Communication across the life span February 15, 2013.

Communication across the life span

February 15, 2013

Communication

Communication is a characteristic of humans in all cultures and in all stages of development

Typically we use language to communicate Communication can occur without some type of

verbal exchange However, communication can occur using

interactions via gestures, facial expressions and body language

Language development has a biological basis and is specifically preprogrammed in human beings

It is also inter related to other domains such as cognition, psychosocial and motor development

Speech

Speech is the verbal mode used for communication Composed of individual sounds called phonemes Allophones are variations of the same phoneme Phonological rules are used to combine phonemes

in the correct order in order to produce words Word /cat/ is a combination of three sounds /k/,

/q/, /t/ Three sounds are combined using phonological

rules (consonant is usually followed by a vowel sound, vowel is the nucleus of a syllable, etc.)

Helps us to generate thousands of words with different meanings

Voice and articulation Vocal folds vibrate to create a complex tone that is composed of

many frequencies Movements of the lips, tongue and teeth together with breath

support produce various sounds Try out two sounds – one voiced and the other voiceless Articulation is the manner in which the oral and nasal cavities

come together to modify the air stream that comes from the larynx

Speech can be analyzed in three ways: Perceptual: Use of our auditory skills to receive and analyze

messages Physiology helps to us to understand production features of

various allophones Acoustical study utilized to quantify parameters of sound

frequency, intensity and time

The respiratory mechanism

Pulmonary system and the chest wall system Pulmonary system

Lungs and airways Upper respiratory system (oral and nasal cavities) Lower respiratory system (larynx, bronchial

system and the lungs) Chest wall system

Rib cage, abdomen and diaphragm http://www.youtube.com/watch?

v=HiT621PrrO0&feature=player_embedded#!

Larynx

Cartilaginous tube Connects to the respiratory system (trachea and lungs)

inferiorly Superiorly to the vocal tract and oral cavity Position important because of its relationship and

integration between three subsystems Pulmonary power house Laryngeal valve Supraglottic vocal tract resonator

Lungs are the power supply for aerodynamic (subglottic tracheal) pressure that blows vocal cords apart – sets them into vibration

Vocal cords oscillate in a series of compressions and rarefactions

Modulate the subglottic pressure or transglottal pressure of short pulses of sound energy to produce human voice

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Z_ZGqn1tZn8

Laryngeal system

Vocal cords can be moved in several ways Spread apart (abducted)

Gap between the vocal cords called the glottis Air moves in and out freely when gap is wide open Sounds harsh and noisy when somewhat constricted

Pulled together (adducted) Airway is blocked Air pressure builds up under the vocal cords causing them to

bulge up Eventually blown apart to release a puff of air Vocal folds fall back due to elastic recoil or aerodynamic effect Air pressure decreases when speed of airflow increases

(Bernoulli effect) Tensed or stretched

Laryngeal system

Vibrating vocal cords produce puffs of air Rate of vocal cord vibration (fundamental

frequency) 125 per second in males 250 per second in adult females 500 per second in young children (infants) Measured in Hertz (one complete cycle of vibration

per second) Fundamental frequency changes constantly to

produce intonation Faster they vibrate the higher the pitch or frequency

Laryngeal system

Greater the tension in the vocal cords Thinner the vocal cords Higher the frequency

Decrease in tension in the vocal cords Thicker the vocal cords Lower the frequency

The amount of air released will also change the loudness Greater the amount air released softer the tone Lesser the amount of air released the louder the tone Forceful adduction increase the loudness

Supralaryngeal system

Sound from the larynx has to be shaped or modulated by the supralaryngeal system

Complex sound is composed of a series of simple periodic sounds (pure tones) called harmonics

Each harmonic has a unique frequency and amplitude

Frequency is measured in cycles per second or Hertz (Hz)

Lowest harmonic is the fundamental frequency (Fo) – represents the rate of vocal cord vibration

Each subsequent harmonic is 120 Hz higher – 240 Hz, 360 Hz, etc.

Supralaryngeal system

Amplitude represented in decibels (dB) of sound pressure level or intensity level

Amplitude harmonics vary in a predictable manner

Fo has the highest amplitude Harmonics drop off at 12dB per octave 12 dB drop between the fundamental

frequency and first harmonic Graph (amplitude spectrum) shows amplitude

and frequency of each harmonic

Supralaryngeal system

Sound traveling through the upper airways (supralaryngeal or vocal tract) is modulated by shape and size of the tract

Some harmonics are amplified and some reduced (damped)

Humming sound of phonation acquires overtones called resonant or formant frequencies

As the cavity changes to form different sounds resonance or formants also change

Supralaryngeal system

Supralaryngeal system

Articulation Process of forming sounds by movement of the

articulators Vocal or supralaryngeal tract made up of tubes from

the larynx to the opening of the mouth and nose Oral cavity – lips to the back of the throat – changed

by the articulators Nasal cavity – from the nares to the velopharynx –

fixed Pharyngeal cavity between the vocal folds to the

nasal cavity

Supralaryngeal system

Supralaryngeal system

Pharyngeal oral-nasal system Pharynx

Divided into 3 cavities Laryngopharynx, oralpharynx and nasopharynx Direction of sound determined by the position of the velum

(soft palate) Velopharynx – velum (extension of the hard palate) and

pharyngeal walls Open position – nasal radiation for nasal sounds Closure of the velopharyngeal port for oral sounds

Upward movement of the velum Inward movement of the pharynx Different types of movements Cleft palate or short palate causes hypernasality

Supralaryngeal system

Articulation Coordination of fixed (teeth, alveolar ridge, hard

palate) and mobile (tongue, jaw, and soft palate) articulators

Upper jaw or maxilla and the mandible have teeth which help to produce sounds such as /’/ /;/ /f/ /v/

Alveolar ridge –bony shelf of the maxilla help to produce sounds such as /t/, /d/, /z/ and /s/

Hard palate which extends from the alveolar ridge helps to produce /c/ /y/, /j/,/./

Suprapharyngeal system

Oral cavity Lower jaw or mandible – moves the lower lip

and tongue Tempromandibular joint – hinge like movement Up and down as well as slightly forward and

backward and side to side Produces vowel sounds such as /e/, /i/, /o/ Movements produced by muscles

Temporalis Masseter Geniohyoid Mylohyoid

Suprapharyngeal system

Tongue Most important articulator Shortened, lengthened, widened, narrowed, flattened

and thickened No skeleton – skeletal support from the hyoid bone

and the jaw Attached to the palate, pharynx and the epiglottis Capable of complicated movements due to its own

musculature Body – main bulk – vowel production Tip – apex – 50% of consonants Blade – behind the tip – small number of sounds (/c/) Dorsum – back – velar sounds Root – front wall of the pharynx

Supralaryngeal system

Oral cavity Lips

Upper and lower lips contribute by opening and closing the oral cavity

Lower lip moved by the jaw – greater movement than the upper lip

Allows production of sounds such as /p/, /b/, and /m/

Phonetics

Four or five descriptors typically used to classify consonants Voicing Nasality Manner of articulation Place of articulation Secondary articulation /n/ is a voiced, alveolar, nasal, stop /f/ is a unvoiced, labiodental, fricative

Vowels are classified according to 3 characteristics Height – high, mid, low Frontness/backness – front, central or back Lip shape – spread, rounded, normal All vowels are voiced,

Phonetics

Suprasegmentals Classified according to:

Loudness Pitch Duration

Subject (noun) vs. subject (verb) Emphasis called stress Intonation used to differentiate between a

statement and a question (it’s a good time vs. it’s a good time?)

Language Complex and dynamic system of conventional symbols that is used in

various modes for thought and communication Langauge evolves within specific historical, social, and cultural contexts Language is rule governed

Phonology Morphology Syntax Semantic Pragmatic

Language learning is determined by biological, cognitive, psychosocial and environmental factors

Effective use of language requires understanding of human interaction (sociocultural roles, nonverbal cues and motivation)

Multifaceted behavior that is under constant change New advances in technology Dialects

Language structure

Phonology is the rules that govern combination of phonemes or sounds

Morphology is the study word structure Free morphemes (e.g., dog) Bound morphemes (e.g., s)

Syntax of the word order of language Subject followed by a verb which is followed by an

object Semantics

Referential meaning – meaning assigned to individual words (the word car induces a mental picture of a car), adult vocabulary of 80,000 words

Relational meaning – combination of referents Figurative meaning

Language structure

Pragmatics – rules for talking or the rules for what we say and how we say it Speech act conforms to the context Initiation Turn taking Commenting Requesting Termination Repair

Prelinguistic development Characterized by child’s exploration of his environment Cognitive, motor, and social domains develop in parallel to this

development At the end of this period the child learns to use words as

referents (abstract symbols of actual referents) First three months

Human voice calming effect when the infant is upset Caregivers constantly provide stimulation in the form of

auditory and visual input Develops into an early schema Crying is used to signal hunger or discomfort which will

result is satisfaction of the need (caregiver will produce a bottle)

Vowels emerge during periods of satisfaction

Prelinguistic development

Vowels are combined with back of throat sounds (/k/ and /g/) in the second month (called vocal play or cooing)

Prolongation of vowel sounds appears next Turning head towards a voice and responding

vocally to the speech of caregivers is also observed

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=k2YdkQ1G5QI http://www.youtube.com/watch?

v=Btg9PiT0sZg&feature=related

Prelinguistic development

Fourth to the twelfth month http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EPKum-

YIWnw&feature=related Consonant vowel combinations are strung

together and practiced during times of comfort and content (babbling)

Sounds produced are not specific to the native language

Emergence of suprasegmental features (rhythm and flow)

Five to nine months the child expands on prelinguistic behavior

Prelinguistic development

Variegated babbling replaces the repetitive babbling

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xaZSnwD_Zik&feature=related

Echolalia emerges towards the end of this period Child attempts to imitate the caregiver’s utterances http://www.youtube.com/watch?

v=qS3GVCcIIKg&NR=1 Meaning is not associated with these imitations Infant understands angry intonations, his name

and some words They start to pay attention to conversation

Language development 12 months to 48 months Single word utterances

First words emerge at approximately 12 months of age Child uses single words (holophrases) just as competent

speakers do to convey meaning relations Relations are context based and the meaning is about the

here and now Object names and actions (e.g., eat for hungry) Consonant vowel or vowel consonant combinations Continues until 18 months of age Understands more words than he produces First 50 words are holophrases Not aware of the single sounds that form the words After 50 words they become more aware of the phonology

and start to combine sounds in a variety of ways to form different words

Language development Two word utterances

18 months to 24 months Best studied within the context the utterances are produced

(mommy shoe may mean different things in different contexts)

Morphological stage Marked by expansion in utterance length 27 to 30 months Begin to produce phrases (my doggie) and clauses (my

doggie eat) Preparation for adult sentence structure (agent-action-object) Inflections also appear to change the type and the meaning

of the sentence Caregivers are constantly stimulating the infant Caregivers speak with less complex language with children They provide expansions

Language Development

Development of syntax 31 to 34 months Continue to add detail Development of questions and imperatives (with

appropriate word order) Engage in conversations Take turns, repair may or may not be successful

Sentence embedding Phrases and clauses are embedded within each other

to create more complex utterances (put it under the table or I like the boy who helped)

Pragmatics continues to improve (more turns during conversation and the meaning of pausing - to pause for the communication partner to respond and that it is signal for the end of the utterance)

Language development

Co-joining sentences Complete utterances Begin to consider the perspective of the listener Continue to embed and start cojoining sentence (I

like cookies and I ate them all) Refining language skills

School experience places the child in a different environment with different interactions

Cognition continues to play a role Formalizes the language channels by learning to

read, write, and spell Uses language now to learn other concepts Development of metalinguistics (assess

phonological, syntax and semantic rules)

Communication disorders

Developmental delays or acquired problems 17% have communication disorders 11% have some type of hearing loss 6% a speech disorder Speech disorder includes disorders of voice,

articulation and fluency Language disorder refers to comprehension

and production of language

Classification of communication disorders

Language disorders

Language disorders in children Difficulty in acquiring language Cognitive impairment/developmental delay

Language impairment of varying degrees

As they grow the gap between their chronological age and language age continues to expand

Expressive language is shorter in length and less complex

Semantics and pragmatics are also a problem

Language disorders Autism

Social interaction Caregivers report that the child started to learn language but

then stopped Exhibit echolalia Usual or peculiar differences Person stores and produces the utterances but does not

process the utterances internally Hearing impairment

Severity of language impairment depends on the type and severity of the hearing loss

Evaluated by an audiologist Appropriate hearing may be prescribed Hearing aids apply hearing but they do not restore hearing Cochlear implants give direct stimulation to the cochlear Supplement their language with speech reading and manual

signs

Language disorders

Language disorders in children Specific language impairment

No cognitive, social, sensory, or motor problems

Demonstrate delays in language development Lack of achieving linguistic milestones Comprehend more than they produce Difficulties extracting irregularities of language Morphological disorders are evident Vocabulary growth might also be a problem Pragmatics may also be affected

Language disorders Neglect and abuse

Lack of maternal interaction has a negative effect on language development

Pragmatics is a severe problem They do not initiate and restrict their utterances in

conversation Traumatic brain injury

Effect on language varies with the site of lesion, degree and age of insult

Cognitive deficits such as attention, memory, perception, organization and problem solving are also affected

I million children and adolescents incur TBI Language deficits include deficits in comprehension and

difficulty with figurative language such as idioms, metaphors and proverbs

Problems with story grammar and sequencing parts of a narrative may also be affected

Language disorders

Language disorders in adults - Aphasias Disruption of blood supply to the brain Damage to neural tissue Degenerative disease Other problems co-exist with language

impairments (poor judgment, sensory or motor impairments, memory problems)

Associated swallowing or motor speech disorder

Language disorders

Fluent or Wernicke's aphasia http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aVhYN7NTIKU)

Non-fluent or Broca’s aphasia (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1aplTvEQ6ew)

Language disorders

Augmentative and alternative communication If the person is not capable of developing functional

speech, they may need to use an AAC system Total communication approach

No tech (manual sign language) Low tech (manual communication boards) Mid tech (static display devices) High tech (dynamic display devices)

Caregivers feel that use of AAC prevents further development of language but it only enhances language development

Strategies need to be taught on how to use the AAC systems