Chapter 9 Theories of Discourse and Interactio n Chapter 9
Chapter 9
Theories of
Discourse and
Interaction
Chapter 9
Communication
Is a transactional process in which the onesactions have wide-ranging influences on the Actions of others.
Mutual influence = Two way impact
Key TermsSpeech Act Theory
Coordinated Management of Meaning Theory(CMM)
Communication Accommodation Theory
Expectancy Violation Theory
Speech Act TheoryPerforming an Action 5 Types of Speech Acts
1. Assertives
2. Directives
3. Commissive
4. Expressives
5. Declaratives
Assertives
• You are the weakest link!
The advocate that truth value of a proposition.
State Claim Declare
Hypothesize
TO:
Directive
That attempt to get the listener to do something
OrderRequestBegInviteAdviseAsk
TO:
Declaratives
I am going to pass Comm. Theory
By their very assertion, make something so
Quit Nominateappoint Define Name
TO:
Illocutionary v/s Perlocutionary
Illocutionary ActWhat is the message?
When I say: “It’s cold in here”Am I saying that because of experience or am I asking for a jacket or asking to turn up the heat.
Illocutionary v/s Perlocutionary
Perlocutionay
Deals with the effect on the receiver
Deals with the impact on the impact of the receiver
Causing the receiver to put another log on the fire or turn of the thermostat
Coordinated Management of Meaning Theory(CMM)
Providing some understanding of how meanings are created, coordinated, and managed in the social world.
Management – Meaning – Coordination
The hierarchy of meaning will change depending on how well you know someone
Coordinated Management of Meaning Theory(CMM)
Meaning are Managed by Rules
1. Constitutive Rule = Expression of Mild disbelief
“O.M.G.” (oh my gosh)
“Get out of hear”
Knowing what the words count for!
The Interpretation of the receiver gives meaning to the worlds
Coordinated Management of Meaning Theory(CMM)
Meaning are Managed by Rules cont.
2. Regulative Rules = Patterns of regular behavior within certain situations
If you say “O.M.G.” all the time when someone tells you a story, O.M.G switching from a constitutive word or phase to a Regulative word of phase because of the repetition of the use of that word or phase.
Hierarchy of meaning• A kiss in church or “You can count on me” can
take on different meaning as the relationship changes.
At the introduction phase of a relationship words or phases could take different meaning that a relationship of many years.
From Dictionary content to Relationship experience
Meshing
• How intentions and interpretation mesh
Meaning + Action = Coordinate
Two people having an argument and both people thinking that they came out on top
Communication Accommodation Theory
Originated in Communication
Seeks to explain with monitors and adjustment
Change your style of talk or word based on the person you are talking with.
Talk slow to with old people,Speak with a southern drawl in the south, Baby talk
Communication Accommodation Theory
Speaker Attune:
Matching someone else speech characteristics;
AccentLength of utterances, Speech rate, Tone
Communication Accommodation Theory
Convergence:
To make similar to someone else
Individuals adapt to each other’s speech
Changing you word to sound like your: professor, friend from England or your Cajun roommate
Communication Accommodation TheoryDivergence: When interactants try to highlight differences
between themselves and others in the interactions.
Full: individual matches the communication behavior of the other
Partial: individual come close to the other but does not match the behavior of the other
Hyper: the individual goes beyond the behavior of the other (know as mocking) aka … cross-over
Unimodal: converging the vocabulary (Uni = one)
Multimodal: several dimensions of behavior
Symmetrical vs. Asymmetrical
Symmetrical :
Both parties in the Interaction attempt to converge towards each other
Asymmetrical:
Only one party in the interaction attempts to converge
Antecedents (aka) “Cause” to Accommodation
Wanting to be like another
Need for social approval, especially if future interaction is likely
Status & Power
Antecedents to Accommodation
Consequences of Accommodation
Depends of the interpretation we make of others accommodation
Negative consequences for convergence if we perceive that the person is accommodating to curry favor.
Doctor – patient interaction
Expectancy Violation Theory
Began as a theory of nonverbal communication
Arousal – causes us to pay more attention to the violation than other elements
of the interaction
Expectancy Violation Theory
Violation of Expectation
Depends on 2 Factors;
1. Your evaluation of the violation itself2. Your evaluation of the person
committing the violation
Expectancy Violation Theory
• Negative Valance ~ Does less than expected• Positive Valance ~ Does more than expected
Threshold level is the behavior recognized as violating the expectation
Arousal = causes an alertness that diverts attention
Expectancy Violation Theory
Communicator reward valence
Reward valence is based on a host of factors that influence assessment of the violation;
1. Personality, 2. Physical attractiveness3. Likelihood of future interaction4. Status or power
Theories of Relational Development
Relationships is how we explain the world
Key Terms
OrientationOutcomesSocial penetration theoryExploratory affective exchange Uncertainty reduction theory
AxiomsReciprocityAffective exchangeStable exchangeSelf-disclosure
Chapter 10
Social Penetration Theory
The development of relationships and self-disclosure
4 sequential stages of relationship
1. Orientation2. Exploratory affective
3. Affective exchange4. Stable exchange
Social Penetration Theory
Orientation:
The earliest stage were cautions and tentative in their interaction of sharing information.
Surface and Small Talk
Social Penetration Theory
Exploratory affective exchange:
The individuals begin to relax and share some information beyond small.
Family and Back ground
Social Penetration Theory
Affective exchange:
Many barriers have been crossed with a great deal of open exchange occurs.
Close friends and Romantic
Social Penetration Theory
Stable exchange:
Continued openness and interactions. Communication occurs often and can be nonverbal level
Solid and stable Friendship. Rate of self-disclosure is slowing down.
Social Penetration Theory
• Breadth and Depth ~ As people move through these stages, both the breadth and depth of information exchange increase
Easy to Re-enter
Social Penetration Theory
Self Disclosure: involves communication about self and can be both intimate and non-intimate.
I am from Michigan I want to be the Mayor I have very few close friendsI have low back pain
Self-DisclosureIn
Relationships
Social Penetration Theory
Reciprocity ~ When one person reveals something about themselves, the other person will tend to feel an obligation to reply with similar information.
Is not automaticNot tit-for-tatReply can accrue later in the relationship
Self Disclosure and Reciprocity
The rate of exchange changes as individuals move through relational stages.
Social Penetration
Theory
Social Exchange Theory
We compare our outcomes in a currentrelationship to past relationships and to possibleFuture relationships
Evaluating relationships in an economic fashion
Cost – Rewards = Outcome
Social Exchange Situation
Outcomes ~ involves a consideration of both the rewards derived from the relationship and the cost.
Comparison level (CL) ~ Our assessment of part relationships
Comparison level of alternatives (CLalt) ~ Assessment of possible future relationships
Past, Present and what else is available
The outcome will lead to a
decision
Uncertainly Reduction Theory
Uncertainly Reduction: A process of increasing predictability outcomes of complete strangers
Going through certain steps and checkpoints in order toreduce uncertainty about each other and form an idea of
whether one likes or dislikes the other
Uncertainly Reduction Theory
According to this theory uncertainty is NOT GOOD
Reduce uncertainties by information seeking The stages of the relationship is determined by the value,
one person places on the relationship and the cost verses the rewards.
According to Social Penetration Theory: Things that cause unusual depth discovery lake emotion and social exchange theory lacks emotion.
Information-Seeking Strategies
Passive Stategies~ (aka) Observation : Watching someone in a variety of socialsituations.
Information gathering without interaction
Example:You could watch how Glenda acts during partiesespecially those at which she is particularly comfortable.
Information-Seeking Strategies
Active Strategies ~ Asking questions of 3rd parties to test the rules
Individuals might ask other people questions about the target individual or might structure the environment in ways that information can be gathered.
ExampleYou could talk with Glenda’s friends about her behavior or invite her to a gathering
Information-Seeking Strategies
Interactive Strategies ~ The target person is asked direct questions or in
which self-disclosure is used
with hope that reciprocation
will lead to more information Example:You could ask Glenda yourself (interrogation) or Share your own views and hope for reciprocation
Motivations for Reducing Uncertainty
Future interaction: If we think we are going to have future interaction with someone
Incentive: values or possible potential rewards
Deviation: Better understanding with someone is outside the norm.
Axioms of Uncertainty Reduction Theory(Axioms = Taking at face value)
Axiom 1: Given the high level of uncertainty at the onset, Increasing verbal communication betweenStrangers will decrease the level of uncertainty
Uncertainties verbal communication
Theories of Communication Process
Positive Feedback ContradictionNegative Feedback PraxisEquifinality External DialecticsContent Function Internal DialecticsContent Function Praxis PatternsRelational Function Symmetrical Complementary Dialectics
Chapter 11
One Cannot “NOT Communicate
Communication is not always’ intentional
People receive messages, regardless of whether they were sent intentional or not.
Major importance in Interpersonal Communication
Content and Relationship Function
Each message attempts to express content, but it also says something about the relationship
Relationship Function classifies the content of the function
Context = wordsRelationship = Tone
Content and Relationship Function cont.
“Did you give Ben his meds yet”
Content dimension: words within the statement Relationship dimension: Tone of voice can give
different meaning negative positive
Provides meaning
Symmetrical vs. Complementary
Symmetrical ~ based on equality, mirroring, equal(Talking to your husband, wife or associate)
Complementary ~ based on maximizing difference, power imbalance, (“I am
more important than you”)(Talking to a student, teacher or boss)
Axioms of Uncertainty Reduction Theory
Axioms 2:
uncertainty nonverbal
Axioms of Uncertainty Reduction Theory
Axioms 4:
High levels of uncertainty Cause
Low levels in intimacy
Axioms of Uncertainty Reduction Theory
Axioms 5:
High levels of uncertainty Produce
high rates of reciprocity
Application of Uncertainty Reduction Theory
Intercultural: People from different Countries
Continuing Relationship
Organizational How fire fighters remove the Socialization uncertainties from work
Relational System Theory
Relationship are systems and need maintenance
Chapter 11
Maintaining the Relationship System
Regular communication Spending quality timeActs of service Words of affirmation Gifts
Positive Feedback: Leads to change or improvement within the relationship
Negative Feedback: Preserves the status quo
Maintaining the Relationship System
Permeability ~ Relationships are open to environmental influence
Environment ~ Can and will effect relationships
Equifinality ~ Multiple ways to reach the desired level of satisfaction
Environment
Relationship
Theories of Relational Dialectics
Contradiction~ Perhaps the most central and dining feature of a dialectical approach.
One in which both forces can – and do – exist simultaneously.
(In a relationship you can simultaneously desire intimacy and distance )
Dialectics within a Relationship
1: Connectedness Separateness
Individual autonomy must be sacrificed
To much connection results in Identity lose
Dialectics within a Relationship
2. Certainly Uncertainly
Without predictability and uncertainly a Healthy Relationship would become bring
and could not be sustained.
Managing the tension between certainty and uncertainly is a central part of
relational communication
Dialectics within a Relationship
3. Openness Closedness
Not a linear path to intimacy Sometimes we need for the other person to
know everything
All feeling and facts need not be shared
4. Inclusion Seclusion
Need seclusion to bond and must negotiate the tension between doing things as a couple and doing things within a larger group
Need out side exposure for stimulation support
Dialectics within a Relationship
5. Conventionality Uniqueness
Excessive uniqueness makes others uncomfortable (following social norms)
Intimacy requires that relational partners fell different from the rest of the world
Things that are only known inside the relationship(Pet names, eating cereal from a cool whip bowl)
Dialectics within a Relationship
6. Revelation Concealment
“Going Public” about one issue or another provides opportunities for support.
There are times within the relationship you will want To keep things private (mis-carriage) and other times
you will want to be public (wedding)
Dialectics within a Relationship
Paxis Pattern DefinitionDenial Connectedness but ignoring needs for separateness. Don’t
work out in the long run Disorientation Overwhelmed. Contradictions are regarded as inevitable,
negative, and unchangeable. Spiraling inversion Bouncing back & forth between poles, meets most of the needs
of the RelationshipSegmentation Compartmentalization, some issues are dealt by favoring one
pole other anotherBalance Reconcile both poles / in compromiseRecalibration Temporarily reframing situation so that poles don’t seem
oppositional
Patterns of Relational Praxis identified
Theories of Communication Context
Weick’s theory of organizing: equivocality, enactment, selection, retention, recipes, causal maps
Unobtrusive and concertive control theory: simple, technological, bureaucratic, and concertive control; identification, discipline
Chapter 12
Dialogue(Littlejohn)
Dialectics, Chronotopic similaritySelf-becomingAmplitudesalience
Dialogue
Used to maintain relationships !
A coming together of diverse voices in conversation
Conversation that defines & redefines Relationshipas they emerge in actual situations over time
What we use to manage dialectical tensions
Dialogue
Can be used as a turning point in a relationship
Need not be verbal comm., could be an action
Self, other and relationship are constructed and maintained through talk.
Dialogue
Create moments (photos) or turning points to remember as important
Retelling old stories that highlights similarity and shared experience (chronotopic similarity)
Identify and reinforce difference between and others (self-becoming)
(men are from mars women are from venus)
Dialogue
Unity with in difference:
Dialogue gives us a chance to achieve unity within diversity
We use conversations to manage competing needs for connection and autonomy
Express needs and perceptions and empathize with needs and perceptions of others
DialogueWhat changes our relationships:
Amplitude: Strength of feeling and behaviors
Salience: focus on past situations, present or future (babies, marriage, etc…)
Dialogue
Sequence – order of events in the relationship How you organize your timeWhat you do around and with one
another
Pace/Rhythms: Rapidity of events, length of intervals between events
Dialogue is Aesthetic
Aesthetic perceived pattern in the relationship that makes it seem identifiable, unique and whole
Dialogue produces an overall sense of what the relationship is like
When we talk about our relationship and tell stories about them out talk reflects that aesthetics
Momentary and evolving
Narrative Paradigm
Narrative: Express and understand thru story telling which is a natural part of being human
Our beliefs and behaviors are reflected in and shaped by narratives
More board than theory
Narrative = perspective or approach
Narrative ParadigmIn contrast to narrative , many theories of
communication are grounded in rational paradigm
Narration “symbolic actions” – words and or deeds that have sequence and meaning for who create or interpret them”
Narrative Paradigm vs. Rational Word Paradigm
Narrative RationalWe are story tellers we are rational beingDecision are based on good reasons Decision are based on argumentsGood reason are based on history Arguments should be logical and
SoundBiography, Culture and chamber Rationality is based on quality of Rationality is based on how internally knowledge and formal reasoning
consistent and truthful stories seems The world can fully understand though
We experience the world thought reasoning stories
Narrative Rationality
Traditional, test of rationality include do claims correspond to actual facts?
Have all the facts been considered?
Are arguments internally consistent?
Does the reasoning that connects bacts and claims seem logical?
Narrative Rationality
Coherence: Structural Coherence: Do the elements of the story
flow smoothlyMaterial Coherence: Is t he character in the storyCharacterological:Fidelity: Does the story seem believable?
Does it ring true?
Fidelity: A measure of simplistic
Evaluation the Narrative Paradigm
An interpretive theory
Criticized as overboard
Narrative rationality may be overrated
But does help to explain why we tell stories and why some are more believable
Narrative is in more of Political films
Real world emphasis on groups and teams design of typical organizations has changed (Growing decision task complexity)
Simple vs. complex problems
Half of all decisions fail (nutt)(if a decision sticks for a year, it is considered a good decision.
Functional theory of Group Decision Making
Key functions Include:
1. Understanding of the issues2. Criteria for evaluation3. Identification of alternatives
Process4. Evaluation of alternatives To Make5. Selection of alternative that
Decisionsmatches established criteria
Chapter 13
Functional Theory of Group Decision Making
1. Analysis of problem situation2. Establish criteria for evaluation solutions3. Consider positive & negative attributes of
specific solutions4. Must establish operating norms and procedures
that guide groups communication
Functional Theory argues that these functions associated with higher quality decisions
Functional Theory of Group Decision Making
Research generally supports the theory, but individual studies often differ with regards to which functions are most related to decision quality.
Overall, research shows that the most important factors are
1. Assessing negative consequences of potential solutions.
2. Problem analysis
Functional Theory of Group Decision Making
• Criticisms:
Applies only to groups with no history, (not real groups) aka ad hoc groups
Applies only to task related groups
Multiple Sequence modelUnitary sequence path ~ Follows the traditional
sequence of orientation, “Rational, logical and standard”
Complex cyclic path ~ Multiple problem-solution cycles
Solution-oriented path ~ Centers of solutions and involves no activity to problem definition or analysis.
Symbolic convergence theoryFantasy Theme ~ Ignites group interaction.
Refers to something outside
Fantasy Chain ~ “chaining out” Sharing of group fantasies that groups develop a sense of community and shared identity
Fantasy Type / Vision ~ emerges when same set of themes cross several groups
Once ideas goes across groups it becomes a vision
Impact of Symbolic Convergence Theory
Believes that the sharing of group fantasies
Indentifying who is “in” and “out” of the group
Clearly divides the sympathetic or good people (we) from the unsympathetic or the evil people (they)
Bona fide group (BFG) perspective
Groups are complex and contextual
Treats groups as a social system linked to its context
BFG are marked by shifting membership
BFG are clearly not zero-history or ad hoc groups