1 UNIVERSITY OF ZULULAND FACULTY OF ARTS Department of Communication Science Communication Science 2 ACOM211 Lecturer: J.M. Magagula Tel: (035) 902 7036 Email: [email protected] / [email protected]Richards Bay Campus Office No. A2-42 2nd Floor _________________________________________________________
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Table of Contents STUDY UNIT 1 ................................................................................................................................................ 5
1.1 DEFINING COMMUNICATION ....................................................................................................... 5
1.2 ORGANIZATIONATIONAL COMMUNICATION ............................................................................... 6
1.3 ASSUMPTIONS AND FEATURES OF ORGANIZATIONAL COMMUNICATION .................................. 8
1.4 SAMPLE RESEARCH TOPICS IN ORGANIZATIONAL COMMUNICATION ......................................... 8
1.5 ORGANIZATIONAL COMMUNICATION: WHAT’S IN IT FOR YOU? ................................................. 8
1.6 PREVALENCE OF MISUNDERSTANDINGS ...................................................................................... 9
1.7 CHANGING NATURE OF ORGANIZATIONS .................................................................................... 9
1.8 REALITIES OF DIVERSE WORKFORCE ............................................................................................. 9
1.9 ETHICAL FRAMEWORKS AND ORGANIZATIONAL COMMUNICATION ........................................ 10
1.15.2 Human Resources Approach .................................................................................................... 12
1.15.3 Systems Approach .................................................................................................................... 13
1.15.4 Cultural Approach ............................................................................................................... 13
STUDY UNIT 2 .............................................................................................................................................. 15
2.7 PATTERNS OF AUTHORITY .......................................................................................................... 24
2.8 SPAN OF CONTROL ...................................................................................................................... 25
2.9 THE PROS AND CONS OF FUNCTIONAL ORGANIZATION DESIGN ............................................... 26
2.10 MEETINGS AND COMMITTEES .................................................................................................... 26
STUDY UNIT 3 .............................................................................................................................................. 28
3.1 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS................................................................................................... 28
3.2 TYPES OF COMMUNICATION NETWORKS ................................................................................... 29
3.2.1 The Circle ............................................................................................................................. 29
3.2.2 The Wheel ........................................................................................................................... 30
3.2.3 The Y-Channel ..................................................................................................................... 31
3.2.4 The Chain ............................................................................................................................ 32
3.2.5 The All-channel ................................................................................................................... 33
3.3 INDIVIDUAL COMMUNICATION ROLES IN AN ORGANIZATION .................................................. 34
3.3.5 The isolated ......................................................................................................................... 35
STUDY UNIT 4 .............................................................................................................................................. 36
4.1 FUNCTIONS OF ORGANIZATIONAL COMMUNICATION .............................................................. 36
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4.1.1 The Informative Function ........................................................................................................... 36
4.1.2 The Regulatory Function ............................................................................................................ 36
4.1.3 The Integrative Function ............................................................................................................ 36
4.1.4 The Persuasive Function ............................................................................................................ 37
4.2 CORPORATE COMMUNICATION ....................................................................................................... 37
4.2.1 INTERNAL COMMUNICATION ........................................................................................................ 37
STUDY UNIT 5 .............................................................................................................................................. 38
5.10 CLIMATE IN ORGANIZATIONS ............................................................................................................. 45
5.11 CULTURE AND CLIMATE COMPARED .................................................................................................. 45
STUDY UNIT 6 .............................................................................................................................................. 47
2. Process- Defining culture as a set of mechanisms creating cross individual behavioral consistency-
In this case culture is defined as the informal values, norms, and beliefs that control how
individuals and groups in an organization interact with each other and with people outside the
organization.
Both of these approaches are relevant to understanding culture. It is important to know on what types of
behavior culture has greatest impact (outcomes) and how culture works to control the behavior of
organizational members.
Organizational culture is a pattern of shared basic assumptions that the group learned as it solved its
problems of external adaptation and internal integration, that has worked well enough to be considered
valid and, therefore, to be taught to new members as the correct way to perceive, think, and feel in relation
to those problems.
5.2 EXPLORING ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE
Attempts to define organizational culture have adopted a number of different approaches. Some focus on
manifestations – the heroes and villains, rites, rituals, myths and legends that populate organizations.
Culture is also socially constructed and reflects meanings that are constituted in interaction and that form
commonly accepted definitions of the situation.
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Culture is symbolic and is described by telling stories about how we feel about the organization. A symbol
stands for something more than itself and can be many things, but the point is that a symbol is invested
with meaning by us and expresses forms of understanding derived from our past collective experiences.
The sociological view is that organizations exist in the minds of the members. Stories about culture show
how it acts as a sense - making device.
Culture is unifying and refers to the processes that bind the organization together. Culture is then
consensual and not conflictual. The idea of corporate culture reinforces the unifying strengths of central
goals and creates a sense of common responsibility.
Culture is holistic and refers to the essence – the reality of the organization; what it is like to work there,
how people deal with each other and what behaviours are expected. All of the above elements are
interlocking; culture is rooted deep in unconscious sources but is represented in superficial practices and
behaviour codes. Because organizations are social organizationms and not mechanisms, the whole is
present in the parts and symbolic events become microcosms of the whole.
5.3 CLASSIFYING CULTURES
One way of exploring cultures is to classify them into types.
1. Role Cultures – are highly formalized, bound with regulations and paperwork and authority and
hierarchy dominate relations.
2. Task Cultures – are the opposite, the preserve a strong sense of the basic mission of the
organization and teamwork is the basis on which jobs are designed.
3. Power Cultures – have a single power source, which may be an individual or a corporate group.
Control of rewards is a major source of power.
5.4 FUNCTIONS OF ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE
1. Behavioral control
2. Encourages stability
3. Provides source of identity
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5.5 DRAW BACKS OF CULTURE
1. Barrier to change and improvement
2. Barrier to diversity
3. Barrier to cross departmental and cross organizational cooperation
4. Barrier to mergers and acquisitions
Corporate culture is the personality of the organization: the shared beliefs, values and behaviours of the
group. It is symbolic, holistic, and unifying, stable, and difficult to change.
It is important to remember that the corporate culture is not the ideals, vision, and mission laid out in the
corporate marketing materials. Rather, it is expressed in the day-to-day practices, communications, and
beliefs. According to Borgatti (1996) a strong culture:
Is internally consistent
Is widely shared, and
Makes it clear what appropriate behavior is.
Whenever human beings gather and particularly when individuals with a common purpose begin working
together, work strategies and thinking processes will develop and an organizational culture will be created.
Put more simply, corporate culture is the way things get done in an organization. It is what drives action in
the organization, guiding how employees think, act and feel. It is the systematic set of assumptions that
define day-to-day working behaviour. “Culture can be described in a circular fashion where philosophy
expresses values; values are manifest in behavior; and behavior gives meaning to the underlying
philosophy. Philosophy, values, and behavior describe an organization’s culture and culture is the glue that
holds the organization together.” (DeWitt, 2001).
According to BOLA (2001) culture is the shared beliefs, values and norms of a group and it includes:
the way work is organized and experienced
how authority exercised and distributed
how people are and feel rewarded, organized and controlled
the values and work orientation of staff
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the degree of formalization, standardization and control through systems there is/should be
the value placed on planning, analysis, logic, fairness etc
how much initiative, risk-taking, scope for individuality and expression is given
rules and expectations about such things as informality in interpersonal relations, dress, personal
eccentricity etc
differential status
emphasis given to rules, procedures, specifications of performance and results, team or individual
working
In the beginning corporate culture is shaped by the leaders and by the purpose for with the company has
been created. It then develops within the constraints of the environment, technology, values of the
leadership, and performance expectations. “The initial culture is altered by the design variables of the
company, experiences of the company, management’s leadership style, the structure of the company, the
nature of the tasks of the groups, the way decisions are made, and the size of the company. In addition, the
developing culture is affected by the internal integrity of the company, the climate, and how well the
company is competing in the marketplace, its effectiveness.
5.6 WHY IS IT IMPORTANT TO UNDERSTAND THE CORPORATE CULTURE?
Corporate culture is a hidden mechanism of coordination directing each individual towards the common
goal. The goal and the ways of achieving the goal cannot be changed without understanding key attractors
and drivers in the culture. The causes of many profitability and responsiveness issues in corporations are
not found in the structure, in the leadership, or in the employees. The problems are found in the cultures
and sub-cultures of the organization.
5.6.1 Understanding The Culture of An Organization Facilitates:
Hiring employees that will succeed in the organization (lowering recruitment, development, and
human resource maintenance and management costs).
o “the culture of an organization affects the type of people employed, their career
aspirations, their educational backgrounds, their status in society.” (BOLA, 2001)
o “the only trustworthy predictor of on-the-job success is how closely an individual’s work
habits match the organizational culture…” (Giles, 2000)
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Creating policies and assignments to increase profitability and respond to market demands. Having
a firm grasp of a company’s culture and its nuances gives an executive the edge.
o “New policies and assignments should consider the organizational culture and should be
communicated in a manner congruent to the existing work strategies and beliefs. Learning
how to communicate to the above listed tendencies can give an executive enormous
power. “(Giles, 2000)
o “If the organization wants to maximize its ability to attain its strategic objectives, it must
understand if the prevailing culture supports and drives the actions necessary to achieve
its strategic goals.” (Hagberg & Heifetz, 2000)
Making significant changes to the corporation in response to real threats to its continued existence.
o “Understanding and assessing your organization's culture can mean the difference
between success and failure in today's fast changing business environment” (Hagberg &
Heifetz, 2000)
o “Many companies have turned themselves around, converting imminent bankruptcy into
prosperity. Some did it through financial gimmickry, but the ones who have become stars
did it by changing their own culture.” (Toolpack, 2001)
o “The power of cultural change is strong - strong enough to turn an aging dinosaur into a
state-of-the-art profit-maker… Because people working in different cultures act and
perform differently, changing the culture can allow everyone to perform more effectively
and constructively.” (Toolpack, 2001)
Facilitating mergers, joint ventures, and acquisitions.
o Being able to merge and reinvent corporate cultures plays a critical role in national and
international takeovers, joint ventures and mergers. If the cultures cannot be merged or
reinvented then the business will fail. (Wilms, Zell, Kimura and Cuneo, 1994) Decisions to
form joint ventures are made on economic grounds. Their failure to succeed relates to the
key noneconomic factor, the corporate cultures involved.
Increasing profitability and growth.
o Understanding, shaping, nurturing, and proclaiming cultural aspects can increase
corporate profitability and growth. “Companies that display specific facets of corporate
culture grow 10 times faster than companies that don't. The average net sales growth for
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so-called high-culture companies is 141 percent, compared with 9 percent growth at "low-
culture" companies” (Kosan, 2001)
5.6.2 Can Corporate Cultures be Changed?
Changing a corporate culture is a complex, long-term, and expensive undertaking that will either revitalize
or kill the company. It should not be undertaken lightly. Culture change must be driven by a powerful,
transformational reason: The competition is succeeding and you are not: Your company will fail if it does
not change. “For change to be successful there needs to be a compelling reason to change, a clear vision
of what the change will be, and, a sensible first step.” (Tribus, 2001)
Tan (2001) outlines four instances where corporate cultures need to be changed:
1. When two or more companies of varied backgrounds merge and continuous conflict among people
of different groups are undermining their performance;
2. When an organization has been around for a long time and its way of working are so entrenched
that it is hindering the company from adapting to changes and competing in the marketplace;
3. When a company moves into a totally different industry or areas of business and its current ways of
doing things are threatening the survival of the organization; and
4. When a company whose staff is so used to work under the favourable conditions of economic
boom but could not adapt to the challenges posed by an economic slowdown.
Corporate culture cannot be changed through changing a policy or issuing an edict. It can also not be
accomplished overnight. “The only way to change organizational culture overnight is to fire everyone and
hire a new staff with the working behaviors you now want.” (Giles, 2000) Culture change requires
consistency of message, goal, direction, and leadership to succeed. To change a culture one needs to
change the images and values, the evaluative, and the social elements of the organization. This requires a
strong leader who knows where they want the company to go, why they want it to go there, can articulate
both these points, and who has the power to drive the change throughout the organization. This leader, in
all the proponents of change in the organization, must consistently and obviously “model the behavior they
want to see in others. If they do not send a consistent message and keep that message clear and dominant
over time, cultural change may be seen as just another fad.” (Toolpack, 2001)
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Given strong leadership, Bijur (2001) has identified the five aspects of a successful change.
Values: values that drive the organization toward the realization of a shared vision.
Motivation: understand what motivates people. Make them stakeholders in the change.
Shared Ideas and Strategies: create an environment that enables the sharing of ideas and strategies and
encourages change.
Goals: clear and unambiguous goals, frequently communicated and discussed. Clear link between
individual and corporate goals.
Performance Ethic: a reward and recognition system that instills in the organization a performance ethic.
5.7 CULTURE AND SUCCESS
Deal and Kennedy (1982) argue that culture is the single most important factor accounting for success or
failure in organizations. They identified four key dimensions of culture:
1. Values – the beliefs that lie at the heart of the corporate culture.
2. Heroes – the people who embody values.
3. Rites and rituals – routines of interaction that have strong symbolic qualities.
4. The culture network – the informal communication system or hidden hierarchy of power in the
organization.
5.8 FORMAL COMPONENTS OF ORGANIZATIONATIONAL CULTURE
Component Description Effect on Organizational Culture
1 Mission/Vision The milestones to be reached Could be unrealistic
2 Policies Statements designed to be guidelines to bahavioural decision
Policies, if not drafted properly can provide leeway
3 Procedures Methods of providing specific guidelines
Can facilitate or create obstacles in smooth functioning
4 Rules Specific instructions for performing a task
Rules could be a means or an end in themselves
5 State of Organizational Development
Organization at young, growing, maturing, or mature stage of development
State of organizational development has direct impact on work culture
Table 5.1: Formal components of organizational culture
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5.9 ORGANIZATIONATIONAL CLIMATE
It is something that is sensed rather than something that is recognized. Organizational climate is a set if attributes which can be perceived about a particular organization and or its
subsystem, and that may be induced from the way the organization and /or its subsystems deal with their
members and environments.
Organizational climate is the combined perceptions of individuals that are useful in differentiating
organizations according to their procedure and practices.
Organizational climate is the collective view of the people within the organization as to the nature of the
environment in which they work.
5.10 CLIMATE IN ORGANIZATIONS
Unlike culture, the climate in an organization changes quickly and is easier to describe
It describes the present trend of opinions, attitudes or feelings in an organization, and it changes
quickly as the environment changes.
The changes are brought about by three things:
o Styles of management;
o Pressure of work; and
o Available resources.
The climate in a group may change rapidly from a supportive and positive one to a defensive and
negative one. Managers and staff therefore need to be constantly sensitive to the climate in the
group or section.
5.11 CULTURE AND CLIMATE COMPARED
Culture
Lasts a long time
Develops slowly
Depends on a known past of some length of time
Climate
May change quickly
Develops and changes quickly
Does not depend on known past
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Operates on a high level of unconscious assumptions
Collective, therefore individual variations are buried in the culture
Not likely to be affected by short-term changes
Deeply buried in people’s minds, therefore relatively invisible and hard to get at
Operates at a level of attitudes and values
Unique characteristics of members can be found
Respond to short term changes
Awareness more accessible and behaviour more visible
Table 5.2 Culture and climate compared
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STUDY UNIT 6
6.1 ORGANIZATIONATIONAL CHANGE Organizational change is often stimulated by a major external force, for example, substantial cuts in
funding, decreased market opportunity and dramatic increases in services. Typically, organizations
undertake technical, structural or strategic shifts in the organization to evolve to a different level in their life
cycle, for example changing from a highly reactive organization to a more stable proactive environment.
6.2 WHAT IS CHANGE MANAGEMENT Change management is a set of processes employed to ensure that significant changes are implemented
in a controlled and systematic manner. One of the goals of change management is the alignment of people
and culture with strategic shifts in the organization, to overcome resistance to change in order to increase
engagement and the achievement of the organization’s goal for effective transformation. Achieving
sustainable change begins with a clear understanding of the current state of the organization, followed by
the implementation of appropriate and targeted strategies. The focus of change management is on the
outcome the change will produce – the new arrangements that must be understood. Change processes
usually apply to a task and/or structural change, and can be either:
6.2.1 What Are The Differences Between Change And Transition?
Change is a shift in the externals of any situation, for example, setting up a new program, restructuring a
business, moving to new location, or a promotion. By contrast, transition is the mental and emotional
transformation that people must undergo to relinquish old arrangements and embrace new ones
William Bridges (2003:3) explains there are significant differences between change and transition. Change
is the way things will be different, and transition is how you move people through the stages to make
change work.
Change is made up of events, while transition is an on-going process. Change is visible and tangible, while
transition is a psychological process that takes place inside of people. Change can happen quickly, but
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transition, like any organic process, has its own natural pace. Change is all about the outcome we are
trying to achieve; transition is about how we'll get there and how we'll manage things while we are en route.
Getting people through the transition is essential if the change is actually to work as planned.
It is important to ensure that change management strategies are driven by the changes that need to occur,
but not to lose focus on the more personal transition activities needed to ensure the success of the
program.
6.2.2 Leading and Managing Change
The implementation of any significant change process usually succeeds or fails because of the leadership
of that change process.
Management as a discipline focuses on processes and systems that keep the operations of the
organization operating smoothly, while leadership engages people to create, adapt and meet the demands
of the anticipated future.
Management plays an essential part in making the changes happen; it empowers the ‘doing’. Leadership
inspires the transition, it is what energizes people and sustains a change in behaviour and approach.
Leadership engages the hearts and minds of staff.
6.3 WHY IS ORGANIZATIONATIONAL CHANGE DIFFICULT TO ACCOMPLISH?
McKinsey & Co (2006), Shaffer & Thomson (1998), and Corporate Leadership Council (CLC, 2001) site
studies of hundreds of companies that entered significant change programs. Their research indicates that
60% -70% of significant and complex change management programs grind to a halt because of their failure
to produce the hoped-for results. The research identified that failure is not necessarily due to poor technical
solutions; it was the result of poor project planning and change management.
Generally speaking, organizationations face strong resistance to change. People are afraid of the unknown,
many think things are fine the way they are and do not understand the need for change. Recognizing the
need to change, and acting on it, can be difficult decisions for leaders and managers to make.
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Managers are taught to manage processes and resources effectively. Change however requires the
‘management’ of people’s anxiety and confusion, or conversely their excitement and engagement. These
are emotions that most managers find difficult to deal with or address. Managing the change process and
transition emotions is fundamental to the success of a change oriented project.
Many people are inherently cynical about change, many doubt there are effective means to accomplish
major organizational change. Often there are conflicting goals within the organization, for example,
increasing resources to accomplish goals yet cutting costs to remain viable. Organizational change often
goes against the very 7 values held dear by people, that is, the change may go against how they believe
things should be done or diminish ownership of ‘how we do things around here’.
Resistance is a natural defence mechanism for those ‘losing’ something. The closer we are to something or
someone, the greater the grief or loss. Reasons for resisting change are varied. The reasons could include
perceived loss of security, money, pride or satisfaction, friends, freedom, responsibility, authority, good
working conditions, status, lack of respect, objectionable manner, negative attitude, personal criticism, not
having had input, bad timing, challenge to authority or second hand information.
6.4 KOTTER’S EIGHT-STAGE PROCESS FOR CREATING MAJOR CHANGE
Establishing a Sense of Urgency
o Help others see the need for change and the importance of acting immediately
o Examining the market and competitive realities (SWOT matrix)
o Identifying and discussing (potential) crises
Creating the Guiding Coalition
o Make sure there is a powerful group guiding the change, one with leadership skills, bias for
action, credibility, communication skills and authority and analytical skills
o Building teams and forming influential guiding coalitions
o Assemble a group powerful enough to lead & influence the change
o Getting the group to work together like a team
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Developing a Vision and Strategy
o Clarify how the future will be different from the past, and how you will make the future a
reality
o Creating a vision to help direct the change effort
o Getting the vision and strategy right (Vision building)
o Developing strategies to achieve the vision
Communicating the Change Vision
o Make sure as many others as possible understand and accept the vision and the strategy
o Using every vehicle possible to constantly communicate the new vision and strategies