and Reds0 thus makin( neutra.it+im&ossi-.e24


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inter1ar &eriod and the nationa. stru((.e !or suria. in the :e)ond Wor.dWar a)Duired an enormous mora. a.ue0 1hi)h nurtured e5&e)tations o!nationa. .i-eration2@"Rather than -ein( )aused -+ a s&e)i!i) ).ass0 thereo.utions in Hun(ar+ in ">@B or in 8o.and in ">= disso.ed so)ia.hierar)hies -+ &rodu)in( a s&iritua. )ommunit+ that -e)ame re&resentatie o! the nation2 Mem-ers o! the 8o.ish :o.idarnoG)G moement !ramedtheir demands !or !ree and inde&endent trade unions in terms o! romanti)nationa. tradition0 an ethi)a. )ii. so)iet+0 and uniersa. demo)ra)+2 3his1as met -+ &ro!ound dis-e.ie! in )ir).es o! the Western .e!t0 as the reo.ution 1as not )arried out -+ a 1orkin( ).ass in the ).assi)a. so)ia.ist)on)e&tion -ut in the name o! the 8o.ish nation and under the ae(is o!

re.i(ious s+m-o.s2In )riti)a. eents0 &eo&.e ado&t a rationa.it+ or )ons)iousness that

emer(es in the situation0 and is not re&resentatie o! a rationa.it+ or.o(i) e5terna. to that situation2 Anthro&o.o(i)a. resear)h distin(uishedeentsthatmode.; !rom eents that &resent the .iedin 1or.d; oreents that re&resent the .iedin 1or.d;2@>?72

@< on Hande.man0 odels and irrors! Towards an Anthropology o$ Pu3lic "vents6Cam-rid(eP Cam-rid(e 9niersit+ 8ress0 ">>=70


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@= 3he e5&erientia. -asis o! )ommunism and demo)ra)+

!o)usin( on the tension -et1een a stratum a-oe and a stratum -e.o12Russian e.ites0 !or instan)e0 -ased their .eadershi& as&irations on themoements -et1een t1o !ronts2 3he !irst moement 1as ins&ired -+the desire to share &ro!essed simi.arit+ 1ith the &resti(e o! distant

'uro&e to ensure the .e(itima)+ o! &o1er2 Russian ru.ers )ons)ientious.+)ared a-out the s+m-o.i) sta(in( o! sa)ra.it+ and em-odiment o! heroi)histor+0 as deried !rom distant histori)a. or (eo(ra&hi)a. sour)es2@4

A se)ond moement )on)erned the dua. !ronts in domesti) &o.iti)s2In man+ res&e)ts0 the edu)ated ).asses and the Russian inte..i(entsiaremained distant !rom the )ommon &eo&.e0 -orn to remain in -et1eena hi(her )ii.isation and the .o1er stratum o! the &eo&.e !or 1hose

.i-eration the+ !ou(ht2

The $ormation o$ consciousness

Ho1 )an )riti)a. situations e!!e)t interna. trans!ormations at the .ee. o!)ons)iousnessQ M+ intuition is that -e+ond materia. !a)tors an+ &ossi-.eana.+ti)a. )riteria need to &a+ at .east eDua. attention to ho1 e5&erien)esa!!e)t s&irit0 mind0 -e.ie!0 and emotions2 '5&erien)es themse.es0 in the

1a+ the+ are .ied throu(h; -+ human -ein(s0 hae a stru)ture o! theiro1n0 and there!ore do not reDuire the e5terna. )ate(ories o! the trans)endenta. mind !or inte..i(i-i.it+2 :o)ia. anthro&o.o(+ has su((ested thatthe dramati) setu& o! .imina. e5&erien)es )an -e stru)tured2 In Vi)tor3urner;s ).assi!i)ation0 a so)ia. drama )onsists o! !our &hases2 @@ It takeso!! 1ith the -rea)h o! re(u.ar so)ia. re.ations or the radi)a. )ha..en(e o! theru.es norma..+ -indin( mem-ers o! a )ommunit+0 either in a &remedi

tated manner or )aused -+ an un&.anned eent2 A se)ond &hase )onsistso! the )risis in 1hi)h the sudden a))e.eration o! eents takes on a .i!e o! itso1n2 At this )riti)a. %un)ture0 re.eant s&heres o! so)iet+ are )hara)terised

-+ ha&haard )oa.ition-ui.din( around -urnin( issues0 1hi)h &o.arisethe )ommunit+ into ria. and )on!.i)tin( (rou&s2 3he third &hase is theredress0 1hi)h re!ers to attem&ts at arrestin( the &ro)ess o! disinte(rationand at restorin( so)ia. order -+ a .e(itima)+)reatin( &o.iti)a. )onsensus2Eina..+0 a!ter the de&.o+ment o! .e(a. or ritua. me)hanisms o! redress;0

there is either a return to &hase t1o throu(h another )risis0 or a return tonorma. order0 in a &hase o! reinte(ration2

3he )ru)ia. &oint is that in the !.uidit+ o! the )on%un)ture rea.it+ )easesto -e &er)eied as a rationa..+ testa-.e o-%e)tie !or)e;2 Rather0 it )an

@4 Wortman0Scenarios o$ Power0 B2@@ Vi)tor 3urner0/n the "dge o$ the 8ush63u)sonP 9niersit+ o! Ariona 8ress0 ">@70


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Reo.utions0 transitions0 and un)ertaint+ @"

-e)ome horionta..+ !e.t as immediate &arti)i&ation in the dramati) a)tiono! so)ia. e!!eres)en)e o! a )o..e)tie -od+2 In reo.utionar+ dramas0 thet1o main as&e)ts o! e5&erien)e )oin)ide in the o-%e)tie; )hara)ter o! ama%or and sudden eent0 and the su-%e)tie; &ers&e)tie o! ho1 this eent1as .ied throu(h -+ the indiidua.s under(oin( the )han(es2 In these)ases0 indiidua.s (o throu(h their initiation rites; durin( ma%or so)io&o.iti)a. trans!ormations0 makin( the im&a)t o! the so)ia. &arti)u.ar.+stron(2 3hus0 so)ia. dramas make t1o distin)t stru)tures o! )ons)iousnessa&&ear2@B Common.+0 )ons)iousness is asso)iated 1ith some de(ree o!intentiona.it+ o! human -ein(s 1ho !o)us on e5terna. o-%e)ts or thin(soutside themse.es2 In times o! &ea)e or re.atie.+ sta-.e so)ia. re.ations0

the intentiona. )ons)iousness o! &o.iti)a. a)tors is (enera..+ )hara)terised-+ 1e..arti)u.ated (oa.s and &ur&oses im&.+in( the &redi)ta-i.it+ o! &o.i)+strate(ies0 and the &ursuit o! se)tiona. or ).ass interests2 It is at the )on%un)ture o! )risis situations 1here the densit+ o! so)ia. re.ations (eneratesanother0 se)ond dimension; o! )ons)iousness2

In this se)ond t+&e0 )ons)iousness -e.on(s not to man in his -odi.+e5isten)e0 -ut to the )om&rehendin( rea.it+ in 1hi)h man &arti)i&ates1ith other &artners in the )ommunit+ o! -ein(2 In su)h &arti)i&ator+eents0 human )ons)iousness0 as it 1ere0 !.o1s -et1een man;s -odi.+e5isten)e and intentiona. rea.it+ dire)ted at o-%e)ts2 3his se)ond0 )on)rete.+ .o)ated and e5&erien)ed )ons)iousness is a.so rea.0 a.thou(h ita&&ears to -e emotiona. and un)ons)ious throu(h &arti)i&ation in aso)ia. )ommunit+2@ War0 !or instan)e0 has a.1a+s -een unmat)hed inins&irin( so.idarit+ and )ommunit+0 )om-ined 1ith deotion and anun)onditiona. sense o! sa)ri!i)e !or the nation2@3he a&&ea. o! 1ar thus

oer&o1ers &a)i!ist dis)ourse as its a&&ea. to sa)ri!i)e one;s .i!e to the)ause o! the nation -e)omes an oer1he.min( mora. &ur&ose2 3hiss&iritua. !or)e; o! 1ar makes it di!!i)u.t to !ind a mora. eDuia.ent o!1ar;2@> 3he erman inasion o! the :oiet 9nion in ">4" &rooked thereia. o! nationa. emotions0 )on%urin( u& Russian traditions o! heroi)resistan)e and nationa. )ommunit+ in the &ast2B=3hus0 1ar itse.! has ane5&.anator+ a.ue as an eent o! meanin(!ormation 1here the so.idarit+o! the shaken !orms a unit+0 stri)t.+ diided in the e!!ort o! anta(onisti)

@B 'ri) Voe(e.in0/rder and 2istory0 o.2 V0In Search o$ /rder6,aton Rou(e and LondonPLouisiana :tate 9niersit+ 8ress0 ">@70 "@"B2

@ Voe(e.in0In Search o$ /rder0 "@2@ Ma5 We-er01esammelte Au$sat)e )ur #eligionsso)iologie63u-in(enP Mohr0 ">70 @42@> Wi..iam James0The 0ritings o$ 0illiam Games! A Comprehensive "dition0 ed2 and intro2

John J2 M)*ermott 6Chi)a(o and LondonP 9niersit+ o! Chi)a(o 8ress0 ">70 BBB2B= ina 3umarkin0The %iving and the Dead! The #ise and 'all o$ the Cult o$ 0orld 0ar II in

#ussia6e1 YorkP ,asi) ,ooks0 ">>470 B?2


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@< 3he e5&erientia. -asis o! )ommunism and demo)ra)+

!or)es at the !ront -ut united in the mo-i.isation o! a mora. &ur&ose !orthe )ommunit+2B"

Moreoer0 shi!ts o! )ons)iousness need not -e .imited to (reat eents;o! hi(her &u-.i)it+2 Minor o))urren)es ma+ -e )ru)ia. !or the !ormation o!)ons)iousness o! !uture .eaders or ma+ reerse or a.ter stron( trends0 assma.. )auses ma+ &rodu)e -i( e!!e)ts2 Lenin;s sin(.e most im&ortante5&erien)e o! initiation in the reo.utionar+ !i(ht a(ainst tsarism 1asre&orted.+ the e5e)ution o! his -rother A.e5ander in "0 in the 1akeo! a )ons&ira)+ a(ainst 3sar A.e5ander III2BB there

1as no ne)essit+ !or inde&endent dissident initiaties -e)ause &o1erstru)tures themse.es had not +et attained the stati)0 im&enetra-.e0 andsta-.e !orms that the+ had in the 1ake o! ">B2

A.thou(h this se)ond s&here o! )ons)iousness is as rea. as the !irst one0the e5&erientia. rea.it+ inside a )riti)a. situation is .o(i)a..+ di!!erent !romthe )ertainties and )onstraints under )onstituted &o1er s+stems2 A semina. )ontri-ution to the rationa.it+ o! )o..e)tie a)tion ar(ued that di!!er

en)es in the &osition o! a (rou& in the ).ass stru)ture .ead not on.+ todi!!eren)es in &o1er -ut a.so to di!!eren)es in the asso)iationa. &ra)ti)esand the t+&es o! )o..e)tie a)tion2B@3he di!!eren)e o! ).ass0 ho1eer0 isa.so a matter o! e5&erien)e0 .an(ua(e0 and dis)ourse2 Histori)a..+0 the)onstitution o! ).ass -ut a.so o! states and re(imes is more .ike.+ to -e aresu.t o! a)tion rather than a (ien -ased on ested interests2 A.thou(h the

B"

8ato)ka02eretical "ssays2B :ee Leonard :)ha&iro0#ussian Studies0 ed2 '..en ahrendor! 6e1 YorkP Vikin(0 ">70">=2

B? Adam Mi)hnik0Dia3eH nas)ego c)asu6Warsa1P iea.ena O!i)+na W+da1ni)t1a0">>@70?>2

B4 Va).a Hae.0 3he 8o1er o! the 8o1er.ess;0 in John Feane0 ed20The Power o$ thePowerless! Citi)ens Against the State in "astern "urope 6LondonP Hut)hinson and Co20">@704?2

B@ C.aus O!!e and He.mut Wiesentha.0 31o Lo(i)s o! Co..e)tie A)tionP 3heoreti)a. oteson :o)ia. C.ass and Or(aniationa. Eorm;0Political Power and Social Theory0 " 6">=70

B""@2


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1riters o! the Ameri)an Constitution 1ere intense.+ )ons)ious o! theirro.e as !ounders and stressed the im&ortan)e o! their a)ts !or (enerations+et un-orn; or &osterit+;0 their dis&ositions 1ere not eDuia.ent to .i-era.demo)ra)+ as a t+&e o! (oernment2BB Rather than (roundin( )onstitutiona.ism in an a-so.ute &rin)i&.e0 the+ )om-ined the imitation o! theRoman e5am&.e 1ith re&u-.i)anism in the Ma)hiae..ian tradition2 3heir)ons)iousness 1as not in tune 1ith a determinate mode. o! &o.iti)a.or(anisation -ut -e)ame trans!ormed throu(h the er+ a)t o! !oundin(a ne1 s+stem o! &o.iti)a. authorit+0 1hi)h &ostu.ated a -e(innin( o! time;throu(h a return to the &ast2B

As a.. &o.iti)a. a)tors in )riti)a. eents0 the Eren)h reo.utionaries did

not hae a )hoi)e -et1een an ima(inar+ and a &otentia..+ ia-.e &o.iti)a.&ro%e)t -ut -et1een a.ternatie ima(inatie )onstru)tions o! the so)ia.and &o.iti)a. 1or.d2B Initia..+0 the aim o! the Eren)h reo.utionaries 1asnot the reersa. o! theancien r4gime-ut its re)onstitution2B>3he &eriod">>= 1as not a radi)a. &re)ursor to the 3error0 -ut 1as dominated -+moderates 1ho 1ere keen to aoid )ounterreo.ution and 1ho &ursuedthe esta-.ishment o! )onstitutiona. (oernment2 In the )onte5t o! theEren)h Reo.ution0 not on.+ did the re&resentaties o! the third estatenot hae so)ia..+ homo(eneous -a)k(rounds -ut the+ a.so .a)ked a reo.utionar+ dis&osition0 een as an ideo.o(i)a. stand&oint2= Whereas theear.+ reo.utionaries &ro).aimed a ru&ture 1ith theancien r4gime0 theradi)a. Ja)o-in &hase &aed the 1a+ to -ureau)rati) )entra.isation2

either the end o! tsarism in Ee-ruar+ ">" nor the ,o.sheik

Reo.ution and its maintenan)e in )ii. 1ar and 1ar )ommunism 1asineita-.e2"Leninism 1as not a )oherent ideo.o(+ that 1as ineita-.+ to

.ead to the di)tatorshi& o! the &ro.etariat2 At the moment o! rea.isin( thecoup d4tatin 8etro(rad on B70 =4@2B Wi..iam :e1e.. %nr0 A Rhetori) o! ,our(eois Reo.ution;0 in Fates0The 'rench

#evolution0 "4?@B2B> A.e5is de 3o)Duei..e0%ancien r4gime et la r4volution68arisP E.ammarion0 ">72= 3imoth+ 3a)kett08ecoming a #evolutionary! The Deputies o$ the 'rench ;ational Assem3ly

and the "mergence o$ a #evolutionary Culture *56+-*5+,J 68rin)etonP 8rin)eton9niersit+ 8ress0 ">>B72

" Ri)hard 8i&es0Three 0hys o$ the #ussian #evolution6LondonP 8im.i)o0 ">>70 """>2


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@4 3he e5&erientia. -asis o! )ommunism and demo)ra)+

the ma%or )ities in the a!termath o! the Ee-ruar+ Reo.ution 1as reminis)ent o! the t1o so)ieties; in Russia0 the &eo&.e 6narod7 and en.i(htened)ii. so)iet+ 6o3shchestvennost72 Ho1eer0 it 1as -+ no means &re!i(ured-e!ore ">" -ut 1as rather a resu.t o! the !ai.ed &o.iti)a. &ro%e)t o! thedua.&o1er setu&2 3he )onstru)tion o! the term 3ur)hua 6-our(eois7 asthe ).ass enem+ 1as &rimari.+ de!ined -+ its !.uidit+0 a(ueness0 andmakeshi!t )hara)ter2 In the )ro1d io.en)e o! ">"0 the aroused massesented their an(er not a(ainst an a-stra)t -our(eoisie; or a so)ia. ).ass

-ut a(ainst rea. &eo&.e the+ met in !a)eto!a)e re.ationshi&s on thestreets0 una-.e to ).ear.+ identi!+ a &otentia. enem+ in ).ass terms2B0 and in

8o.and in ">=/" 1ere o-%e)tie )rises in )ommunist &o.iti)a. so)ieties-ut modi!ied attitudes o! &o1er in)um-ents and o! indiidua.s as the+su-%e)tie.+ tried to make sense o! su)h ma%or so)io&o.iti)a. trans!ormations2 3he :oiet interention on B in Ce)hos.oakia

&rodu)ed t1o rea.ities2?A.thou(h it !ai.ed to a)hiee its &o.iti)a. o-%e)ties0 the mi.itar+ o))u&ation -+ :oiet !or)es 1as )onso.idated 1ithin a!e1 da+s and -e)ame a rea.it+ in Ce)hos.oak .i!e2 :imu.taneous.+0 andDuite une5&e)ted.+0 the oer1he.min( ma%orit+ o! the )ountr+;s &o&u.ation )ha..en(ed the :oiet o))u&ation !or)e -+ means o! s&ontaneous)o..e)tie so.idarit+ and nonio.ent resistan)e0 s+m-o.isin( the unit+ o!the Ce)hos.oak &eo&.e2 3he :oiet Arm+;s utter sur&rise a-out the

&o&u.ation;s rea)tion mani!ested the &ro!ound misinter&retation o! thesituation -+ the :oiet authorities2

3he e5&erien)e o! resistan)e to )ommunism re!.e)ts the insi(hts o!so)ia. theorists that the .o(i) o! 1ar!are and re)i&ro)a. en(ean)e is not

an anthro&o.o(i)a. )onstant2 As anthro&o.o(ists su)h as Marsha.. :ah.inshae ar(ued0 the e5)han(e o! (oods in &rimitie !orms o! e)onom+ 1asnot -ased on the &ursuit o! &riate se.!interest -ut 1as drien -+ the needto esta-.ish a so)ia. -ond2 '5)han(in( (oods0 there!ore0 1as tantamount toa kind o! so)ia. )ontra)t 1hi)h &reented io.en)e !rom -reakin( out2 4

3he ri)h and )ontroersia. .iterature in the 1ake o! Mar)e. Mauss;ssemina. essa+ on 3he i!t; has -een intri(ued 1ith the !or)e -+ 1hi)ha (i!t indu)es some-od+ to re)i&ro)ate it2 '5&.ainin( the .o(i) o! the

)ounter(i!t0 C.aude Le!ort ar(ued that (iin( -a)k a (i!t im&.ies that

< Or.ando Ei(es and ,oris Fo.onitskii0Interpreting the #ussian #evolution! The %anguageand Sym3ols o$ *+*56e1 Haen and LondonP Ya.e 9niersit+ 8ress0 ">>>70 "2

? Ered H2 'id.in0The %ogic o$ K;ormali)ation! The Soviet Intervention in C)echoslovakia o$* August *+6 and the C)echoslovak #esponse6e1 YorkP Co.um-ia 9niersit+ 8ress0">=70"@B2

4

Marsha.. :ah.ins0Stone Age "conomics6Chi)a(oP A.dine0 ">70 "42


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the other is .ike me 1ho ou(ht to a)t .ike me2 @3his (esture is su&&osed to)on!irm the truth o! m+ o1n (esture0 1hi)h is m+ su-%e)tiit+2 As Lu),o.tanski ar(ued !or the s&e)i!i) a)t o!agape0 )onditions o! &ea)e are

&ossi-.e0 1hi)h renoun)e )ommon notions o! se.!interested re)i&ro)it+0%usti)e0 or e5&e)tations o! re)eiin( -a)k as a resu.t o! (iin(2B

3he !o)us on demo)ratisation as startin( a!ter the end o! )ommunist&o1er has )on)ea.ed the !ormatie &o1er o! situationa. &remises2 ,othreo.utionar+ io.en)e and )onditions o! &ea)e!u. communitas hae -een!ormatie !or dis&ositions o! indiidua.s and )o..e)tie (rou&s2 emo)rati)transitions a!ter )ommunism do not de&end on.+ on &redetermined dis&ositions a&&ro&riate !or .i-era. demo)ra)+ -ut shou.d in).ude the uto&ian

&ossi-i.ities o! demo)ra)+0 1hi)h su-s)ri-ed to ethi)a. indiidua.ism0ima(es o! !u.. !reedom0 or anti&o.iti)a. attitudes o! .iin( in truth;2 Inthe )onte5t o! !.uid )on%un)tures0 a)tors are )on)erned not %ust 1ithio.en)e and en(ean)e their )ons)iousness is a.so !ormed -+mutua. re)o(nition and the desire !or )ommunit+2 :o.idarit+ 1ith !e..o1)itiens and other human -ein(s 1ho su!!er !rom o&&ression or humi.iation ma+ -e)ome a ma%or )on)ern !or &eo&.e durin( s&ontaneous mo-i.isation0 een &rom&tin( the diso-e+in( o! orders -+ the (oernment orthe &o.i)e !or)e2 3he di!!erent .o(i) o! -ehaiour reDuires a&&roa)hin( thesituation as a mi)ro)osm 1here o-%e)tie eents and su-%e)tie attitudesare mutua..+ de&endent on ea)h other2 Mutua. re)o(nition is the &re)ondition !or the )onstitution o! )onditions o! &ea)e2

In Ce)hos.oakia0 indiidua. e5&erien)es o! hain( si(ned Charter eoked sudden and &o1er!u. !ee.in(s o! (enuine )ommunit+ amon(

&eo&.e 1ho 1ere a.. -ut stran(ers -e!ore2 A.thou(h the )ha..en(e to the

8o.ish )ommunist &art+state -+ the trade union moement :o.idarnoG)Gin ">= 1as enormous due to -oth the num-ers o! !o..o1ers and themora. &ur&ose !or an inde&endent nation the a)tion o

Communism and the Emergence of Democracy

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