College Board - “Acorn Book” Course Description 8-10% (6-8% in past) Unit 2. Research Methods.

College Board - “Acorn Book” Course Description

8-10% (6-8% in past)

Unit 2. Research Methods

Scientific Bases of Psychology

Unit II. Methods3

Summary Outline

Unit II. Methods4

A. Experimental, Correlational, and Clinical Research

1. Correlational (e.g. observational, survey, clinical

2. Experimental B. Statistics

1. Descriptive 2. Inferential

C. Ethics in Research

A. Experimental, Correlational, and Clinical Research

Unit II. Methods5

Testable Hypotheses Operational Definitions Correlational Relationships

“Correlation does not imply causation”

Causal Relationships

A.1. Correlational (e.g. observational, survey,

clinical

Unit II. Methods6

Naturalistic ObservationCase StudiesSurveys Correlational Research

Natural Observation

Professor Wainwright’s painstaking field research to decode the language of bears comes to a sudden and horrific end

Unit II. Methods7

Natural Observation (Handouts)Naturalistic Observation Exercise / by Alan

FeldmanStudents work in teams to observe in public

placesThey observe alone, write up observations,

and compare observations later

Natural Observation in the Real World / by Marissa M. SarabandoStudents work in teams to observe in public

placesThey are asked to make a hypothesis of what

they expect to observe Share the results in classHypothesis supported or not?

Developing an Observation of Behavior Experiment / by Bates Mandel

Students in designated groups spend class timedesigning an observational experiment. Their design should include most of the scientific methodology concepts presented in lecture (hypothesis, control of variables, representative sample, observable activities, quantifiable results, etc.).

Basically the student group should design an experiment which is can either support or refute their hypothesis by either observing the subjects or through a simple questionnaire/interview

Bates provides several examples of experiments used by his students

Students then present a report of their findings to the class

Survey form of natural observation

Widely used to observe attitudes,, opinions, and reported behaviors

AdvantagesTargets specific informationCan gather large amounts of information in a

relatively short timeDisadvantages

Based on subject’s responses which can be distorted due toMisleading answers (Outright lying, bias, etc.)Misunderstanding of the questionPoorly devised questionsPlacebo effect

Survey QuestionsStructured (Fixed Response)

Yes/NoAre you a college graduate?

Multiple ChoiceWhich of the following:Which response describes you

Rating / Ranking questionsRank the following activities from favorite to least

favorite

Non-structured (Open ended)What do you like to do in your free time?

Partially structured (List of choices with other______ )

Survey Question Problems

Yes/NoNo can have many meanings

Have you finished college?Do you still beat your wife?

Range of meanings attached to terms in questionHave you ever been sexually harassed?

Offering irrelevant or inconsistent choicesHaving a choice that is out of place with the other

choices

Misleading information in the questionAre the teachers and students satisfied with

the lunch schedule at your school? (Double barreled / two different questions)

Biased or leading questionsIs the new president more communist than the old

president?

Correlation – Key ConceptsCorrelational research is a form of

observational researchCorrelation does not show causationCausation can only be inferred from the

experimental methodConfusion over the concept of experiment

Casual useUsed to describe demonstations

Confusion over positive vs. negative correlationStatistical methods give us Correlation from

0 to +/- 1

Unit II. Methods15

Correlation CoefficientsPositive CorrelationNegative Correlation

Discussion: Ways to explain and demonstrate this to students.

Source:Worth Psychology Instructors Resource CD-RomTo accompany David G. Myers Psychology 9th ed

Figure 1.2 Scatterplots, showing patterns of correlationMyers: Psychology, Ninth EditionCopyright © 2010 by Worth Publishers

Table 1.2Myers: Psychology, Ninth EditionCopyright © 2010 by Worth Publishers

Height and temperment scores for 20 men

Figure 1.3 Scatterplot for height and temperamentMyers: Psychology, Ninth EditionCopyright © 2010 by Worth Publishers

Insight into Negative Correlation

Unit II. Methods19

Rank order coefficient of correlation - Thomas Nordby Calculating a Rank-order Correlation Coefficient

Activity What I like to do

What the other

person likes to

do

DDifferenc

e

D2

Differenee

squared

Watch TVExercise

Walk in the woodsGo to a moviePlay video games

N = ∑D2=

Rank order coefficient of correlation - Thomas Nordby Calculating a Rank-order Correlation Coefficient

An exercise in computing the rank-order method of computing a coefficient of correlation.

Formula

rs = 1 - 6 (∑D2) N (N2–1)rs = rank order correlation coefficient D = difference∑ = sum ofN = number of characteristics ranked

Experimentation

“No amount of experimentation can ever prove me right, a single experiment can prove me wrong.”

Albert Einstein

Experimental & Control Groups

Unit II. Methods23

A.2. Experiments

Unit II. Methods24

Experimental DesignSelection of Participants

PopulationSampleRandom sampling

Assignment of Participants to GroupsExperimental GroupControl GroupRandom Assignment

Key Ideas in Experiment Design

Unit II. Methods25

Treatment of GroupsVariables

Independent Variable (IV) Dependent Variable (DV)

PlaceboExperimenter BiasSteps to control experimenter bias

double-blind design, etc.

Steps of the Scientific MethodAsk a question

Why does something happen? What is the cause?

Do background researchWho has already studied this? Related studies and ideas.

Form a hypothesisIf “a” then “b” / causal relationship

Test the hypothesis by doing an experimentAnalyze your data and draw a conclusion

Statistical analysis / Accept or reject hypothesis

Communicate you findingsFully report hypothesis, methodology, statistical methodsAllows for informed review and replication

Identifying Independent Variables and Dependent Variables (Handout)

Martin Anderson

For the following statements create an hypothesis (Your hypothesis should, theoretically, be testable). Then identify the IV and DV.

Blondes have more fun.Hypothesis: Changing people’s hair color to blonde will

increase the amount of fun that they have.IV ____________________ DV __________________

A rolling stone gathers no moss.Hypothesis: IV ____________________ DV __________________

A researcher is interested in how the activity level of 4-year-olds is affected by viewing Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles. He shows one group a 30-minute video of Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles and another group a 30-minute video of Barney.

IV:______________DV:_______________Experimental group:__________________Control group:_______________________

An Exercise in Designing Research (Handout)

Turn the saying “An apple a day keeps the doctor away” into a hypothesis and design an experiment to test its validity. (This chart can be used to analyze other experiments)

Need to state it as a testable hypothesis and identify the IV and DV

Use the following steps to design or analyze and experiment

Research Methods Martin A. Anderson, Ph.D.

An Exercise in Designing Research

Turn the saying “An apple a day keeps the doctor away” into a hypothesis and design an experiment to test its validity. (This chart can be used to analyze other experiments)

Research Step Your description of the Research Step Form a Hypothesis Hypothesis State the relationship you

expect to find.

The hypothesis needs to be testable. Think in terms of operational definitions.

Pick Subjects Subject Selection Describe the process you

will use to select subjects f or your experiment.

The population is the group you are studying, Your subjects are a sample f rom the population.

Assign Subjects Assignment to Group

Describe how you will divide the subjects into the control group and the experimental group.

The control group and experimental group should be as similar as possible to each other.

I ndependent Variable Experimental Group Control Group Describe your Operational

Definition - How are you going to measure the I V?

This group “gets” the I V.

This group doesn’t “get” the I V. (I t might get a placebo, however).

Dependent Variable Expected Result Expected Result Describe your Operational

Definition –

The DV is the same for both groups. You expect a measurable diff erence between the groups.

How are you going to measure the DV?

Analysis of Outcomes Comparison of Groups How are you going to see if

the groups are diff erent? (You do not need to identif y the exact statistical procedures)

The statistical analysis gives you an idea if the diff erences between the two groups are big enough to be greater than chance.

There are some f actors that might conf use the results of your study. How might you control them?

Research Methods Martin A. Anderson, Ph.D. There are some f actors that might conf use the results of your study. How might you control them?

Experimenter Bias

The experimenter may consciously or unconsciously do things that can aff ect the experiment so that it will confi rm the experimenter’s hypothesis.

Possible sources of Experimenter Bias

Ways to

control f or Experimenter Bias.

Confounding Variables

Variables (other than the variables that are being studied) that can have an aff ect on the outcome of the study.

Possible Confounding

Variables

Ways to control f or Confounding

Variables

Explain Blind and

Double Blind Designs

Blind and Double Blind Designs

Ethical

Considerations

Basic Ethical Principles I nformed Consent (Use of Deception?) Protection f rom harm and discomfort

Confi dentiality of inf ormation about participants Debriefi ng participants af ter the research

Describe how et hical considerations will be

dealt with in the research.

An Exercise in Designing Research Step One: Form an hypothesis

Form an Hypothesis

Hypothesis

State the relationship you expect to find.

The hypothesis needs to be testable. Think in terms of operational definitions.

An Exercise in Designing ResearchStep Two: Pick your subjects

Pick Subjects Subject Selection

Describe the process you will use to select subjects for your experiment.

The population is the group you are studying, Your subjects are a sample from the population.

An Exercise in Designing Research Step Three: Assign your subjects to groups

Assign Subjects

Assignment to Group

Describe how you will divide the subjects into the control group and the experimental group.

The control group and experimental group should be as similar as possible to each other.

An Exercise in Designing Research Step Four: Defining your independent variable

Independent Variable

Experimental Group

Control Group

Describe your Operational Definition - How are you going to measure the IV?

This group “gets” the IV.

This group doesn’t “get” the IV. (It might get a placebo, however).

An Exercise in Designing Research Step Five: Defining your dependent variable

Dependent Variable

Expected Result

Expected Result

Describe your Operational Definition – How are you going to measure the DV?

The DV is the same for both groups.

You expect a measurable difference between the groups.

An Exercise in Designing Research Step Six: Statistical analysis

Analysis of Outcomes Comparison of Groups

How are you going to see if the groups are different?(You do not need to identify the exact statistical procedures)

The statistical analysis gives you an idea if the differences between the two groups are big enough to be greater than chance.

Experimenter Bias

The experimenter may consciously or unconsciously

do things that can affectthe experiment so that it will confirm the experimenter’s

hypothesis.

Possible sources of

Experimenter Bias

Ways to control for

Experimenter Bias.

Confounding Variables Variables (other than the variables that are being

studied)that can have an affect on the outcome of the study.

Possible Confounding Variables

Ways to control for Confounding

Variables

Explain Blind and Double Blind

Designs

Does behavior change when the subjects know they are being observed (Hawthorne effect)

“When Dr. Henderson comes in, everybody play dead.”

Ethical Considerations

Basic Ethical Principles

•Informed Consent (Use of Deception?)

•Protection from harm and discomfort

•Confidentiality of information about participants

•Debriefing participants after the research

Describe how ethical considerations will be

dealt with in the research.

Flawed Experiment (H)(Source unknown) A psychologist wishes to study the effect of a

reinforcement of food on the performance of a fine motor skill involving eye hand coordination. To accomplish this, he had his subjects thread as many needles as possible in a five minute period.

The subjects were divided into two groups: Males Females TotalGroup A 20 30 50Group B 28 22 50

The psychologist explained the tests to each group in the same way. However, she offered Group A a voucher for a free lunch for every 20 needles threaded. After the five-minute time period had expired, he counted the number of needles threaded by each group.

Flawed Experiment The results were as follows:

Total Number of Needles Average Number of Needles Threaded Threaded per Person Group A 80 1.8 Group B 45 0.9

From these results, the psychologist concluded that the reward of food caused Group A to thread more needles that Group B.

What was the independent variable? What was the dependent variable?

Which of the two groups was the control group? Why? Which of the two groups was the experimental group?

Why? How could the following variables negate the psychologist’s

conclusions? Age of the subjects? Sex of the subjects?

How Psychologists Do Research (Handout)

B.1. Descriptive Statistics

Unit II. Methods46

Measures of Central TendencyModeMedianMean

Measures of VariabilityRangeStandard Deviation

Unit II. Methods47

Normal Curve - Normal Distribution68%

Skew – Skewed DistributionsPositive SkewNegative Skew

Creating A Living Frequency Distribution:A Way to Introduce Key Statistical Terms and Concepts (Handout)Martin Anderson

Overview This exercise demonstrates basic statistical concepts.

By forming a “living frequency distribution” based on height, students will gain direct, first-hand knowledge of the following terms and the concepts they represent:

Variable Discrete, Continuous

Nominal Classification Dichotomy / Trichotomy

Continuum Measures of Central Tendency

Median, Mode, Arithmetic Mean Measures of Variability

Range Distribution

Histogram, Normal Curve, Skew, Outlier

Creating A Living Frequency Distribution (2)

MaterialsCardboard sheets for signsMarking pen30’ length of cord (extension cords connected together

work well)Create signs labeled with key terms and

concepts as follows to give to designated students:Median, Mode (best to make several of these), Range

From , Range ToCreate additional signs to indicate various

heights from 4’6” through 6’5”: Time Required

This exercise is easily done in one class period.


Step One: Creating a DichotomyHave students to divide into two groups - tall

individuals on one side of the room and short individuals on the other

Step Two: Creating a ContinuumHave students to line up from shortest to tallest

Step Three: Identifying the MedianHave students count from each end until you

reach the middle

Step Four: Identifying the RangeSimply subtract the lowest score from the highest

score


Step Five: Identifying the Mode Step Five: Calculating Arithmetic MeanStep Six: Demonstrating Normal

Distribution


Step Seven: Demonstrating SkewStep Seven: DiscussionStep Eight: Follow-up

Figure 1.9 A Skewed DistributionMyers: Psychology, Ninth EditionCopyright © 2010 by Worth Publishers

Power point slide from Myers demonstrating skew

Why Variance is ImportantThree sets of scores in which the mean, mode,

and median are the sameo9,4,4,2,1o3,4,4,5,4o4,4,4,4,4

Variance can be thought of as how different scores are from one another

More specifically, variance is how different scores are from one specific score – the mean

Measures of dispersion give us more information about the groups we are comparing

Standard DeviationStandard deviation is computed as the

average distance from the meanThe larger the standard deviation, the more

spread out the scores areJust like the mean, the standard deviation is

sensitive to extreme scores.To get the standard deviation

Find the difference between the mean and each scoreSquare each differenceGet the sum of all the differencesDivide the sum by the size of the sample (-1)Take the square root of the result

Variance is simply the standard deviation squared (variance is a statistic that is used in some calculations)

Table 1.4Myers: Psychology, Ninth EditionCopyright © 2010 by Worth Publishers

Power point slide from Myers demonstrating the calculation and use of the standard deviation

A Three-Dimensional Model of the Normal CurveWilliam E. Addison & Kristine R. Hillman (H)A common problem is conceptualizing

relationships among areas under the normal curve

Students have access to a wooden model of the normal curve.

The model consists of a total of six pieces, two each of three different sections.2 of 34%, 2 of 14%, 2 of 2%

The pieces correspond in relative size and shape to approximate areas delineated by standard deviation units in an empirical normal distribution This helps them to visualize the concept of

symmetry And how the symmetry of the normal curve relates

to concepts such as central tendency, variability, relative standing

Figure 1.10 The normal curveMyers: Psychology, Ninth EditionCopyright © 2010 by Worth Publishers

Statistical Inference

“Not everything that counts can be counted, and not everything that can be counted counts.”

Albert Einstein

2. Inferential

Unit II. Methods60

Evaluation of chance Probability that results are by chance alone

Tests of SignificanceDetermine the likelihood that a specific outcome was obtained by chance alone

Importance of Random Assignment

Unit II. Methods61

Is it Representative? Can we Generalize? Sample / PopulationReplication

Unit II. Methods62

What is “Significance?”Common Usage

ImportantMeaningfuletc.

Term of Art: Statistical Significance ReliableRepeatable

Significance TestingSignificant Result in Research

Not necessarily large or importantNot necessarily dramaticBut probably did not occur by chance

Null HypothesisOpposite of Hypothesis

Hypothesis: Anxiety reduces test performance

Null Hypothesis: Anxiety does not effect test performance.

Significance Testing (continued)

p-level (Probability Level)Probability that your null hypothesis is

correctProbability that the statistic is really zero

Examples:Difference in meansCorrelation coefficient

p < .05 (p < .01)Your null hypothesis has less than a 5%

chance of being rightYou have less than a 5% chance of being

wrong

Prediction andType I and Type II Errors

Variable has an effect

Variable does not have an affect

Deciding that a variable has an

effect

Correct

Positive

Deciding that a variable does not

have an effect

Unit VIII. Motivation and

Emotion65





effect

CorrectPositive


have an effect

Correct

Negative


Emotion66

Type I and Type II ErrorsType I Error (false positive)

Deciding that one variable has an effect on (or relationship to another variable) when it doesn’t

Incorrectly rejecting the null hypothesis and accepting the hypothesis

p-level gives us the odds of making this kind of error





effect

CorrectPositive

False

Positive

Type I Error


have an effect

FalseNegative

Type II Error

CorrectNegative


Emotion68

Type II Error (false negative)Deciding that one variable does not have an effect on (or a relationship to) another variable when it does

Incorrectly accepting the null hypothesis and rejecting the hypothesis

There is no easy way to estimate the odds of this kind of error





effect

CorrectPositive

FalsePositive

Type I Error


have an effect

False

Negative

Type II Error

CorrectNegative


Emotion70

Example ofType I and Type II ErrorsColleges are faced with the decision to

admit or reject applicantsThey wish to accept appropriate applicants

and reject inappropriate applicantsHypothesis 1This student will be successful in collegeHypothesis 2This student will not be successful in

college

Example ofType I and Type II Errors

CollegeAdmission

Student is accepted

Student is rejected

Prediction: student will be

successful

Student succeeds

Correct positive

Prediction: student will not be

successful


Emotion72


CollegeAdmission

Student is accepted

Student is rejected

Prediction: student will be

successful

Student succeedsCorrect positive


successful

Student would have done poorly

Correct negative


Emotion73


CollegeAdmission

Student is accepted

Student is rejected

Prediction: student will be successful



successful

Student fails

Type I Error

Student would have done poorlyCorrect negative


Emotion74


CollegeAdmission

Student is accepted

Student is rejected

Prediction: student will be successful


Student would have done well

Type II Error


successful

Student fails

Type I Error

Student would have done poorlyCorrect negative


Emotion75

ReplicationThis is one reason why experiments must be

replicated.This is how science regulates, and minimizes,

the potential for Type I and Type II errors

Replication is often not possible in medical diagnosis so Type I and II errors are a factor

In the legal system fingerprinting and DNA have a possibility of false positives leading to false convictions.

C. Ethics in Research

Unit II. Methods77

Informed consentMinimize risk and discomfort

Potential benefits must outweigh risk to subjects

Confidentiality DebriefingEthics of animal researchApproval of research committee

Report on a Famous Experiment (Handout)

To research a topic: Select your partner or partners (two-three to a group). More than one group may work on the same topic. However, each report is to be

individual and unique. Identify the author. Check the various texts in the classroom for descriptions of that research. Check the bibliographies of the various texts in the classroom. Write down the specific information from the bibliography so that you will be able

to find this in a library. Get approval from teacher for your topic by having it registered on his/her list.

(Failure to get approval will result in a 10% penalty) Go to an extensive library such as Cal State LA and get a copy of the article. The research you pick may not fit nicely into the categories that I have assigned.

You may alter the report as necessary – but – MAKE SURE THE ALTERATIONS ARE NECESSARY.

Illustrations may include drawings or photographs. The assignment will be due on ___________. Bring the copy of the article to class and use it and the texts in the classroom

during class to work on your projects next week

Following are examples of acceptable topicsResearcher General Area Specific

ResearchAsch Social Group pressure

on judgementsAinsworth Developmental Infant-mother

attachmentBandura Learning Modeling

aggression (Bobo doll)

Gibson & Walk Developmental “The Visual Cliff”

Harlow Developmental “Cloth Monkey”

Loftus Memory “False” memories or memory construction

College Board - “Acorn Book” Course Description 8-10% (6-8% in past) Unit 2. Research Methods.

Documents

observational experiment

college graduate

following activities

lecture hypothesis

public placesthey

sarabandostudents work

observable activities

choicesmisleading information