Commercial Chicken Meat and Egg Production Fifth Edition
Commercial Chicken Meat
and Egg Production
Fifth Edition
Edited by
DONALD D. BELL (emeritus)
Poultry Specialist University of Califomia
Riverside, Califomia
WILLIAM D. WEAVER, JR. Professor Emeritus
Oepartment of Poultry Science Virginia T ech
Blacksburg, Virginia and
Oepartment Head (retired) Oepartment of Poultry Science
Pennsylvania State University University Park, Pennsylvania
..... " SPRINGER SCIENCE+BUSINESS MEDIA, LLC
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Commercial chicken meat and egg production / edited by Donald D. BeU, William D. Weaver, Jr. p.cm.
Rev. ed. of: Commercial chicken production manual / Mack O. North, Donald D. BeU.
4th ed. c1990. Includes bibliographical references (p. ). ISBN 978-1-4613-5251-8 ISBN 978-1-4615-0811-3 (eBook) DOI 10.1007/978-1-4615-0811-3 1. Chickens-Handbooks, manuals, etc. 2. Eggs-Handbooks, manuals, etc. 1. BeU,
Donald D., 1933- II. Weaver, Jr., William Daniel, 1940- III. North, Mack O. Commercial chicken production manual.
SF487.N77 2001 636.5-dc21
Copyright 2002 bySpringer ScÎence+Business Media New York OriginaIly published by Kluwer Academic Publishers in 2002 Softcover reprint of the hardcover 5th edition
00-045232
AU rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any farm or by any means, mechanical, photo-copying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the publisher, Springer Science+Business Media,LLC.
Printed on acid-free paper.
In Commercial Chicken Meat and Egg Production, the names of many medicinal and other products appear, often with the trade names, which may vary from country to country. But nothing contained herein is to be construed as an endorsement for any named product, either by trade or chemical name, nor is criticism of similar products implied when not mentioned.
Products such as pesticides, rodenticides, disinfectants, drugs, antibiotics, and vaccines are usually licensed for use. These licenses are specific for each country or state, require verification of effectiveness and safety, and must be accompanied with detailed labels explaining the application, dosage, species, safety precautions, and limitations associated with the material. The user is responsible for adhering to these instructions and to use such products only as advised.
This book cannot include all the products licensed for sale, nor can it give the many benefits or limitations associated with their use. Always check with local agricultural authorities regarding the legal use of any product.
Often, materials or processes that are effective in one region may fail in another. Consult with local government agencies, consultants, or university advisors before using any such products.
Contents
Introduction, xi Contributing Authors, xiii Acknowledgments, xvii Preface, xix List of Tables, xxi List of Figures, xxxv List of Abbreviations, xlvii
Section I. General
1
2
3
4
5
The World's Commercial Chicken Meat and Egg Industries Paul W. Aho
Components of the Poultry and Allied Industries Donald D. Bell
Modern Breeds of Chickens Donald D. Bell
Anatomy of the Chicken Donald D. Bell
Formation of the Egg Donald D. Bell
6 Behavior of Chickens
7
8
9
10
11
12
A. Bruce Webster
Behavioral Genetics A. Bruce Webster
Poultry Housing William D. Weaver, Jr.
Fundamentals of Ventilation William D. Weaver, Jr.
Fundamentals of Managing Light for Poultry Michael J. Wineland
Waste Management Donald D. Bell
External Parasites, Insects, and Rodents Douglas R. Kuney
Section II. Feeds and Nutrition
13
14
Feed and the Poultry Industry Paul W. Aho
Digestion and Metabolism Craig N. Coon
3
19
31
41
59
71
87
101
113
129
149
169
187
199
vii
viii CONTENTS
15 Major Feed Ingredients: Feed Management and Analysis Craig N. Coon
16 Broiler Nutrition Craig N. Coon
17 Feeding Egg-Type Replacement Pullets Craig N. Coon
18 Feeding Commercial Egg-Type Layers Craig N. Coon
19 Feeding Broiler Breeders Craig N. Coon
20 Vitamins, Minerals, and Trace Ingredients Craig N. Coon
21 Feed Formulation and the Computer Gene M. Pesti
22 Consumption and Quality of Water Donald D. Bell
Section III. Poultry Health
23 Microorganisms and Disease Gregg J. Cutler
24 Immunity Gregg J. Cutler
25 Vaccines and Vaccination Gregg J. Cutler
26 Medication for the Prevention and Treatment of Diseases Carol J. Cardona and Gregg J. Cutler
27 Diseases of the Chicken Gregg J. Cutler
28 Biosecurity on Chicken Farms Carol J. Cardona and Douglas R. Kuney
29 Cleaning and Disinfecting Poultry Facilities Douglas R. Kuney and Joan S.Jeffrey
30 Diagnostic Testing Carol J. Cardona and Gregg J. Cutler
Section IV. Business
31
32
33
Operating a Poultry Enterprise Donald D. Bell Record Management Donald D. Bell Computer Applications Gene M. Pesti
215
243
267
287
329
371
395
411
433
443
451
463
473
543
557
565
585
595
611
Section V. The Breeder and Hatchery Industries
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
Managing the Breeding Flock Ronald Meijerhoj
Development of the Embryo Joseph M. Mauldin
Hatchery Planning, Design, and Construction Joseph M. Mauldin
Equipment for Hatcheries Joseph M. Mauldin and Thad Morrison III
Maintaining Hatching Egg Quality Joseph M. Mauldin
Factors Affecting Hatchability Joseph M. Mauldin
Operating the Hatchery Joseph M. Mauldin
Section VI. The Broiler Industry
41
42
43
Introduction to the US Chicken Meat Industry Paul W. Aho
A Model Integrated Broiler Firm Donald D. Bell
Broiler Management Michael P. Lacy
Section VII. Poultry Processing
44
45
46
47
48
Quality Assurance and Food Safety-Chicken Meat Charles J. Wabeck
Microbiology of Poultry Meat Products Charles J. Wabeck
Processing Chicken Meat Charles J. Wabeck
Poultry Processing-Inspection and Grading Charles J. Wabeck
Further-Processing Poultry and Value-Added Products Charles J. Wabeck
Section VIII. The Table-Egg Industry
49 Introduction to the US Table-Egg Industry Donald D. Bell
50
51
A Model One Million Hen In-Line Egg Production Complex Donald D. Bell
Cage Management for Raising Replacement Pullets Donald D. Bell
CONTENTS ix
623
651
661
685
707
727
775
801
819
829
871
889
899
921
931
945
965
979
x CONTENTS
52 Cage Management for Layers Donald D. Bell 1007
53 Management in Alternative Housing Systems Donald D. Bell 1041
54 Flock Replacement Programs and Flock Recycling Donald D. Bell 1059
55 Egg Production and Egg Weight Standards for Table-Egg Layers
Donald D. Bell 1079
56 Egg Handling and Egg Breakage Donald D. Bell 1091
Section IX. Egg Processing
57 Shell Eggs and Their Nutritional Value Gideon Zeidler 1109
58 Processing and Packaging Shell Eggs Gideon Zeidler 1129
59 Further-Processing Eggs and Egg Products Gideon Zeidler 1163
60 Shell Egg Quality and Preservation Gideon Zeidler 1199
61 Quality and Functionality of Egg Products Gideon Zeidler 1219
62 Egg Quality Assurance Programs Ralph A. Ernst 1229
Section X. References
63 Selected References and Suggested Reading 1241
Section XI. Appendix
64-A List of Periodicals and Scientific Journals 1267 64-B Partial List of Books on Poultry and Related Subjects 1269 64-C Partial List of International Chicken Breeding Companies 1279 64-D Partial List of International Equipment Manufacturers 1281 64-E List of Poultry Professional and Trade Associations 1285 64-F List of Institutions with Significant Research and Education
Programs in Poultry (US and Canada) 1287 64-G Conversion Tables 1291
Index 1295
Introduction
The poultry industry in the 21st century has evolved from tens of thousands of small independent farms in the post-World War II period to an industry of relatively few large vertically integrated companies, each with multiple farm sites or contract growers, processing, marketing, and feed milling and hatchery capabilities. This change has come about because of the many technologies that have been introduced over the past halfcentury by the poultry industry with the help of supporting industries and various educational, research, and governmental institutions.
The information and research needs of this dynamic industry grow at an ever increasing rate as individual companies strive to improve performance and efficiencies and to reduce costs. Issues associated with the environment, animal welfare, food safety, business management, and labor have become critical areas for problem-solving efforts.
This edition of Commercial Chicken Meat and Egg Production has changed from emphasizing the chicken to emphasizing the business of raising chickens. In so doing, an additional 22 chapters have been added to cover many of the new topics important to the poultry industry. It is also recognized that no single source of information can supply the depth of understanding needed in today's business, and therefore, an extensive list of references and resources has been added in the appendix for further study.
xi
Paul W. Aho
Bibliographies of Contributing Authors
Ph.D., Michigan State University Areas of Specialty: International agribusiness, poultry economics Address: 20 Eastwood Road, Storrs, CT 06268
Donald D. Bell M.S., Colorado State University Areas of Specialty: Layer management, pullet rearing, economics, flock
recycling, house and equipment design, egg quality Address: Highlander Hall-C, University of California,
Riverside, CA 92521
Carol J. Cardona DVM, Purdue University; Ph.D., Michigan State University Areas of Specialty: Pathogenesis of viral diseases of poultry, disease
prevention Address: Veterinary Medicine Extension, Surge III. University of
California, Davis, CA 95616
Craig N. Coon Ph.D., Texas A&M University Area of Specialty: Poultry Nutrition Address: 0-211 Poultry Science Center, University of Arkansas,
Fayetteville, AR 72701
Gregg J. Cutler DVM, University of California, Davis; MPVM, University
of California, Davis Areas of Specialty: Poultry health, food safety, physiology Address: P.O. Box 1042, Moorpark, CA 93020
Ralph A. Ernst Ph.D., Michigan State University Areas of Specialty: Layer management, environmental physiology Address: Animal Science Department, University of California,
Davis CA 95616
xiii
xiv BIBLIOGRAPHIES OF CONTRIBUTING AUTHORS
Joan S. Jeffrey DVM, Ohio State University; MS, Ohio State University Areas of Specialty: Infectious diseases of poultry, food safety Address: Veterinary Medicine Teaching and Research Center,
University of California, 18830 Rd 112, Tulare, CA 93274
Douglas R. Kuney M.s., Colorado State University Areas of Specialty: Layer management, pest management, manure
management, environmental protection Address: 21150 Box Springs Road, Moreno Valley, CA 92557
Michael P. Lacy Ph.D., Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University Areas of Specialty: Broiler management, environmental control, housing
design, ventilation, harvesting broilers Address: Department of Poultry Science, 117 Poultry Building,
University of Georgia, Athens, GA 30602
Joseph M. Mauldin Ph.D., Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University Areas of Specialty: Hatchery management, incubation, embryology,
sanitation Address: Department of Poultry Science, 210 Poultry Science Bldg.,
University of Georgia, Athens, GA 30602
Ronald Meijerhof Ph.D., University of Wageningen, The Netherlands Areas of Specialty: Physiology, breeder management, incubation,
hatchery management Address: Hybro B.V., P.o. Box 30, 5830 AA Boxmeer, The Netherlands
Thad Morrison III BA, St. Andrews College (NC) Areas of Specialty: Hatchery equipment, hatchery automation Address: 1131 Industrial Blvd. North, Dallas, GA 30132
Gene M. Pesti Ph.D., University of Wisconsin, Madison Areas of Specialty: Nutrition, computer applications Address: Department of Poultry Science, University of Georgia,
Athens, GA 30602
Charles J. Wabeck (deceased) Ph.D., Purdue University
BIBLIOGRAPHIES OF CONTRIBUTING AUTHORS xv
Areas of Specialty: Poultry processing, products, food safety
William D. Weaver, Jr. Ph.D., Pennsylvania State University Areas of Specialty: Broiler and breeder management, housing design,
environmental control, ventilation Address: 5168 Weaver Lane, Gloucester, VA 23061
A. Bruce Webster Ph.D., University of Guelph Areas of Specialty: Animal behavior, layer management Address: Department of Poultry Science, 208 Poultry Science Bldg.,
University of Georgia, Athens, GA 30602
Michael J. Wineland Ph.D., University of Wisconsin, Madison Areas of Specialty: Breeders, hatcheries, light management Address: Department of Poultry Science, North Carolina State
University, Raleigh, NC 27695
Gideon Zeidler Ph.D., Technion-Israel Institute of Technology Area of Specialty: Food engineering, egg and meat processing Address: Highlander Hall-C, University of California,
Riverside, CA 92521
Acknowledgments
A book of this size and scope would not have been possible without the whole-hearted support of all its authors. Many deadlines came and passed, multiple editing was tiring and many re-writes were oftentimes necessary, but the book finally got done. Everyone pulled together and we hope the effort will finally be well received by the present and future poultry industries, both in the United States and around the world.
The editors would like to express their appreciation to Mrs. Joann Braga, secretary to Don Bell, for coordinating and working with the many (62) manuscripts during all stages of development. We would also like to thank Doug Kuney, regional poultry advisor for Southern California, for making his time available during the assembly stages of the book and for his assistance with the reference and appendix sections.
xvii
Preface
Since the publication of the fourth edition of the Commercial Chicken Production Manual in 1990 (the first edition was published in 1972), the senior author, Dr. Mack O. North has passed away, and Professor Donald D. Bell has assumed the role of senior editor and contributing author. In addition to serving as overall coordinator for the text, Professor Bell has focused on nutrition, poultry health, and all aspects of the production and processing of table eggs.
For the fifth edition Dr. William D. Weaver, Jr., Professor Emeritus from Virginia Tech and retired head of the Department of Poultry Science at Pennsylvania State University has joined the publication as co-editor and author. He has contributed primarily in the areas of housing, ventilation, hatchery, breeder and broiler management, and meat processing. The name of the text has also been changed to Commercial Chicken Meat and Egg Production to better reflect the contents included in the new edition.
Possibly the most significant change in the new text, however, involves the addition of sixteen new chapter authors. Each author was selected based upon his or her knowledge and experience in a particular phase of poultry production, and then was asked to provide the latest information available in that area. In doing so, the text has not only been extensively revised, but in many instances has been expanded to include totally new material. Topics such as US and global economics, business management, processing chicken meat and eggs, computer applications, chicken behavior, ventilation, water quality, waste and by-product management, hatchery planning, design, and construction, inspection, grading and quality standards for poultry meat and eggs, hazard analysis critical control point (HACCP) programs, and models of integrated and company-owned broiler and egg complexes are included for the first time in the new edition.
While the fifth edition has incorporated many changes, it has not lost its focus on commercial chicken production. Rather, the industry approach to production has been greatly enhanced with discussions on economic integration, contract production, processing and marketing, and the many global aspects of the industry.
Although the authors have focused their attention primarily on US production practices, globalization within the industry has made much, if not most, of the material presented relevant to the production of broilers and table eggs around the world. For instance, with similar genetic stocks, competitively priced feedstuffs, and poultry production and processing equipment and technology readily available in most locations in the world, poultry management practices globally are much more homogeneous today than ever before.
xix
xx PREFACE
The new edition includes more than 400 tables, figures, and pictures in an attempt to further enhance the reader's understanding of commercial chicken production. Primary users of the text include various segments of the commercial chicken industry, such as producers, service personnel, and others responsible for the production and processing of chicken meat and eggs, as well as students in colleges and universities studying poultry science.
For the convenience of its readers the authors have again used both English and metric standards for weights and measures. When costs of production and other economic parameters are discussed, US dollars are normally used for making comparisons.
In an attempt to better serve users of the text the authors are providing means whereby additional information and technology can be obtained. A complete listing of authors can be found at the beginning of the book. In addition, the authors have developed a web site where contact procedures are listed and where updates and new information will be made available to subscribers. To take advantage of this service, purchasers of the text are asked to register their purchase of the book at:
Commercialchicken.com
For information about obtaining copies of the book or other questions directed to the publisher, contact:
Kluwer Academic Publishers
List of Tables by Chapter
CHAPTER 1
1-1
1-2 1-3 1-4
Total Livestock Meat and Poultry Consumption per Person. (US, 1960-2000) World Chicken Meat Production-1985 to 2000 Egg Production in Billions (Selected Countries)-1990 and 1998 Whole Eviscerated Broiler Meat Costs-US vs Other Countries
CHAPTER 6
6-1
6-2
Time Budgets of Chickens. Percentages of Time Spent in Different Actions Diurnal Patterns of Feeding Behavior of Domestic Chickens: Number of Studies with the Indicated Pattern
CHAPTER 7
7-1 7-2
7-3
Genetic Stock Differences in the Behavior of Chickens Heritability Estimates (HZ) and Inheritance of Behavior in Chickens Genotype by Environment Interactions Involving the Behavior of Chickens
CHAPTER 8
8-1
8-2
8-3
8-4
Sensible and Latent Heat Production as Influenced by Ambient Temperature (White Leghorn Hens) Hourly Moisture Production of White Leghorn Hens (1,000-4lb Hens) Sensible and Latent Heat Production for Broilers at Different Ages (82 to 87°F) R-values of Various Building Materials
CHAPTER 9
9-1
9-2
Requirements for Ventilation at Different Ambient Temperatures (F) on a Cubic Feet per Minute (Cfm) per Pound of Body Weight Basis (Broilers) Relationships Between Static Pressure and Inlet Velocity
6 8 9
12
82
84
91
95
99
103
105
106 109
120 122
xxi
xxii LIST OF TABLES BY CHAPTER
CHAPTER 10
10-1 Relative Light Intensity from Various Light Sources Measured as Footcandles per Watt and Then Related to the Intensity from a 120 Volt Incandescent 138
10-2 Correction Factors for Various Light Sources to Equalize the Number of Photons per Footcandle 141
10-3 Approximate Natural Daylight at Latitudes of the Northern and Southern Temperature Zone 142
10-4 Characteristics of Various Lamps 144
CHAPTER 11
11-1 Estimated Production of Manure for Table-Egg Layer, Replacement Pullet, and Broiler Flocks (fresh manure estimates are based upon feed consumption) 151
11-2 Loss of Weight as One Ton of Manure Dries 153 11-3 Approximate Analysis of Air-dried Poultry Manure 157 11-4 Daily Production of Dead Birds in Pounds / Kg at Different
Mortality Rates 163
CHAPTER 12
12-1 Characteristics of Various Rodent Species
CHAPTER 13
13-1 US Corn Production and Use 1994-1996 13-2 Yellow Dent Corn Tariff-Uruguay Round of the GATT
Agreement
CHAPTER 14
181
194
195
14-1 Carbohydrate Content of Selected Feedstuffs 205 14-2 Absorbability Values of Various Fatty Acids, Monoglycerides,
Triglycerides, and Hydrolyzed Triglycerides as Determined in the Chicken 207
14-3 Mean and (Range) Digestibility and/or Availability Estimates (%) of Some Amino Acids in Various Feedstuffs Summarized from Studies with Poultry 212
CHAPTER 15
15-1 15-2
Poultry Feed Ingredient Analysis Poultry Feed Ingredient Analysis of Minor Nutrients
236
237
LIST OF TABLES BY CHAPTER xxiii
CHAPTER 16
16-1 Metabolizable Energy Level for Rearing Sexes Separate and for Straight-run Broilers 246
16-2 Response of 2 Ages of Male Broilers Fed Diets with Increasing Energy Levels 248
16-3 Effect of Dietary Protein Levels on Performance and Carcass Parameters of Broilers at 42 and 50 Days of Age 251
16-4 Effect of Dietary Energy Levels on Performance and Carcass Parameters of Broilers at 42 and 50 Days of Age 252
16-5 Dietary Protein Levels for Rearing Sexes Separate and for Straight-run Broilers 253
16-6 Recommended Practical Broiler Nutrient Levels 254 16-7 Suggested Amino Acid Recommendations for Broiler Diets in
Relationship to the Energy Content of the Diet 256 16-8 Amino Acid Requirements of Broilers as Percentages of Diet 257 16-9 Ideal Amino Acid Profiles for Broilers 257 16-10 Vitamin Requirements of Broilers as Units per Kilogram of Diet 259 16-11 Mineral Requirements of Broilers as Percentages or Units per
Kilogram of Diet 259 16-12 Sample Broiler Rations 260 16-13 Variations in Surface Skin Color of Broilers 263 16-14 Total Xanthophyll Content of Feedstuffs 263 16-15 Dietary Mixed Xanthophylls Necessary to Produce NEPA
Scores in Broilers 264 16-16 Sample of Nutrient Specifications Needed for Producing Rock-
Cornish Game Broilers with Live Weight of 2.2 lb (1 kg) at 28 to 32 Days 265
16-17 Heavy Male Feeding Program 265
CHAPTER 17
17-1 Effect of Date of Hatch on Age at Sexual Maturity and Egg Size 269
17-2 Effect of Season of Hatch on Performance in Commercial Leghorn Flocks 270
17-3 Effects of Beak Trimming at 12 Weeks of Age on Feed Consumption and Body Weight 271
17-4 Increases in Weekly Weight Through 6 Weeks 272 17-5 Daily Feed Consumption per 100 Pullets During the First
6 Weeks 272 17-6 Protein and Amino Acid Requirements of Young Egg-type
Chickens 275 17-7 Mineral Requirement of Young Egg-type Chickens 275 17-8 Vitamin Requirements of Young Egg-type Chickens 276
xxiv LIST OF TABLES BY CHAPTER
17-9 Daily Feed Consumption per 100 Pullets Between 7 and 20 Weeks of Age 277
17-10 Percentage Change in Feed Consumption for Each 1°F Change in House Temperature at Various Temperatures 278
17-11 Percentage Decrease in Feed Consumption as Average Daytime House Temperatures Increase 278
17-12 Percentage Increase in Feed Consumption as Average Daytime House Temperatures Decrease 279
17-13 Protein and Amino Acid Requirements of Egg-type Growing Pullets 280
17-14 Mineral Requirements of Growing Pullets 280 17-15 Vitamin Requirements of Growing Pullets 281 17-16 Sample Rations for Commercial Leghorn Pullets 285
CHAPTER 18
18-1 Feed Requirement of Laying Hens for Maintenance 291 18-2 Effect of Ambient Temperature on the Maintenance
Requirement for Energy 291 18-3 Mean Feed Intake (g/hen/ day) of Hens with 0,50, and 100%
Feather Coverage for a 6-Week Period at 55,75, and 93°F 291 18-4 Dietary Energy in the Feed and Daily Feed Requirements for a
1.6 kg Hen at 70°F 293 18-5 Effect of Feed Energy and Temperature on Feed Intake (g/ day)
of White Leghorn Layers from 20 to 36 Weeks of Age 295 18-6 Effect of Feed Energy and Temperature on Metabolizable
Energy Intake of White Leghorn Layers from 20 to 36 Weeks of Age 296
18-7 Effect of Feed Energy and Temperature on Feed Conversion (g Feed/ g Egg Mass) for White Leghorn Layers from 20 to 36 Weeks of Age 297
18-8 Consumption of Feed and Calories by Leghorn Layers in Relationship to Their Age and the Season 298
18-9 Actual Me Intake (kcal/ d) and Predicted Me Intake (kcal/ day) Using Prediction Models 299
18-10 Protein and Digestible Amino Acid Requirements of Layers 304 18-11 Layer Fourteen-day Nitrogen Balance Study 306 18-12 Estimated Amino Acid Needs for Maintenance, Weight Gain,
and Egg Production for White Leghorn Laying Hens 307 18-13 Estimated Digestible Amino Acid Needs of Laying Hens 307 18-14 Performance of Hens from 37 to 65 Weeks of Age Housed at
Different Temperatures and Fed Different Levels of Protein and Amino Acids 309
18-15 Average Mineral Requirements of Leghorn Laying Hens 311 18-16 Effect of Egg Weight on Various Eggshell Characteristics 313
LIST OF TABLES BY CHAPTER xxv
18-17 Effects of Season on Eggshell Thickness 313 18-18 Vitamin Requirements of Laying Hens (White Leghorn)
Consuming 100 g of Feed per Day 316 18-19 Mixed Xanthophyll Content of Various Feedstuffs 316 18-20 Feed Consumption of White-Egg Layers 318 18-21 Feed Consumption of Brown-egg Layers 319 18-22 Average Daily Egg Mass for Various Egg Weights and Rates of
Lay for Layers 322 18-23 Hen-day Egg Production, Egg Weight, Egg Mass, and Feed
Consumption of White Leghorn Laying Hens by Week cl~ ~
18-24 Commercial Egg Layer Rations 326
CHAPTER 19
19-1 Comparison of Restricted Feeding Versus Full Feeding of Growing Meat-type Pullets 332
19-2 Weekly Percentage Weight Gain for Meat-type Growing Pullets (Restricted Feeding Program) 332
19-3 Recommended Female Body Weights and Feed Consumption (Cobb 500) 337
19-4 Female Body Weight, Feed Consumption, Lighting, and Feed Relating to the Age of the Breeder Flock (Ross 508) 338
19-5 Estimated Protein and Metabolizable Energy Consumed by Broiler Breeder Pullets Housed in a Moderate Temperature, (Skip-a-day Feeding) 339
19-6 Meat-type Growing Pullet Feeding Program: Decreased No-feed Days per Week 341
19-7 Weights of Meat-type Cockerels Fed on a Restricted Feeding Program (moderate temperature) 343
19-8 Influence of Feed Allocation and Photoschedule from 20 to 25 Weeks of Age on the Onset of Sexual Maturity and Associated Carcass Characteristics 345
19-9 Influence on Feed Allocation and Photoschedule from 20 to 25 Weeks of Age on Various Performance Parameters 346
19-10 Predicted Energy Requirements of Broiler Breeder Hens from 20 to 68 Weeks with a Pen Temperature of Approximately 72°F 351
19-11 Estimates of Dietary Protein Requirements at Various Breeder Body Weights When Producing Eggs of Different Size 352
19-12 Influence of Dietary Protein Level on Performance of Broiler Breeders (26 to 60 Weeks of Age) 352
19-13 Influence of Protein and Energy Intake on Production Parameters in Broiler Breeders 352
19-14 The Calculated Total Requirement of Amino Acids for a Broiler Breeder Hen at 29 and 64 Weeks of Age 353
xxvi LIST OF TABLES BY CHAPTER
19-15 The Ratio of the Calculated Amino Acid Requirements for a Broiler Breeder Hen at 29 and 64 Weeks of Age Versus Lysine Which Is Taken as 100 354
19-16 Nutrient Requirements of Meat-type Hens for Breeding Purposes as Units per Hen per Day 354
19-17 Nutrient Specifications for Broiler Breeder Parent Stock 355 19-18 Breeder Vitamin Levels and Costs per Ton of Feed 356 19-19 Guide for Feed Consumption When Standard-size Meat-type
Pullets Are Control-fed During Egg Production 359 19-20 Metabolizable Energy and Protein Consumption of Meat-type
Breeders During Egg Production 360 19-21 Feed Efficiency for a Broiler Breeder Flock 361 19-22 Pullet and Cockerel Breeder Rations for Dual Feeding 362 19-23 Nutrient Requirements of Meat-type Males for Breeding
Purposes as Percentages or Units per Rooster per Day 362 19-24 Recommended Male Body Weights and Feed Consumption
(Cobb 500) 365 19-25 Examples of Feed and Me Intake for Male Breeders Consuming
a Diet of Approximately 2900 kcal Me/kg at Different Ages and Temperature 366
19-26 Broiler Breeder Rations for Pullets and Hens 368
CHAPTER 20
20-1 Average Commercial Broiler Starter Vitamin Fortification Relative to NRC Recommendations 381
20-2 Possible Vitamin Fortification Levels for Poultry Diets Based on Wheat or Corn (per kg of diet) 382
CHAPTER 21
21-1 Example of a Least-cost Feed Formulation Matrix with Limits and Solutions for a Broiler Finisher 397
21-2 The Influences of Different Diets and Several Prices on the Most Economical Broiler Diet to Feed 400
21-3 Predicted Commercial Laying Hen Performance for Hens Fed Different Protein and Energy Levels 407
21-4a Predicted Feed Consumption (g/hen/day) of Laying Hens with Various Body Weights, Kept at Different Temperatures 408
21-4b Predicted Feed Consumption (g/hen/day) of Laying Hens Fed Different Metabolizable Energy Levels and Kept at Different Temperatures 408
CHAPTER 22
22-1 Water Consumption Relative to Age in Broilers 413
LIST OF TABLES BY CHAPTER xxvii
22-2 Water and Feed Intake Relative to Environmental Temperature in White Leghorn Hens 414
22-3 House Temperature as It Affects Feed and Water Consumption in White Leghorn Hens 414
22-4 Water Consumption as Affected by Age of Flock and Temperature in White Leghorn Hens 415
22-5 Effect of Drinking Water Temperature on Feed Intake, Egg Production, and Egg Weight 416
22-6 The Effect of Cooling Drinking Water on Performance of White Leghorn Hens 417
22-7 Comparison of Poultry Farm Drinking Water Quality in Different Regions of the US 420
22-8 Suggested Maximum Limits of Water Components for Chickens 421 22-9 Effect of Water Restriction on Various Traits in 8-Week-Old
Broilers 428 22-10 Average Egg Production, Feed Efficiency, Feed Consumption,
Livability, and Manure Moisture as Influenced by Restricting Watering Time (White Leghorn Chickens) 429
CHAPTER 25
25-1 Example of Broiler Vaccination Program 460 25-2 Example of Commercial Egg-type Grower Vaccination Program 460 25-3 Example of Breeder Replacement Vaccination Program 461
CHAPTER 26
26-1 Selected Antibiotics and Their Characteristics
26-2 Selected Anticoccidials and Their Characteristics 26-3 Anthelmintic and Their Characteristics
CHAPTER 28
28-1 Longevity of Disease-causing Organisms 28-2 Biological and Mechanical Vectors That Transmit Poultry
Pathogens
CHAPTER 30
30-1 Examples of Diseases and the Tests Used to Detect Them
CHAPTER 32
468 470 472
545
546
570
32-1 Sample Computer Printout for a Broiler Flock Recap 602
32-2 Sample Printout for a Table-Egg Laying Flock Weekly Record 605 32-3 Layer Flock Recap (sample spreadsheet) 607
xxviii LIST OF TABLES BY CHAPTER
CHAPTER 33
33-1 Sample Layer Flock Projection (abbreviated version) 616 33-2 Sample Economic Analysis of Performance (abbreviated version) 617
CHAPTER 34
34-1 Lighting Program for Meat-type Breeders 627 34-2 Lighting Program for Egg-type Breeder (White Leghorns) 628 34-3 Rearing Body Weights for Meat-type Breeders 632 34-4 Average Body Weights of Standard White Leghorn Breeders
(for the production of commercial pullets) and medium-size egg-type breeders (for the production of pullets laying brown shelled eggs) 635
34-5 Floor Space Requirements per Breeder (males and females) 636 34-6 Feeder Space Requirement per Breeder Bird (males and females) 638 34-7 Male to Female Ratios 640 34-8 Recommended Body Weights During Production 642 34-9 Minimum Weights for Hatching Eggs 643 34-10 Production Standards for Standard Egg-type Breeder Hens 646 34-11 Production Standards for Meat-type Breeder Hens 648 34-12 Cost of Producing Breeder Pullets, Hatching Eggs and Chicks
in the US 650
CHAPTER 35
35-1 Daily Development of the Chicken Embryo 658
CHAPTER 36
36-1 Recommended Temperatures and Relative Humidities for Storing Hatching Eggs 681
36-2 Recommended Setter and Hatcher Room Temperatures and Relative Humidities 682
CHAPTER 37
37-1 Typical Particle Sizes of Common Substances
CHAPTER 38
38-1 38-2 38-3 38-4 38-5
Hatchability of Abnormal Broiler Breeder Eggs Amount of Salt Needed to Produce Specific Gravity Solutions Eggshell Contamination and 2-Week Chick Mortality Shell Quality and Bacterial Penetration of Eggs The Influence of Mechanical Egg Washing on Microorganism Recovery and Hatchability
687
710 714 715
716
719
LIST OF TABLES BY CHAPTER xxix
38-6 Effect of Humidity and Temperature on Moisture Condensation on Eggshells 724
CHAPTER 39
39-1 7- to 12-Day Candling and Breakout Analysis Form 39-2 Data Collection-hatch Day Breakout 39-3 Hatch Day Breakout Analysis Form 39-4 Examples of Calculating Reproductive Efficiency Values 39-5 Example of Egg Moisture Weight Loss Determination 39-6 Breakout Analysis of Eggs Incubated at Varying Relative
Humidities 39-7 Percentage Relative Humidity as Determined by Wet-bulb and
Dry-bulb Thermometer Readings 39-8 Daily Weight Loss of Hatching Eggs of Various Sizes 39-9 Relative Humidity and Egg Size as They Affect Incubation and
Weight Loss 39-10 Egg Size as It Relates to Relative Humidity 39-11 Influence of Shell Quality on Egg Weight Loss During
Incubation 39-12 Gaseous Exchange During Incubation per 1,000 Eggs 39-13 Relationship Among Altitude, Oxygen Content of Air, and
Barometric Pressure 39-14 Effect of Angle of Turning Eggs During Incubation 39-15 Effect of Turning Eggs on Hatchability 39-16 Effect of Turning Hatching Eggs at Various Times During
Incubation 39-17 Classification of Malpositions 39-18 Chick Abnormalities 39-19 Industry Averages vs Best Company Averages for Reproductive
Failure on Hatch Day 39-20 Nutritional Deficiencies and Toxicities-Almost Always a
Breeder Flock Problem 39-21 Diseases Affecting Hatchability and Chick Quality 39-22 Troubleshooting Guide for Hatchability Problems
CHAPTER 41
41-1 Approximate Performance of the US Chicken Flock-1920 to 2000
41-2 Watershed Periods 41-3 Listing of Top 12 Chicken States (US)-1998 41-4 Estimated Contract Grower Payment and Costs-1999 41-5 US Chicken Market Trend-1983 to 1999
731 732 733 735 740
740
744 744
745 746
746 747
750 753 753
754 756 756
758
760 762 763
805 808 810
817 818
xxx LIST OF TABLES BY CHAPTER
CHAPTER 42
42-1 Typical Investment Costs (US-1999)
CHAPTER 43
43-1 43-2 43-3 43-4
43-5
43-6
43-7 43-8
43-9 43-10 43-11 43-12 43-13 43-14
43-15 43-16
Cleaning and Disinfection Checklist Advantages and Disadvantages of Various Litter Material Recommended Temperatures for Broilers The Effect of Brooding Temperature on Body Weight and Feed Conversion of Broiler Males at 3 Weeks of Age The Effect of Brooding Temperature on Mortality of Broiler Males at 6 Weeks of Age Heating Requirements per Square Foot of Floor Space for Different Housing Types Total Heat Output of Broilers at 70°F Minimum Ventilation Recommendations in Cubic Feet per Minute for a 20,000 Bird Capacity Broiler House Typical Daily Feed Consumption per 1,000 Broilers Effect of Denisty on Broiler Performance Canadian Lighting Program Restricted Lighting Program-Field Test Modified Lighting Program Representative Costs of Producing One Pound or Kilo of Live Weight Maintaining Water Quality in Wells The Effect of Egg Size/Chick Weight on the Performance of Broilers
CHAPTER 46
46-1 Number of Birds per Box with Weight Range of Individual
827
830 831 833
834
835
836 837
839 850 856 857 858 858
863 865
865
Birds and per Box for Ice Pack 917 46-2 Average Percentage Offal Yields from Male and Female Broilers
at 28, 35, 42, and 49 Days of Age 920
CHAPTER 47
47-1 Summary of Specifications for Standards of Quality for Individual Carcasses of Ready-to-Cook Poultry (Minimum Requirements and Maximum Defects Permitted)
CHAPTER 48
48-1 Yield Comparisons of Broiler Males at Four Ages 48-2 Carcass Yields Based on Live Weights
929
934 934
LIST OF TABLES BY CHAPTER xxxi
CHAPTER 49
49-1 Leading Table-Egg States-(December 2000 counts) 949 49-2 Estimated Costs to Produce Table Eggs in US Dollars (20- to
76-Week Pullet Flock) 950 49-3 Cost to Produce a White Leghorn Pullet to Various Ages
(In US Dollars) 955 49-4 Monthly Egg Price Trends-US Farm Prices-All Table Eggs
(1989-1998) 957 49-5 Summary of Farm, Wholesale, and Retail Egg Prices-
November 1996 (Cents per Dozen-White Large Eggs in One Dozen Cartons) 961
CHAPTER 50
50-1 Typical Egg Complex Investment Costs (US 1999) 978
CHAPTER 51
51-1 Space Requirements per Pullet During Cage Brooding and Growing 985
51-2 Daily and Accumulated Feed Consumption for Leghorn-type and Brown-Egg Pullets 988
51-3 Effect of Pullet Cage Space and Temperature on 20-Week Body Weights 989
51-4 Effect of Cage Floor Space on Standard Leghorn 16-Week Body Weight 990
51-5 Percentage of Pullets Within 10% of the Average Weight of the Flock 991
51-6 Body Weight Standards for Egg-type Growing Pullets 992 51-7 Effect of Hatch Date on 18-Week Body Weights 994
CHAPTER 52
52-1 Recommended Space Allowances During Lay 1013
52-2 Minimum Cage Floor Space Requirements for Laying Hens 1018 52-3 Effects of Cage Density and Housing Type-(47 Weeks of Lay) 1019 52-4 Effects of Cage Density and Cage Size 1020
52-5 Economic Analysis of Cage Density and Cage Size 1020 52-6 Effects of Cage Shape and Housing Type 1021 52-7 Effect of Feeder Space on Performance in Two-bird Cages 1022 52-8 Body Weight Groups and Annual Performance 1024 52-9 Effects of Restricted Feeding Light and Heavy Halves of a
Layer Flock Separated at 18 Weeks 1025 52-10 Month of Lay, Egg Production, Egg Weight, Mortality, and
Feed Consumption (White Leghorn Flocks, US Data-203 Flocks) 1030
xxxii LIST OF TABLES BY CHAPTER
52-11 Month of Hatch, Egg Production, and Mortality of White Leghorn Flocks (US Data) 1031
52-12 Influence of Lighting Treatment on Sexual Maturity, Laying House Mortality, and Egg Production (White Leghorns in Cages) 1034
52-13 Age at Lighting and Egg Size 1035 52-14 Laying Response to Different Levels of Light Intensity in Multi-
deck Cages (Windowless Houses) 1037
CHAPTER 53
53-1 Floor Space Requirements for Layers 1048 53-2 Feeder Space Requirements for Layers on Litter 1049 53-3 Waterer Space Requirements for Layers on Litter 1049 53-4 Influence of In-house Temperature on Layer Performance 1052
CHAPTER 54
54-1 Comparison of First, Second, and Third Cycles of Egg Production of White Leghorns 1063
54-2 First, Second, and Third Cycle Egg Size (White Leghorns-US standards) 1064
54-3 Egg Quality Changes with Age of Flock Following Molt 1065 54-4 California Molting Program 1070 54-5 The Effect of Age at Molt on Subsequent Rate of Lay 1073 54-6 Effect of Length of Feed Removal During Molting on
Subsequent Performance 1074
CHAPTER 55
55-1 Egg Production Standards for Commercial Laying Hens 1083 55-2 Relationships Between Flock Age and Percentages of Various
Egg Sizes (White Leghorns, US Egg Weight Classifications) 1086 55-3 Effect of Season of Housing on Egg Weight (White Leghorns) 1087 55-4 Effect of Flock Age on Egg Weight (mean and range between
strains) 1088 55-5 Comparison of Egg Weights for White and Brown-egg Layers
by Age of Flock 1089 55-6 18-Week Body Weights Within a Flock and Its Effect on Egg
Weight 1089
CHAPTER 56
56-1 Body-Checked Eggs, Oviposition Time and Cage Density 1099 56-2 Egg Characteristics Associated with Morning and Afternoon
Oviposition 1100 56-3 Egg Collection Frequency and Egg Breakage 1101
LIST OF TABLES BY CHAPTER xxxiii
56-4 Relationship of Flock Age to Egg Breakage 56-5 Eggshell Damage During Washing
CHAPTER 57
57-1 The World's Egg Production by Continent-1989 vs 1999 57-2 The World's Largest Egg Producing Countries-1998 57-3 Specifications for a Standard Egg 57-4 Physical Properties of the Hen's Egg 57-5 The Effect of Flock Age and Egg Weight on the Major
Components of the Chicken Egg 57-6 Percentage Composition of the Hen Egg 57-7 Chemical Composition of the Chicken Eggshell 57-8 Major Proteins in Chicken Egg Albumen 57-9 Composition of the Chicken Egg Yolk 57-10 Lipid Composition of the Chicken Egg 57-1l Amino Acid Content of the Chicken Egg 57-12 Mineral Content of the Chicken Egg (Without the Shell) 57-13 Vitamin Content of the Chicken Egg
CHAPTER 58
1101 1105
1110 1110 1l1l 1l1l
1117 1118 1118 1118 1119 1120 1122 1123 1123
58-1 Effect of Oiling Eggs on Interior Egg Quality (Haugh Units) 1143 58-2 Ambient Conditions for Moisture Condensation on Eggs When
Refrigerated at Two Temperatures 1151 58-3 Recommended Refrigeration Conditions for Egg Storage 1152
CHAPTER 59
59-1 Per Capita Consumption of Shell Eggs and Egg Products in the US-1945-2000 1164
59-2 Maximum Temperature Allowed for Unpasteurized and Pasteurized Liquid Egg Products Within 2 Hours of Breaking Time 1169
59-3 Liquid and Solid Yields from Shell Eggs 1170
59-4 USDA Regulations for Pasteurization Temperature and Holding Times for Various Egg Products 1172
59-5 Various Country's Minimum Requirements for Time/ Temperature Pasteurization of Whole Liquid Eggs 1173
59-6 The Thermal Properties of Further Processed Eggs 1181 59-7 Commonly Available Refrigerated or Frozen-Further Processed
Egg Products 1189 59-8 Further-Processed Egg Products Most Commonly Used in
Commercial Food Products 1189 59-9 Comparative Nutritional Values of Further Processed Eggs 1190
xxxiv LIST OF TABLES BY CHAPTER
CHAPTER 60
60-1 60-2 60-3 60-4 60-5 60-6 60-7
US Quality Standards for Shell Eggs Most Commonly Used Egg Quality Characteristics US Egg Weight Classes for Consumer Grades Specific Gravity of Commonly Used Solutions Relationship of Processing Cracks to Specific Gravity of Eggs Number of Uncollectible Eggs per 100 Collected Incidence of Blood and Meat Spots in Chicken Eggs
CHAPTER 61
61-1 Functional Properties of Eggs and Their Contribution to Various Food Products
1200 1200 1202 1206 1208 1209 1213
1225
List of Figures by Chapter
CHAPTER 1
1-1
1-2 1-3
1-4
Percentage of Chicken Meat Traded Internationally-1990 to 2010 China Broiler Consumption-1987 to 2003 US Broiler Cost of Production-1975 to 1995
Appropriate Scale of Operations-US
CHAPTER 3
3-1
3-2 Modern White Leghorn Egg-type Hen (photo) Modern Broiler Chicken (photo)
CHAPTER 4
4-1
4-2
4-3
4-4
Nomenclature of the Male Chicken Nomenclature of the Female Chicken Skeleton of the Chicken
Digestive System of the Chicken
CHAPTER 5
5-1 Ovary and Oviduct
CHAPTER 8
8-1 Insulated Controlled-Environment Houses (photo)
CHAPTER 9
9-1 9-2 9-3
9-4 9-5 9-6 9-7
Diagram of Positive and Negative Static Pressures-Principles Diagram of Air Pathways in a "Turbo" Ventilated Layer House
Moisture Holding Capacity of Air Diagram of a Tunnel Ventilated Poultry House Bank of Fans in a Broiler House (photo) Intermittent Air Inlets in a Broiler House (photo) Evenly Spaced Fans on Wall of a Layer House (photo)
5 7
11
14
34
37
42
43
48 50
64
108
114 115
115 116 117 117 120
xxxv
xxxvi LIST OF FIGURES BY CHAPTER
9-8 Actual and Effective Temperature Experienced by the Birds at Various Air Velocities in a Tunnel Ventilated Poultry House (wind-chill effect) 121
9-9 Vane Anemometer for Measuring Air Velocity (photo) 123 9-10 Automatic Air Inlet Adjustment Using a Static Pressure
Manometer (photo) 124 9-11 Principles of Evaporative Cooling 127 9-12 A Representation of the Inverse Relationship of Ambient
Temperature and Relative Humidity Over a 48-Hour Period During Hot Weather 127
9-13 High Pressure Foggers in a Layer House (photo) 128
CHAPTER 10
10-1 The Electromagnetic Spectrum of Visible Light 130 10-2 Pathways of Light Reception by Birds 130 10-3 Approximate Spectral Sensitivity of a Light Meter 131 10-4 The Photosensitive Period During the Day 132 10-5 Visible Light Spectral Analysis for the Incandescent Lamp 139 10-6 Visible Light Spectral Analysis for the Warm White Fluorescent
Lamp 140 10-7 Visible Light Spectral Analysis for the Cool White Fluorescent
Lamp 140 10-8 Tube Fluorescent Lighting in a Layer House (photo) 145 10-9 Compact Fluorescent Lamps (photo) 145
CHAPTER 11
11-1 Manure Composting (photo) 11-2 Composted Manure (photo) 11-3 High-Rise House Manure Storage (photo) 11-4 Cage Manure Belt System (photo) 11-5 Truck Loading from Manure Belt System (photo) 11-6 Truck Being Loaded with Front End Loader (photo) 11-7 Dead Bird Composter-Broiler Farm (photo)
CHAPTER 12
154 155 156 160 161 162 166
12-1 Life Cycle of the Fly 176 12-2 House Mouse (photo) 180 12-3 Norway Rat (photo) 180 12-4 Rodent Droppings (Norway Rat, Roof Rat and Mouse-left to
right) (photo) 181
LIST OF FIGURES BY CHAPTER xxxvii
CHAPTER 13
13-1 World Coarse Grain Ending Stocks as a Percent of Use-1986 to 1999
13-2 World Soybean Ending Stocks as a Percent of Use-1986 to 1999
13-3 World Gross Domestic Product-1991 to 2000 13-4 Corn Fed by the World Animal Industries 1960 to 2000 13-5 Corn Consumed by the US Broiler Industry 1960 to 2000 13-6 Chinese Grain Imports Required-1990 to 2030 13-7 US Feed Mill with Rail Ingredient Delivery (photo)
CHAPTER 15
188
188 190 190 191 192 194
15-1 Grain Elevator (photo) 220 15-2 Soybeans-Ready to Harvest (photo) 228 15-3 Relationship Between Apparent and True Metabolizable Energy
Values 235
CHAPTER 16
16-1 Delivery of Feed by Truck (photo) 16-2 Broilers Feeding (photo)
CHAPTER 17
17-1 Comparison of Modern Earlier Sexually Maturing Pullets with
244 245
Slower Sexually Maturing Pullets of the Past 268 17-2 Young Replacement Pullets Feeding on the Floor (photo) 273 17-3 Young Replacement Pullets Feeding in Cages (photo) 274
CHAPTER 18
18-1 Traveling Hopper Cage Feeding System (photo) 288 18-2 Fixed Feeder System for Cages (photo) 289 18-3 Effect of ME and Environmental Temperature on Egg Numbers
and Egg Weight 301 18-4 The Relationship Between Intake of a Limiting Amino Acid and
Rate of Lay 310 18-5 Feed Bin Scales (photo) 320
CHAPTER 19
19-1 Growth Curve of Broiler Breeder Pullets 333 19-2 Dual Feeding System for Breeders-Female Feeders (photo) 363
xxxviii LIST OF FIGURES BY CHAPTER
CHAPTER 21
21-1 Nutritionist Formulating Feed (photo) 396 21-2 Test House for Testing Feeds (photo) 401 21-3 Broiler Growth Model 402 21-4 Distribution of Protein Analyses in Loads of Corn, Soybean
Meal, and Finished Feed 403 21-5 Stochastic Programming Solutions 403 21-6 Response Curves-Dietary Protein and Body Weight 404 21-7 Distribution of Body Weight vs Protein Levels 404 21-8 Response Level vs Dietary Protein Levels 405 21-9 Multiple Aged Flocks Require Many Feed Formulas 406
CHAPTER 22
22-1 Nipple Watering System (photo) 22-2 Water Filtering and Medication System (photo) 22-3 Cup Watering System (photo)
CHAPTER 25
25-1 Vaccine Injection (photo) 25-2 In-ovo Vaccination (diagram of injection site) 25-3 In-ovo Vaccination Machine (photo)
CHAPTER 26
423 424 425
454 455 456
26-1 Read Instructions Carefully When Medicating Flocks (photo) 466
CHAPTER 28
28-1 28-2
28-3 28-4
28-5 28-6 28-7
Separated Laying Flock Sites for Disease Security (photo) Farm Sanitation-Boot Brushing (photo) Disinfecting Shoes Before Entering House (photo) Farm Security-Locked Gate (photo) A Decision Process for Screening Farm Visitors Farm Sanitation Center with Showers (photo) Farm Sanitation-Truck Washing Facility (photo)
CHAPTER 29
29-1 Farm Sanitation-Clean Breeder House (photo)
CHAPTER 30
30-1 Daily Mortality of Birds for Examination (photo)
30-2 Collecting Tissues for Laboratory Examination (photo)
547 548 549 550 551 551
553
561
566 567
LIST OF FIGURES BY CHAPTER xxxix
30-3 Tools for Necropsy (photo) 573 30-4a Preparing a Bird for Examination-Opening the Bird (photo) 574
30-4b Preparing a Bird for Examination-Exposing Body Cavity (photo) 575
30-5 Elisa Test Machine (photo) 578 30-6a Elisa Graph-Poor Immune Response 579 30-6b Elisa Graph-Good Immune Response 579 30-7 Bacterial Culturing (photo) 580
CHAPTER 31
31-1 Board of Directors Discussing Division Reports 586
CHAPTER 32
32-1 Computers Are Universally Used on Modern Poultry Farms (photo) 607
32-2 The Data Generated on Commercial Farms Is Often More Than Management Can Absorb (photo) 608
CHAPTER 33
33-1 Sample Computer Screens for Various Measures of Flock Performance
CHAPTER 34
34-1 A Typical Broiler Breeder Flock (photo)
CHAPTER 36
36-1 Typical Hatchery Flow 36-2 Floor Plan of Hatchery 36-3 T -shaped Hatchery Floor Plan #1 36-4 T -shaped Hatchery Floor Plan #2
CHAPTER 37
37-1 Transferring Eggs in an Incubator (photo) 37-2 Incubator Room in a Hatchery (photo)
CHAPTER 38
38-1
38-2 38-3
Time Required to Reduce Internal Egg Temperature to 65°F from lOO°F
Hatching Egg Room Temperature and Relative Humidity Effect of Egg Storage on Hatchability and Incubation Time
612
624
665 666 667
668
689 691
721
722
723
xl LIST OF FIGURES BY CHAPTER
CHAPTER 39
39-1 Influence of Flock Age on Reproductive Performance 39-2 Influence of Flock Age on Embryo Mortality 39-3 Hatcher Room Temperature Before Correct Thermostat
Placement 39-4 Hatcher Room Temperature After Correct Thermostat
Placement 39-5 Relationship Between Altitude and Hatchability 39-6 Recently Hatched Chicks (photo)
CHAPTER 40
40-1 40-2 40-3 40-4
40-5
40-6
Traying Hatching Eggs (photo) Grading Chicks for Quality (photo) Hatchery Sanitation Is a Must (photo) The Effect of Central and Portable Fogging Systems and Untreated Controls on Bacterial Counts in a Hatchery Percentage of Samples Positive for Salmonella in Three Georgia Broiler Hatcheries in 1990 and 1995 Salmonella Contamination in Two Primary Broiler Breeder Hatcheries in 1991 and 1998
CHAPTER 41
41-1 US Broiler Production (ready to cook)-1930 to 2000 41-2 Retail Weight Per Capita Consumption-Beef and Broilers-
1976 to 2001 41-3 Inflation-Adjusted Cost of Live Broiler Production-
(1995 dollars)-1945 to 2005 41-4 US Per Capita Eviscerated Broiler Production-1950 to 2000 41-5 US Exports of Broiler Meat-1984 to 2000 41-6 Major US States-Broiler Slaughter-1998 41-7 A Typical Contract Broiler Grower Farm (photo) 41-8 A Company-Owned Farm (photo) 41-9 Percentage of US Production Sold Whole and Cut-up
Compared to Value Added-1960 to 2000
CHAPTER 42
42-1 42-2 42-3 42-4 42-5
Schematic of an Integrated Broiler Company Integrator Owned Breeders (photo) Integrator's Hatchery (photo) Integrator's Broiler Processing Plant (photo) Integrator's Feed Mill (photo)
736 736
749
750 751 759
778 781 786
791
797
797
802
802
804 807 808 810 815 815
817
820 822 823 824 825
LIST OF FIGURES BY CHAPTER xli
CHAPTER 43
43-1 43-2 43-3 43-4
43-5 43-6 43-7 43-8 43-9 43-10 43-11 43-12 43-13 43-14 43-15 43-16 43-17 43-18 43-19 43-20
43-21
Radiant Brooders for Broilers (photo) Spaced Air Inlets in Broiler Houses (photo) Partial House Brooding Ventilation Method (photo) Curtain Opening at End of Broiler House-Serves as Tunnel Inlet (photo) Evaporative Cooling Pads in Broiler House (photo) Nipple Drinkers Have Become the Standard for Broilers (photo) Approximate Height of Watering Nipples Daily Water Consumption of Broilers Cumulative Water Consumption of Broilers Chicks Feeding from Various Systems (photos) Feeding Device for Baby Chicks on the Floor Various Feeding Systems for Broilers (photos) Live Weight of Broilers-35 to 70 d Feed Conversion of Broilers-35 to 70 d Typical Growth Rate of Broilers-Different Ages Calorie Conversion and Body Weight-Broilers Distribution of Live Weights in a Broiler Flock Typical Cumulative Broiler Flock Mortality Typical Monthly Condemnations-US Light-Controlled Broiler Houses Allow Producers to Manipulate Photoperiod to Improve Performance and Reduce Mortality (photo) Automatic Bird Weighing Device (photo)
CHAPTER 45
833 839 840
841 842 843 843 844 844 846 847 848 850 850 851 852 853 854 855
856 864
45-1 Counting Bacterial Colonies in the Diagnostic Laboratory (photo) 897
CHAPTER 46
46-1 46-2 46-3 46-4 46-5 46-6
A Broiler Catching Crew (photo) Loading Broiler Coops Onto a Truck (photo) Mechanical Harvesting of Broilers (photo) Broiler Processing Plant-Slaughter Line (photo) Broiler Processing Plant-Scalder (photo) Broiler Processing Plant-Birds Prepared for Evisceration (photo)
CHAPTER 47
47-1 Broiler Processing Plant-USDA Inspection of Carcasses (photo)
900 901 902 906 907 911
925
xlii LIST OF FIGURES BY CHAPTER
CHAPTER 48
48-1 Broiler Processing Plant-Deboning Breasts (photo) 933 48-2 Further-Processed Chicken-Battered and Breaded Product
(photo) 937 48-3 Further-Processed Chicken-Chicken Frankfurters (photo) 939 48-4 Further-Processed Chicken-Roasting Whole-Body Chicken
(photo) 940 48-5 Further-Processed Chicken-Ground Chicken Patties (photo) 941
CHAPTER 49
49-1 Major US States-Table-Egg Production-1999
CHAPTER 50
50-1 50-2 50-3 50-4
50-5
50-6 50-7
50-8
Schematic of an Integrated Egg Company In-Line Egg Collection (photo) Layer House Requirements for Different Replacement Programs Poultry Farms Must Be Located Away from Communities and Other Poultry Farms (photo) Railroads Perform an Important Service to the Poultry Industry by Transporting Feedstuffs from Production Areas to Major Poultry Centers (photo) Typical Layer Farm Layout Multiple Tiers of Cages Make Efficient Use of Poultry Houses (photo) A Modern Egg Processing Plant (photo)
CHAPTER 51
51-1 Cage Rearing of Replacement Pullets (photo) 51-2 A Cage Brooder House Space Heater (photo) 51-3 Replacement Pullets Should Be Weighed at Frequent Intervals
(photo) 51-4 Body Weights Should be Monitored Throughout the Life of the
Flock (photo) 51-5 Six-Week Beak Trimming (photo) 51-6 Seven to Ten Day Precision Beak Trimming (photo) 51-7 Ideal Beak Appearance of a Beak-Trimmed Adult Chicken
(photo) 51-8 Beak Trimming-Excessively Long Lower Beak (photo) 51-9 Beak Trimming-Inadequately Trimmed Upper Beak (photo)
948
966 966 968
970
971 972
975 976
981 986
991
993 1002 1003
1004 1005 1005
LIST OF FIGURES BY CHAPTER xliii
CHAPTER 52
52-1 Multi-Tiered Caged Laying Hens (photo) 52-2 Sample Cage Arrangements 52-3 Environmentally Controlled House for Layers (photo) 52-4 Importance of Feeder Space (photo) 52-5 Rack for Moving Pullets (photo) 52-6 Uniform Distribution of Light Is Essential for Maximum
Performance (photo)
CHAPTER 53
53-1 Free-Range Chickens (photo) 53-2 Indoor-Outdoor System of Management (photo)
53-3 Litter Floor System (photo)
CHAPTER 54
54-1 Replacement Pullets (photo) 54-2 Hi-Rise Cage Pullet House (photo)
CHAPTER 55
55-1 Placing Farm Eggs on Racks for Shipment (photo)
55-2 US Egg Size Categories (photo)
CHAPTER 56
56-1 Collecting Eggs by Hand-Gatherers Must Be Monitored for
1008 1010 1016 1022
1024
1036
1044 1045 1047
1060 1060
1080 1085
Their Contribution to a Farm's Egg Breakage Problems (photo) 1092
56-2 Mechanized Egg Collection-All Components of a System Must Be Maintained to Avoid Excessive Egg Breakage (photo) 1093
56-3 Farm Packing Unit (photo) 1093 56-4 Transporting Eggs May Contribute to Egg Breakage Problems
(photo) 1103
CHAPTER 57
57-1 The Structure of the Avian Egg 57-2 Components of an Egg 57-3 Comparison of Methods for Preparing Antigen-Specific
Antibodies
CHAPTER 58
58-1 Large Capacity Egg Packing Machine (photo) 58-2 Incoming Eggs on a Conveyor (photo) 58-3 Off-line and In-line Shell Egg Packaging Schematics
1113 1115
1127
1130 1131 1132
xliv LIST OF FIGURES BY CHAPTER
58-4 Diagram of an Off-line and In-line Egg Processing and Packaging System with Further Egg Products Processing 1133
58-5 Off-line Egg Processing Operation 1134 58-6 Typical In-line Packaging and Processing Operation 1135 58-7 Shell Egg Processing Machinery 1136 58-8 Candling Eggs and Defect Selection with a Wand (photo) 1141 58-9 Pasteurization of Eggs in the Shell (photo) 1144 58-10 Grading Eggs Into Different Size Categories (photo) 1145 58-11 Processed Egg Coolers in the US Must be Maintained at 45°F
(7°C) (photo) 1146 58-12 Airflow Pattern in a Room Cooler with Unit Evaporators 1149 58-13 Schematic of a Tunnel-type Forced Air Cooler 1150 58-14 The Effect of Refrigeration and Egg Packaging on Egg Weight
Loss During 4 Week Storage 1152 58-15 Effect of Relative Humidity and Temperature on Weight Loss
in Stored Shell Eggs 1153 58-16 Processing Plant Loading Dock with Truck Waiting to be
Loaded for Market (photo) 1154 58-17 Egg Display on Racks in Supermarket (photo) 1156 58-18 An Example of a Specialty-type Shell Egg Product (photo) 1157 58-19 Consumer-Size Liquid Egg Product (photo) 1158
CHAPTER 59
59-1
59-2 59-3 59-4 59-5
59-6
59-7
59-8 59-9 59-10 59-11 59-12
Schematic of a Typical Egg Breaking Operation for Liquid and Frozen Products Floor Plan of an Egg Breaking Facility Egg Breaking Machine-180 Cases per Hour (photo) Breaking Head and Cups for Egg Breaking Machine (photo) Egg Breaking Room Equipment Control Panel with Temperature Monitoring (photo) The Effect of pH on Pasteurization Temperature of Egg Albumen Diagram of High Temperature Short Time (HTST) Pasteurization Schematic Drawing of Egg Ultrapasteurization System (UHT) The Three Zones of a Typical Freezing Curve Diagram of a Typical Cold Room Diagram of a Dry Products Processing Facility Diagram of a Typical Vertical Spray Dryer
CHAPTER 60
1165 1167 1168 1169
1171
1174
1176 1177 1179 1180 1183 1185
60-1 Food Safety Requires Maximum Sanitation Efforts (photo) 1201
LIST OF FIGURES BY CHAPTER xlv
60-2 Measuring Shell Thickness as an Indicator of Shell Strength (photo) 1204
60-3 Five Containers of Salt Water for Measuring the Specific Gravity of Shell Eggs (photo) 1207
60-4 The Effect of Flock Age and Egg Age on Egg Quality Expressed in Haugh Units (photo) 1211
60-5 Albumen Quality Measurement-Haugh Unit (photo) 1211
60-6 A Tripod Micrometer for Measuring Albumen Height (photo) 1212 60-7 Haugh Unit Formula for Computer Spreadsheets (photo) 1212
CHAPTER 62
62-1 Quality Assurance Programs Are Designed to Provide Maximum Quality and Food Safety for the Consuming Public (photo) 1230
List of Abbreviations
alternating current ac inch In ampere A infrared IR ante meridiem AM joule J average avg kilo k Board foot bd ft kilogram kg body weight BW kilometer km British thermal unit Btu kilowatt kW bushel bu kilowatthour kWh calorie, large C liter L calorie, small c lumen 1m candella cd lux Ix cent If. metabolizable energy ME centimeter cm meter m cubic feet per minute dm mile mi cubic meters per mile per hour mi/h
minute cmm milligram mg cycle per minute c/min milliliter ml day d millimeter mm decibel dB millimeter mercury mmHg degree Celsius °C minute min degree Fahrenheit OF month mo deoxyribonucleic acid DNA north N direct current dc ounce (avoirdupois) oz dollar $ ounce each oz/ea dozen doz ounce per dozen oz/doz each ea parts per million ppm east E percent %
foot ft pint pt foot-candle fc plaque-forming foot per minute ft/min units pfu gallon gal post meridiem PM gallon per minute gal/min pounds per square gram g inch PSI gram each g/ea probable error pe horse power hp protein pro hour h quart qt hundred weight cwt relative humidity rh hydrogen ion revolutions per
concentrate pH minute rpm
xlvii
xlviii LIST OF ABBREVIA nONS
revolutions per United States of second rps America USA
ribonucleic acid RNA US gallon US gal second s US Pharmacopeia USP south S volt V tablespoonful tbsp watt W teaspoonful tsp watthour Wh therm thm week wk total sulfur amino weight wt
acids TSAA west W. United States US yard yd
year yr