Coffee Isn’t Rocket Science: A Quick and Easy Guide to Buying, Brewing, Serving, Roasting, and Tasting Coffee

Copyright

LeCaféC’estPasSorcier©HachetteLivre(Marabout),Paris,2016Englishtranslationcopyright©2018byBlackDog&LeventhalPublishersCoverdesignbyAmandaKainCoverillustrations©YannisVaroutsikosCovercopyright©2018byHachetteBookGroup,Inc.

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CONTENTS

CoverTitlePageCopyright

Chapter1:Coffeemiscellanea

Whatkindofcoffeedrinkerareyou?CoffeesforeverytasteCoffeearoundtheworldWheretogetacoffeeThecoffeefamilyThecoffeetradeThecoffeeprofessionalsCoffeelingoThetroublewithcoffee

Chapter2:Makingacoffee

Grindingyourcoffee

CoffeegrindersTypesofburrsMaintainingyourgrinderWater!AquickchemistrylessonChoosingyourwaterYourperfectcupTheespressocupEspressoThelonghistoryofashortcoffeeEspresso:thetastingexperienceTastingExampleofatastingformTheespressomachineChoosingyourmachineMaintainingyourmachineHowitworksHowtomaintainastabletemperatureThebarista’sroutineThestrengthoftheespressoStylesofespressoEspressobythenumbersEspressomapItdoesn’ttasteright!Why?Milk,coffee&latteartTheheartThetulipTherosetta

Cappuccino&Co.FiltercoffeeWhatyouneedtomakefiltercoffeeFiltercoffee:thetastingexperienceExampleofatastingformCoffeefiltersTheFrenchpressTheAeropressTheCleverCoffeeDripperThesiphonTheHarioV60TheChemexTheKalitaWaveThemokapotTheelectriccoffeemakerFiltercoffeebythenumbersColdcoffeeColdbrewJapanese-styleicedcoffee

Chapter3:Roasting

RoastingTheroastingofthebeanRoastingstylesBlendorsingleorigin?CreatingyourownblendReadingacoffeepackagePurchasingspecialtycoffee

StoringcoffeeathomeCuppingTheflavorwheelDecaffeination

Chapter4:Cultivation

CoffeecultivationLifecycleofacoffeeplantMoreaboutcoffeegrowingCoffeevarietiesSeasonalityandfreshnessofgreencoffeeTraditionalmethodsofdryingcoffeeHybridmethodsofdryingcoffeeDrying:ArecapCleaning,sorting,andpackagingofgreencoffeeCoffee-producingcountriesEthiopiaKenyaRwandaBurundiRéunionIslandBrazilColombiaEcuadorBoliviaPeruCostaRicaPanama

GuatemalaHondurasElSalvadorNicaraguaMexicoJamaicaHawaiiIndonesiaIndia

Chapter5:Appendices

Usefuladdresses&coffeeeventsCoffeeshopcakes&cookies

AcknowledgmentsTheAuthorsTheIllustratorNewsletters

CHAPTER1

COFFEEMISCELLANEA

WHATKINDOFCOFFEEDRINKERAREYOU?

Yourfirst-evercupasateenagermayhavemadeyoucringe,butchancesare,youhavenowcomearoundtolikingcoffee.Itisaregularpartofyourday.Buthowexactlywouldyoudescribeyour

relationshipwithcoffee?

Howmanycupsofcoffeedoyoudrinkeachday?

BettertomeasureitonaweeklybasisModerationinallthingsThat’saboutmylimitOccasionally…well,okay,oftenYes,Iknow;I’mtryingtocutdown

Whendoyoudrinkyourfirstcoffeeoftheday?

WhenIwakeup,beforeIshower AftermyshowerWithbreakfastWhenIgettotheoffice Afterlunch

Thecoffee’srunout!

Youfindthenearestcaféandrushtothecountertoorderanespresso Youheadtothestore,evenifit’sonthefarsideoftown,tostockuponyourfavoritebrand Yougowithout,butyou’recranky Ohwell,you’llhaveateainstead;that’lldothetrick

Youseeyourselfas:

Acoffeeaddict:Youwon’tgetanythingoutofmeuntilI’vehadmyfix.

Acoffeesnob:Onceyouhavelearnedtoappreciatethefinestcoffees,youcanneverreallygoback.

Aromanticforwhomthemorningmugofcoffee,croissant,andnewspaperaresacrosanct.Ontheterraceinthesunisevenbetter.

Asocialdrinker,withcolleaguesaroundthecoffeemachine.

Atakeoutregular.

Someoneforwhom“gettingacupofcoffee”isawayoflife.

Anoccasionalcoffeedrinker:Ionlyreallylikeitbecauseitgivesmeanexcusetoeatdessert.

Awarycoffeedrinker:Youallowyourselfadecafinthelateevening.

COFFEESFOREVERYTASTE

Wetalkabouthavingacupofcoffee,butcoffeecomesinmyriadsizesandguises!You’resuretofindonethatsuitsyou.

ESPRESSO

ASMALLSERVINGWITHABIGFLAVOR,FORTHOSEWHOLOVETHE

TASTEOFCOFFEE.

MOCHAFORTHOSEWHOAREN’TACTUALLYTHATKEENONTHE

TASTEOFCOFFEEBUTNEEDAPICK-ME-UP.ACOOL,CREATIVE

SOLUTION.

DOUBLEESPRESSO

FORHARDWORKERSWHOKNOWTHATONESHOTISJUSTNOT

ENOUGH.

LATTE

PERFECTFORTHEINDECISIVE:IT’STHERISK-FREEMENUCHOICE.

CAPPUCCINO

ANEASY-TO-DRINKCOFFEEFORPLEASURE-SEEKERS,BUTBEWARE

THEMILKMOUSTACHE.

MACCHIATO

ANEASY-TO-DRINKCOFFEEFORANYONEWHOHATESAMILK

MOUSTACHE.

ICEDCOFFEE

ABOLDDRINKFORTHOSEWHOLIKECOFFEEASMUCHASTHEYLIKE

DRINKINGTHROUGHSTRAWS.

FRAPPUCCINO

ACOFFEETREATFORANYONEWHOLIKESCOFFEEALMOSTAS

MUCHASTHEYLIKEICECREAM.

AMERICANO

ONEOFTHESIMPLEPLEASURESINLIFE.

COFFEEAROUNDTHEWORLD

Coffeedrinkinghabitsvaryaccordingtopeople’stastes.Buttheyalsodifferbyregion.Here’saquickroundupofcoffeecustomsaroundtheworld.

INTHEUNITEDSTATES(ANDOTHERENGLISH-SPEAKINGCOUNTRIES)

MostAmericansdrinkcoffeewithmilk,andusuallyhavetheirdrinktogo.In diners and old-style coffee shops you can get a “bottomless cup ofcoffee.”Forthepriceofonecoffee,thewaitresswillkeepyourmugtoppedup.Thiscoffee tends tobeverypoorquality. It’sbrewedfromlow-gradebeansand thecoffeepot iskeptconstantlyon theheat,sometimesallday.ThisisoneofthemainreasonsforAmerica’spoorreputationforcoffee.

INITALY

Italyisthelandoftheespresso,whereitisdrunkstrongandfast,standingat the counter. At about 11 a.m., which is colazione time (a shortmidmorning break halfway between breakfast and lunch), peoplecommonly treat themselves to anespressoaccompaniedbya littlepastry.Athome,Italiancaffèmokareignssupreme.TheItaliansdonotdrinkfiltercoffee.

INSCANDINAVIA(NORWAY,SWEDEN,ETC.)

TheScandinavians are theworld’s biggest consumers of coffee,which isdrunk predominantly in the form of filter coffee. In nineteenth-centuryNorway itwas common for people to produce their own spirits at home.Before long, to combat alcohol consumption, the Church decided topromote a less dangerous drink: coffee. Andwhen home distillationwasbanned, coffee consumption became the norm, and has remained so eversince.

INTURKEY

The technique used tomakeTurkish coffee (known as “Greek coffee” inGreece) can be traced back to the sixteenth century and the OttomanEmpire.Itinvolvessimmeringcoffeegroundasfineasflourwithwaterinacezve, a traditional long-handledcopperorbrasspot. In thepast,when itwasserved,thecoffeeusedtobedecantedintoacoffeepot,calledanibrik,leaving the grounds behind. But now the terms cezve and ibrik havebecomesynonymous,andcoffeeisserveddirectlyfromthepotinwhichitis brewed. It can be served very sweet (çok sekerli), medium sweet (azsekerli),barelysweetened(orta),orwithoutsugar(sade).Afterdrinking,itusedtobethecustomtoturnone’scupupsidedowninthesaucerinordertoreadthefutureinthepatternsleftinsidethecupbythecoffeegrounds.Thiscoffeesymbolizesacertainlaid-backwayoflife,wheretimeisspentchatting or hookah smoking. Incidentally, it is drunk not only inTurkey,butalsointheBalkansandeventheMiddleEastandnorthernAfrica.

INJAPAN

Japan is regarded first and foremost as tea country (producer andconsumer), but the Japanese are also great coffee lovers and they havedevelopedarealcoffeeculturesincetheeighteenthcentury.Theyalsosnapupmany of the most expensive coffee lots in the world. They are greatexperts at the slowmethods using the V60 or the vacuum (or “siphon”)coffeemaker,forexample.

INETHIOPIA

Itistraditionallythewomanofthehouseholdwhotakescareofpreparingcoffee.Firstsheroaststhegreencoffeebeansinapan.Shethengrindsthebeans with a mortar and pestle and places the ground coffee in anearthenware coffeepot called a jebena. The coffee is poured into small,handlelesscups,andpopcornisservedtoaccompanyit.This isknownasthecoffeeceremony.

WHERETOGETACOFFEE

Thediner,thedeli,orfast-foodrestaurantsusedtobetheplacetogo.ThencameStarbucks,andnowsmallerboutiquechainsandindependentcoffeeshopsare

springingupallovertheplace.

ThecoffeeshopIt’s thedestinationparexcellence,particularly inurban locations in theUnitedStates. The clientele, typically young and online, see it as a “third place,”somewhere between home andwork. Your beverage is served by a barista, aspecialist in coffee brewing. You can sit and drink it there, with a cookie orpieceofcake,ortakeitout.Youcanalsobuycoffeebeanstheretouseathome.

7A.M.–8P.M.

ThecaféAnalmostentirelyEuropeanconcept,thisiswhereyougoforthereveredpetitnoiror“smallblack”consumedatthecounter,butitdoesn’tonlyservecoffee.InFrance,forexample,bistrosorcafésareoftentheheartandsoulofavillage,district,orstreet.Youcangetaglassofwine,abeerorasoftdrink,orhaveacupofcoffee,andsomeevenservelunch,tea,ordinner.Thewaitersservethepetitnoiratthecounterorbringittoyourtable,eitherindoorsoroutdoors.Thepriceofyourcoffeevariesaccordingtowhereyoudecidetoconsumeit.

7A.M.–11P.M.

THECOFFEEFAMILY

Abotanicalperspectiveoncoffeebeans.

CoffeeplantsNinety-ninepercentoftheworld’scoffeeproductioncomesfromtwospeciesofcoffeeplant:Coffeaarabica,orarabica,asit’scommonlyknown,whichcomesfromtheword“Arab”)andCoffeacanephora(orrobusta).TheybothbelongtothegenusCoffea (whichencompasses around seventy speciesof coffeeplant),which in turn belongs to the wider family ofRubiaceae.Coffea liberica andCoffeaexcelsaarealsocultivatedinWestAfricaandinAsia(largelyfor localconsumption),butaccountforlessthan2percentofglobaloutput.

ArabicavsRobusta

NUMBEROFCHROMOSOMES

COFFEAARABICA:44

COFFEACANEPHORA:22

ALTITUDE

COFFEAARABICA:2,000–8,000FT

COFFEACANEPHORA:0–2,300FT

TEMPERATURE

COFFEAARABICA:59–75°F

COFFEACANEPHORA:75–86°F

POLLINATION

COFFEAARABICA:SELF-POLLINATION

COFFEACANEPHORA:CROSS-POLLINATION

FLOWERING

COFFEAARABICA:AFTERRAIN

COFFEACANEPHORA:IRREGULAR

MATURITY

COFFEAARABICA:6–9MONTHS

COFFEACANEPHORA:10–11MONTHS

CAFFEINECONTENT

COFFEAARABICA:0.6–1.4%

COFFEACANEPHORA:1.8–4%

ROBUSTA?IT’SNOTTHATGREAT…

RobustaisthemainvarietyofC.canephoratobeproducedandmarketed.Itsflavorqualitiesarepoor;itsonlybenefitisthatitischeaperandeasiertoproduce.Italsocontainsmorecaffeine. It is usedprimarily for instant coffee, in espressoblendsinItalyandPortugal,andinvendingmachines.

VARIETIES,HYBRIDS,ANDMUTATIONS

You can find details of the different species and varietieshereandhere.

THECOFFEETRADE

Coffee,asacommodity,istradedgloballyinvariousways.

WORLDWIDECOFFEEPRODUCTION

The“specialty”coffeemarketSpecialty coffees account for approximately 1 percent of global output. Theseare coffees rated at least 80/100, whose price is determined not by thecommoditymarket,butbytheirqualityandrarity.Thisispartofanewgeneralmarketapproachthatisnowemerging,wherebytheproducercultivatesdifferentbotanical varieties depending on the nature of the terroir, the roaster devisesroasting profiles for each kind of coffee bean, and the barista is always on aquesttoimprovethewaythecoffeeisbrewed.Itmaybeanichemarket,butithas wrought changes in the way coffee is produced and consumed; coffee, abasicnecessity,consumedforitsstimulatingeffects,hasbecomeapreciousandcomplexproductinthesamewaythatwineis.Coffeeisnolongersimplydrunk;itissavored.

ThecommoditymarketThisisthemarketonwhichcommoditiesareboughtandsold.Coffeeistraded

ontheNewYorkexchangesinthecaseofArabicaandinLondoninthecaseofRobusta.Theprice,whichisveryvariable,fluctuatingaccordingtosupplyanddemand as well as the speculative behavior of the various market players(traders,pensionfunds,etc.),isexpressedindollarsperpound(454g)ofcoffee.Neither the quality of the coffee nor the costs of production are taken intoaccount, something that presents a problem for coffee producers who findthemselves no longer able to make a living from their work. To combat thistrend, various initiatives have been put in place, including “fair trade,”whichensuresthatcoffeefarmersareabletoearnadecentincome.

Fairtrade

FairtradecertificationFair trade certification was set up in the Netherlands in 1988 by the MaxHavelaarFoundationwiththeaimofguaranteeingapurchasepricedeemedfairforsmallcoffeeproducers.Ifpricestrenddown, thefair tradelabelguaranteesproducers a minimum amount that they can live on. If prices rise above thebenchmark,thepricewillthenbeincreasedbyapredeterminedvalue.

FairtradeprinciplesFairtradeisbasedonthreeprinciples:• a sustainable minimum price (but no minimum quantity); • environmentalconservation(encouragingorganicproduction,noGMOs);•asocialcomponent(collectiveequipmentfinancing).

Limitsofthefairtrademark•Itisnotpossibleforasinglefarmtoobtainthiscertification;ithastobepartofacooperative.• When fair trade products started to be sold in large supermarkets, thecertificationlabelwasforcedtoworkwithlargefarmsinordertomeetdemand,whereasfairtradewascreatedforsmallproducers.•Thiscertificationdoesnotamounttoaqualitylabelassuch.

THECOFFEEPROFESSIONALS

Alotofworkhappensbeforeyoutakethefirstsipofyourmorningcoffee!Thejourneyfrombeantocupinvolvesawholeseriesofstepsandprocesses.

Theproducer

Coffeeplantationsaretendedbyacoffeefarmer.Thecoffeefarmer,orproducer,is someonewho lives close to the land.Atharvest time,hegathers the coffeecherries, thendries thembyoneofvariousprocesses toextract thebeansfromthem.

Thegreencoffeebuyer

The coffee buyer travels around coffee-producing countries to select greencoffee beans and negotiate a deal, then sells them on to the coffee roaster, ormerchant.Hetakescareofthelogisticsoftransportingthebagstotheconsumercountrieswherethebeanswillberoasted.

Theroaster

Tounlockalltheirflavors,thegreencoffeebeanshavetobeheatedandtumbledsimultaneously.Attheroastinghouse,thisisthejoboftheroaster,whoadjuststhe roastingprocessaccording to the typeofbean inorder toproduce thebestpossible results.Thesedays the roleof the roaster is changing,withmoreandmoreroasterstravelingtotheproducercountriesthemselvestoselecttheirowncoffeebeans.

Thebarista

Thebarista, the final link in thecoffeechain, ismore thanmerelyawaiter.Agreat connoisseur of coffee, he serves the concoction that he has expertlyprepared, transforming the roasted beans into a drink on demand. He alsoadvises customers on the different coffee varieties, flavors, and methods ofpreparation(espresso,slowmethods,etc.),andsellscoffeebeans.

COFFEELINGO

Ifyouwanttounderstandtheworldofcoffee,therearesomewordsyouneedtoknow!

Grandcruisthenamegiventoacoffeebeanvarietynotedforitsflavorqualities.Youjustneedtoknowhowtogetittoreleaseitsfullpotential!

Abatchisthequantityofcoffeeroastedatonetime.

Coffee makers are the appliances commonly used for making coffee,fromthemildestbrewtothestrongest.

Grindsizeisameasureofhowfinelythecoffeeisground.

Abarista is the coffee expertwho crafts the drink you actually get toconsume.Thecoffeeshopiswhereyou’llfindhim!

Thecherryisthenameofthefruitofthecoffeeplant.Itcontainsoneortwocoffeebeans.

Latteartisthenameofthetechniqueinwhichadesignisdrawninthemilkfoamofacappuccino.

A blend is a mix of coffees of different origin (different regions,countriesetc.)Roastingistheprocessofcookingthecoffeebeans.Thewordroasterdesignatesboththeroastingexpertandthemachineusedto

performthisprocess.

Thebasketisanothernameforthefilteronanespressomachine.

Filter coffees, gentlemethods, slowmethods: These are synonymousterms referring to coffees not prepared by a fast method under highpressure,likeespresso.

Acoffeeissaidtobecleaninreferencetoitsclarity.

Theburrsarethepartofthecoffeegrinderthatgrindsthebeans.

Ashotisasingle1-ounceportionofespresso.Itisdrunkinonego.

Atamperisthespecialtoolthebaristausestopackor“tamp”downthegroundcoffeeinthefilter.

Cupping is a standard tasting method for judging the quality of thecoffee.

Groundcoffeeisreferredtoasthegrounds.

Thekettle is a familiar kitchen appliance. But in the world of coffee,“kettle”referstothetypicalcoffeekettlewithitsgooseneckspout,whichisamust-havewhenpreparingfiltercoffees.

Calibrating an espresso means adjusting the various parametersinvolvedinmakinganespresso.

During roasting, the bean produces a characteristic noise, rather likepopcorn:thecrack.

THETROUBLEWITHCOFFEE…

Therearemanymythssurroundingcoffee.Aretheytrueorfalse?Herearesomeanswersfromareliablesource.

Coffeeisadiureticandalaxative!

Ittakesfiveminutesforcaffeinetoreachthebrain.Caffeinehasahalf-lifeofthreetofivehours.Thisreferstotheperiodoftimeafterwhichitseffectsarehalved.

Itseemsthatcoffeehelpstopreventcertaindiseases:ItisthoughttoslowtheprogressionofParkinson’sdiseaseinmen.Caffeineisalsobelievedto improvememoryfunction inAlzheimer’ssufferers.Thepolyphenols(antioxidants) contained in coffee are believed to counteract type 2diabetes. Some sixty studies have shown that coffee plays a part inpreventing several types of cancer (bladder, mouth, colon, esophageal,uterine,brain,skin,liver,andbreast).

Coffeeincreasessecretionofstomachacid,whichaidsdigestion.

Consumeinmoderation!Iscoffeeadrug?No,notstrictlyspeaking.Butifsomeonewhoconsumesalotofcoffee(morethan400mgofcaffeineaday)goescoldturkey,itwilltakethreetofivedaysforthesymptoms—irritability,headachesandtemporarytiredness—todisappear.

Coffee is bad for yournerves!!Caffeine has a stimulating effect that

makes you more alert, increases your heart rate, enhances cognitivefunction,reducesfatigue,andimprovesyourreactiontimes.

Excessiveconsumption(morethan400mg/dayofcaffeine)ofcoffeeaswellasdrinkingcoffeetooclosetobedtimecanmakeithardtodropoffto sleep and can cause insomnia. Excessive caffeine intake can alsocausepalpitationsandanxiety.

Afiltercoffeecontainsmorecaffeinethananespresso:acupofespressocontains47to75mg;amugoffiltercoffee,75to200mg.

Although it is true that coffee can stain your teeth, caffeine andpolyphenols (or phenolic compounds) have antibacterial properties thathelptopreventtoothdecay.

Caffeine improves physical performance, particularly endurance, byconverting fat into energy. Caffeine was even included on the list ofsubstancesbannedundertheWorldAnti-DopingCodeuntil2004.

Whatelse?

CHAPTER2

MAKINGACOFFEE

GRINDINGYOURCOFFEE

Whateveryourpreferredbrewingmethod—filtercoffeeorespresso—youwillneedtousegroundcoffee.Everyoneknowsthatcoffeepowderisproducedbygrindingtheroastedcoffeebeansinacoffeegrinder.Whatpeopledon’ttendtorealize,though,isthatdifferentmodelsofgrindergiveafinerorcoarsergrind,producinggroundcoffeeexhibitingdifferentqualitiesandsuitablefor

differentuses.Soitisimportanttoconsideryourchoiceofgrindercarefullyifyouwanttobesureofobtainingyourperfectshot.

Whyinvestinagrinder?Given that coffeemerchants are able to produce different grinds for differentbrewingmethods,thereseemstobelittleneedtoownyourowncoffeegrinder.But whether you are a newcomer to the world of coffee or a well-informedenthusiast,hereare twogood reasons to invest inone.The fact is,youcannotreally be a true espresso connoisseur if youdon’t own a coffee grinder. For afiltercoffeedrinker,itislessessential.Whateverthecase,acoffeegrinderwillguaranteeyouanexceptionalcoffee!

GRINDSIZE:AMEASUREOFTHEFINENESSOFTHEGRIND

COFFEETHATISALWAYSFRESH1

Groundcoffeedoesnotkeepwell.Thetransformationofbeansintopowderproduces two associated reactions: the release of CO2, a naturalpreservativecontainedinthebeans,andtheaccelerationoftheoxidationofthearomaticessentialoilsinthecoffee(knownascaffeolorcaffeone)andotherflavorcomponentswhentheycomeintocontactwiththeambientair.Sooncethepacket isopen,whilecoffeebeanscankeepforseveraldays,forgroundcoffeethestoragetimeisnomorethanafewhours.

CONTROLLINGTHEFINENESSOFTHEGRIND2

Thefinenessofthegrind(orgrindsize)isafundamentalvariablethatcanbe adjusted according to the desired result and other parameters. Theespresso extraction time and the coffee balance are affected by thetemperature and humidity of the air. Hence the barista has to adjust thegrindsizeseveraltimesaday.Thisiswhyitisnotadvisabletobuycoffeethathasalreadybeengroundtoacertainfixedgrindsize.

TherightgrindforeachbrewingmethodDifferentmethodsofbrewingcoffeerequiredifferentgrindsizes.Adjustingthegrind size allows you to vary the speed of extraction of the coffee’s flavormolecules.The finer thegrind, thegreater the surfacearea incontactwith thesolvent—in this case, water—and the faster the coffee components dissolve:espresso needs fine-ground coffee to compensate for the fact that the brewingtimeisshort(lessthan30seconds),whereasaFrenchpress,withitsfour-minuteinfusingtime,requiresacoarsegrind,whichhelpskeepbitternesstoaminimumandlimitstheamountofsedimentinthecup.

WHATGRINDFORWHATMETHOD?

WHYISASIZERANGESTATEDFOREACHMETHOD,RATHERTHANSIMPLYASINGLESPECIFIEDSIZE?

Becausethereareothervariablesinvolved:•thecoffeebeanitself(variety,density,roastlevel,etc.);• the coffee dose required (the higher the doseweight, thecoarserthegrindrequired);• the time elapsed since roasting (a fine grind cancompensateforalackoffreshness);•climateconditions(humidaircallsforacoarsergrind)…

COFFEEGRINDERS

Fromthemanualcoffeegrindertothelatestmodelstackedwithelectronics,themechanicalprincipleisalwaysthesame:tobreakandgrindthecoffeebeansbypassingthembetweentwoburrs—oneofthemrotating,theotherfixed.Thefinenessoftheresultingpowder,orgrind,

dependsonthesizeofthegapbetweenthetwogrindingwheels.

For decades a feature of every home, the manual grinder later seemeddoomed to be relegated to junk shops and specialist collections. It has nowreclaimeditsplaceandisonceagainpopularwithcoffeeconnoisseurs.

MANUALGRINDER

USE:

•Domesticuseoronthemove

GRIND:

•Suitableforfiltercoffee

PROS:

• A nice object with an attractive design, whether it’s a vintage orcontemporarymodel,featuringwear-resistantceramicburrs.

•Compact,transportable,inexpensive,doesn’tneedelectricity

CONS:

•Elbowgreaserequired!•Notaveryconsistentgrind$

Originally sold by large chains of coffee shops, today these are availableeverywhere.

HOMEGRINDERWITHHOPPER

USE:

•Domestic

GRIND:

•Quitefine,dependingonthemodel

PROS:•Small•Lowcost

CONS:

•Slow

$$

Thegrindertraditionallyusedinbarsandrestaurantsformakingespresso.

ESPRESSOGRINDERWITHDOSER

USE:

•Professionalordomestic

GRIND:•Fine

PROS:

•Cangrindveryfine•Thedoserchurnsthegroundcoffeeandbreaksupanyclumps.

CONS:•Groundsleftinthedoserdeteriorate.$$$

InventedbytheGermancompanyMahlkönig,the“doserless”grindergrindson demand and delivers one or two programmed doses of ground coffeedirectlytothefilterbasket.

DOSERLESSESPRESSOGRINDER

USE:

•Professionalordomestic

GRIND:

•Fineandalwaysfresh

PROS:

•Thefreshlygroundcoffeedoesnothavetimetogostale.•Cangrindveryfine

CONS:

•Producesclumps

$$$$

Thisgrinderwasdesignedforcustomerswholiketobuytheircoffeegroundondemand.

COMMERCIALGRINDER

USE:

•Professional

GRIND:

•Notalwaysuniform

PROS:

•Its largecapacityenablesit togrindlargequantitiesofcoffeeinashorttime.

CONS:

•Regulationofgrindfinenessnotveryaccurate$$$$$

TWOKINDSOFGRINDREGULATOR

1.Regulatorwithsteppedadjustment: themoresteps thereare,themoreaccurateyoucanbe.2. Regulator with continuous adjustment (stepless). Thisallows the grain size to bemore precisely controlled. It isthereforeabetteroptionwhenpreparingespresso.

WHATABOUTBLADEDGRINDERS?

Theywork on the same principle as ameat and vegetableminichopper: the longeryouleave it running, thefiner theoutput. They are not expensive and give a uniform grind.Usefulifyouwanttoachieveabalancedcoffee…

EXPERT

TYPESOFBURRS

Coffeegrindersfallintotwocategories—burrgrindersandbladegrinders.Aburrgrindercomeswitheitherflatorconicalburrs.

ShapesavailableFlatburrsFlatburrsgiveareasonablyuniformgrindandverylittlegroundcoffeeisleftbehindinthegrindchamber.

This type of burr is best suited to grinders for home use or small-scale professional use (less than 7 lb/day) used at regular intervalsthroughouttheday.

Afreshandconsistentgrind.

They have to rotate at high speed (about 1,500 rpm) and, if usedintensively,tendtowarmthegrounds,formingoilyclumpsandpotentiallycausingtheflavorstoevaporate.

ConicalburrsA lot of entry-level domestic grinders come equipped with burrs of thiskind. Paradoxically, on professional grinders, their low rotational speedmeanstheyneedeitherapowerfulmotororasystemofgears,whichmakesthegrindermoreexpensivetobuy.

Grinders with conical burrs are aimed more at large-scalecommercialusers(morethan7lb/day).Theyareabletocopeduringpeakperiodsastheyperformbestincontinuousoperation.

Theseburrsrotatemoreslowly(about400rpm),whichpreventsthegroundsfromheatingupandgivesthecoffeeanicetexture.

With these burrs, a lot of ground coffee is left behind in thegrindchamber.Thismay,ifthegrinderisinactiveforafewminutes,impingeonthefreshnessofthedelivereddose.

DurabilityOvertime,theburredgesbecomeblunted.Signsofwearincludealongergrind time, the presence of clumps indicating that the grounds are beingheated,andadeteriorationinthequalityoftheresultingcoffee(lesscremaontheespresso,lacklusterflavors…).Asageneralguide,youmightexpectacoffeeshoptochangeitsburrsonceayear,andaprivateuseronceeverytwentyyears.

Materials

CERAMICHARDBUTBRITTLE,VULNERABLETO

FOREIGNBODIES,SUCHASSTONESTHATMAYSOMETIMESBEMIXEDINWITHTHE

COFFEEBEANS

STEEL&TITANIUMOFFERTHEBENEFITOFBEINGHARD-

WEARINGWITHOUTBREAKING

MAINTAININGYOURGRINDER

Yourgrinderisinevitablygoingtogetmessy.Itisimportanttokeepthepartscleansoasnottospoilthepurityofthebrew.

MOVINGBURR

MOVINGBURR

FIXEDBURR

SOLUTION1:REMOVETHEBURR

SOLUTION2:CLEANINGGRANULES

How often? Once for every 55 lb of coffee ground. The frequency can beincreasedordecreaseddependingontheroastlevelofthebeansused.

WATER!

Wateriscomposedoftwochemicalelements,hydrogenandoxygen(H2O),butthewaterwe

useisneverinthispureform.Onitstravelsittakesupmineralsandtraceelementswhosechemicalpropertiesaffectthetasteofthecoffee.Soitisimportantforyourwatertomeet

certaincriteria.

Whatever thecoffeepreparationmethodused, thewaterhas toextract thearomaticcompoundsfromthegroundswithoutitselfaffectingtheflavorofthe drink.An espresso consists of approximately 88 percentwater, and afilter coffeemore than 98 percent. But take note: somewaters are betterthanothers…

88%WATER

98%WATER

Tomakethegrade,waterhastobe:

Neutral-tastingWaters don’t all taste the same. The flavor varies depending on theproportions of minerals and trace elements they contain, as well as theamountofchlorine(inthecaseoftapwater).Tomakeagoodcoffee,youneedtousefresh,purewaterthatisfreeofintrusiveodors.

CapableofrevealingtheflavorofthecoffeeThemineralscontainedinthewatercanbeisolatedbyheatingthewaterto350°F and allowing it to evaporate. These mineral salts and other traceelementsaffectthetasteofthewateranditsabilitytoextractthearomaticcompounds from the coffee. According to taste tests organized by theSCAA(SpecialtyCoffeeAssociationofAmerica),thelevelofdryresidueshouldbearound150mg/Lforabalancedcupofcoffee.

NeithertoohardnortoosoftForcoffee,themeasurethatmattersisthetemporaryhardness,orcarbonatehardness(KH),whichmustbebetween3and5degreesKH.However,thepermanent hardness also has to be lower than the temporary hardness toavoid clogging and to ensure the right mineral balance to give a good-tasting coffee. If thewater is too hard, espressomachines, electric coffeemakers and kettles become encrustedwith limescale on the inside. If thewateristoosoft,theKHnolongerservesasabuffercushioningvariationsinpHlevels,sothereisariskthatthemachinepartswillbecomecorroded.

INANUTSHELL

If the water is too hard, the coffee machine will become encrustedwithlimescale.

Ifthewateristoosoft,theboilerwillcorrode.Allinall,limescaleencrustationisthepreferableoption.

AQUICKCHEMISTRYLESSON

Ifallthisisnotquitecrystalclearyet,don’tpanic!HereareafewsimplepointersonthesubjectofwaterhardnessandpH.

Whatiswaterhardness?Whenyoubringwater toaboil inapan, the temporaryhardness (KH) islost and showsup insteadaswhite limescaledeposits around the sidesofthe pan. This is because bicarbonates of calcium and magnesium in thewaterareprecipitatedoutascarbonatesonapplicationofheat.Permanenthardnessisthehardnessthatremainsinthewaterafterboiling.It refers to the concentration of sulfates of calcium (gypsum) andmagnesium.Thetemporaryhardnessandpermanenthardnesscanbeaddedtogether togive the total hardness (GH). This is the figure usually indicated by thewatercompany.Total hardness (GH) = temporary hardness (KH) + permanent hardness.Hardnessisexpressedin“Germandegrees”:°dH.

TOTALHARDNESS=PERMANENTHARDNESS+TEMPORARY

HARDNESS

GYPSUMSTAYSINTHEWATERAFTERBOILING

CALCIUMSHOWSUPASWHITEDEPOSITSONTHESIDESOFTHEPANAFTERBOILING

GYPSUMPASSESTHROUGHPIPING,SOITISNOTAPROBLEMFORCOFFEEMACHINESBUTITDOESIMPARTA

PARTICULARTASTETOTHEWATER.

WhataboutthepH?The pH (potential of hydrogen) is used to define, on a scale of 1 to 14,whetherwaterisacidic,alkaline,orneutral:•IfthepH<7:thewaterisacidic.•IfthepH>7:thewaterisalkaline.•IfthepH=7:thewaterisneutral.The mineral content of the water affects its pH; the higher the mineralcontent,thehigheritspHlevel;thesofterthewater,themoreacidicitis.Toprotectmachines fromcorrosion, thepHshouldnotbeallowedtogobelow6.5.

TESTINGYOURWATER!

Youcanmeasurethepropertiesofyourwater(KHand

pH)usingawater testkit foraquariumowners.Someespresso machine manufacturers also sell kits formeasuringthehardnessofyourwateryourself.

CHOOSINGYOURWATER

Choosingtherightwaterforyourcoffeeisaneasyandeffectivewayofimprovingitsquality.

BottledwaterMineral water or spring water is not the most economical nor the most eco-friendly solution,but it allowsyou tochooseawater that iswell suited to thetypeofcoffeeyouwanttobrew.Forespresso,youneedtotakeintoaccountthehardnessofthewateranditspHlevel.Forgentlemethods,thereisnoparticularrequirement in terms of machine maintenance (except in the case of electriccoffeemakers);thechoiceofwaterdependsinsteadonthedesiredresultinthecup.

MINERALWATERvsSPRINGWATER

These designations, used for bottledwaters, are controlledappellations. Both describe drinkable water derived fromuntreatedgroundwater.Mineralwaterisaspringwaterthatexhibits particular recognized properties (including manytherapeutic benefits). Its composition is more stable overtime, but it is not necessarily higher in minerals than aspringwater.

FilteredwaterUnless you live in an area where tap water does not require treatment, waterfromyourfaucetneedstobefilteredtoimproveitsproperties.

IftheKHofthetapwater=3to5°dHAsimpleactivatedcarbonfiltercanhelpeliminateanyintrusiveodors,suchasthesmellofchlorine.

IftheKHofthetapwater>5°dHUseamoreelaborate filtercartridgewithanextra ion-exchangeresinphase toreducecalcium(orgypsuminsomeareas).Thesefilterscomeintheformofacartridgethatisplacedinthewaterreservoir

ofanespressomachine,orinawaterfilterpitcher.Whateverthecase,besuretocheckthatthepHofthefilteredwaterdoesnotgobelowthe6.5thresholdforespressomachinesandotherelectriccoffeemakers,asthiscouldleadtocorrosionanddamagetothemachine.

YOURPERFECTCUP

Whetherconsumedatthecounter,atthetable,oronthemove,coffeecanbeservedinanddrunkfromallsortsofvessels.Cups,glasses,andmugsplayabigpartindeterminingthe

finaloutcome.

THEESPRESSOCUP

Whenservingespresso,achinacupwillalwaysbethemostsuitablevessel, but to deliver the flavors of the coffee most effectively, itneedstosatisfycertaincriteria.

ESPRESSO

Toproduceanespresso,highpressureisusedtoextractthearomaticcompoundsfromthecoffee.

ShortandspeedyAnespressoisashortcoffee(between½flozand2floz),brewedacupat

a time. This method differs from others in that the hot water is underpressure and percolates rapidly (for between 20 and 30 seconds) throughthe grounds to extract the oils and other aromatic compounds from thecoffee.

SmallyetpotentThisbeverageischaracterizedbythepresenceofasurfacefoam,calledthecrema in Italy. This emulsion is composed of the smallest particles ofgroundcoffee(knownasthe“fines”),water,coffeeoil(caffeol),andcarbon

dioxide (CO2). A cup of espresso has a powerful, explosive taste withplentyofbody.Anespressoisonaveragetentimesmoreconcentratedthanafiltercoffee.

THELONGHISTORYOFASHORTCOFFEE

Thishighlyfashionablebrewingmethodwasinventedin1820,thebrainchildofaFrenchman,LouisBernardRabaut,beforebeingpopularizedandrefinedbytheItalians.

Theideaofusingsteamtoforcehotwater throughdark-roasted,finelygroundcoffeebeanscamefromaFrenchman,LouisBernardRabaut.

This conceptwas put into practice by another Frenchman,ÉdouardLoysel deSantais, for the firstUniversal Exhibition in Paris in 1855, in the form of hishydrostatic percolator, capable of delivering large volumes of coffee, tea, orevenbeerinrecordtime.

At the Turin exhibition in 1884, the Italian entrepreneur Angelo Moriondoexhibitedhis“steammachinery for theeconomicand instantaneousconfectionofcoffeebeverage,”forwhichhewasawardedthebronzemedal.Atthetimeitwasn’t yet known as an espresso machine, but several such machines wereproducedforuseinhisfamily’shotelsandrestaurants.

Theyear1901sawthearrivaloftheTipoGigantebyLuigiBezzera,andofitsnear identical twin, the Ideale by Desiderio Pavoni, the first real espressomachineswithaportafilterthatbrewedindividualcups.

In1947,AchilleGaggiaandhisleverespressomachineenabledthepressuretoberaisedfrom1.5 to9bar, resulting in theproductionofcrema,whichhadn’tappearedbeforethattimebecausetherewasn’tsufficientpressure.

AFAIREXCHANGE

It may have been the Italians who refined and set thestandards for espresso, but, contrary to popular belief, thefamousdrinkneverthelesshaditsrootsinFrance.Itisworthnoting, though, that it was following that same UniversalExhibition in Paris in 1855 that the sixty-two Bordeaux“crus” were awarded their official classification, when thefact is thatwinehad itself been imported intoGaul by theRomans.

THELOYSELMACHINE

ASPOTOFVOCABULARY

The term “percolator” comes from the English verb“percolate,” itself derived from theLatin verb “percolare,”meaning“topassthrough,tofilter.”Theterm“hydrostatic”indicates that the extraction pressure is produced by theweightofacolumnofwater(1barforevery10meters).

EXPRESSOORESPRESSO?

The name “expresso” derives from “express,” meaningrapid.With the exception of a few European and French-speaking countries, the “espresso” variant, probably takenfrom the Italian pressione, “by pressure,” is much morecommon. Nowadays the term “expresso” tends to be usedforacoffeeofabout2floz(alsocalledtwo-thirdsofacupinFrench),whereastheterm“espresso”isreservedfora1floz short coffee.And as the Italian style of coffee-drinkingtendstoprevail,theterm“espresso”isconsideredcorrect.

TIPOGIGANTEBYLUIGIBEZZERA

GAGGIALEVERMACHINE

DESIGNEDTOBEBREWEDANDCONSUMEDRAPIDLY

Quick to order, quick to prepare, and quick to drink, theespressowas born of the need to save time. In fact, LuigiBezzeradevelopedhisTipoGigante inorder to reduce theamount of time his employees were spending on theirbreaks!Itisoftensaidthatanespressoshouldbeconsumedwithinfourminutesofbrewing.

ESPRESSO:THETASTINGEXPERIENCE

Toproperlyappreciateanespresso,youneed,aboveall,totasteitandsavoritasyouwoulddowithwine,tonamethesensationsyouexperiencewhenyoubreatheinitsfragranceandwhenyoufocusontheresponsesofyourtastebudsandtheflavorsleftinyourmouth,rightdowntothefinal

note.Sensesready,getset,go!

Theritual

Sensations

ThecremaThe crema is the only visual indicator of an espresso. Its coloring,thickness,andstreakinessarenotenoughtorevealitsquality,buttheyaregood indicators of the freshness and roast level of the coffee. If, despitebeingcorrectlyprepared,thecremaisvery(overly)pale,doesn’tcovertheentiresurfaceof thecoffee,orvanishesbeforefourminuteshaveelapsed,thereisagoodchancethebeanswerenotroastedforlongenoughorwerenotfresh.Thecremaalonedoesn’tmake theespresso,but itdoesplayanimportantpart.

Lightcremamayrevealan

excellent

espresso.

Streakedcremawithpretty

reddishhues

maywellconceal

acoffeewith

unbalanced

flavors.

Sparsecremamayindicatean

issuewiththe

coffeebeans

(roasting,

freshness).

ThenoseAswithawine,onetalksabout the“nose”ofanespresso.Theodors thatemanate from it must only contain positive notes, such as odors of nuts(peanuts,hazelnuts…),ofspices (anise,cinnamon…),of fruits (redfruits,peaches…), or of flowers (jasmine, rose…). Woody, smoky, or tobacconoteswouldtendtobeconsiderednegative.

ThearomasWhiletheodorsaredetecteddirectlybythenose, thearomas,meanwhile,areexperiencedbyretronasalolfaction,fromthefirstsiptothefinish.

Likethenose,thearomasbornebythevolatilemoleculescanbefruity,spicy,or floral.However,acoffee’sodorsandaromasarenotnecessarilyidentical.Withspecialtycoffees,thearomasarenowconsideredanintegralpartofthetastingexperience.Retronasalolfactionenablesustogaugethearomaticcomplexity,ameasureofthefinestcoffees.

ESPRESSO:THETASTINGEXPERIENCE

ThebodyThebodyreferstothesubstanceorconsistencyofthecoffee.Viscosityisanimportantfeatureofespresso,whichistentimesmoreconcentratedthanafiltercoffee.Thehighpressurecausestheoilstoemulsify,givingasenseof thickness in themouth. Onemight refer to an espresso as being full-bodied,thick,viscous,orsyrupy,asopposedtowatery,thin,flat,orlight…

The texture of a coffee is composed of sensationsderivedfromthesenseoftouch,whichareconveyedbythetrigeminalnerve.

AstringencyThis is one of the most unpleasant physical sensations you mightexperienceinanespresso.It involvesamechanical tensingof themucousmembranes,accompaniedbyafeelingofroughnessanddryness,whichisamplifiedbythebitternessandacidity.

ThetasteOf the fiveprimary tastesconveyedby thenonvolatilemolecules thataredetected by the taste buds, those that dominate in the case of coffee aresourness,sweetness,andbitterness.

Primarytastesunderthemicroscope

Hereisaguidetohelpyourecognizethedifferentflavorsyoumayencounterincoffee, and especially to help you tell the difference between sourness andbitterness.Theillustrationsgiveanexampleofafoodordrinkthatexhibitsthatparticularflavor,toenableyoutoidentifytheflavorwearereferringto.

GRAPEFRUIT

CHICORY

WHATABOUTSALTINESS?

Only certain coffees exhibit salty flavors: monsooncoffees,forexample(seehere).

LIME

Citricaciddevelops inbeanscultivatedathighaltitude. It isa signofhaving

beenfreshlyharvested.

TONICWATER

Quinicacidistoblameforastringency.Thedirectproductofthebreakdownofchlorogenicacids,itisoneofthefewacidsthatcontinuestodevelopevenatanadvancedstageofroasting.

APPLE

APPLE

Malicacid,with itsmetallic taste, is typicalofsomecoffees fromEastAfrica(Burundi,Rwanda).Butitcanalsobeanindicatorofaprematureharvest.

COLA

Phosphoricacid,which,unlike theothers, is inorganic, ischaracteristicof theKenyanvarietiesSL28andSL34.

VINEGAR

Aceticacid,whenpresentinexcessivequantities,givesatartnessthatisdeemednegative.Likequinicacid,itcontinuestodevelopevenatanadvancedstageofroasting.

ABALANCEDESPRESSOISAWELL-CRAFTEDMIXTUREOFSOURANDBITTERTASTES

ANDBITTERTASTES

InFrance,coffeeisregardedasabitterproduct.Overtime,thebitterness in espressohas declined, accompaniedby anincreaseinsourness,whichbringsfruityaromasandflavorsto the coffee. It lends vivacity and freshness, makes yousalivate,andsupportsthearomasandthefinish.Sosournessisapositiveattribute,provideditisnotoverpowering.Likesweetness, bitterness affects one’s perception of sourness.So these two tastes, which are naturally opposed, areindispensablewhenitcomestopreparingabalanced,thatis,slightlysour,espresso.

TASTING

Theconceptof“good”iscultural,personal,andsubjective.Itiscloselylinkedtotheideaofpleasurefelt.

Anespressomaydisplaynoshortcomings,butneverthelessbeboring,conjuringnoresponsewhatsoever.

Theall-importantfactor,morethanrulesandothertastingcriteria,isfortheexperiencetobepleasurable.

InthemouthEspresso tastingcanbedivided into threephases:beginning,middle, andend.Eachphasemaybedominatedbyoneflavor: forexample,asourbeginning,abalancedmiddle, and a slightlybitter finish. Ideally, the finish, alsoknownasthe“lengthonthepalate”oraftertaste,shouldofferaromasratherthanflavors.Eachcoffeehasitsowntastingcurve(rising,falling,straight…).

COFFEE 1: THE FLAVOR INTENSITY INCREASES GRADUALLY AND DROPSABRUPTLY:THEREISALMOSTNOFINISH.

COFFEE 2: QUITE A VIOLENT BEGINNING, FOLLOWED BY A GRADUALLY

DIMINISHINGMIDDLEANDFINISH.

COFFEE 3: AVERY “STRAIGHT” COFFEE. HERE NO SINGLE PHASE DOMINATES

OVER THE OTHERS. THE MOUTH FINISH IS LONG AND LASTS FOR SEVERAL

MINUTES.

Thecoffee’sflavorAll the sensations identifiedandanalyzed,added together,define the flavorofthe coffee. The more harmonious these perceptions, the more balanced theespresso.

AGOODESPRESSOMIGHTBEDESCRIBEDAS:

Complex:Offeringamultitudeofharmoniouspositivesensations.Clean:Havingnoapparentmajorfault.Sweet:Apleasantcoffeeofferingsweetnessandmellowaromas.Smooth:Sweetandslightlytangy.Full-bodied:Havinganicemouthfeel.Balanced:Thetastesblendwelltogetherandgiveaslightlytangycoffee.

ABADESPRESSOMIGHTBEDESCRIBEDAS:

Acrid:Atartcoffee(seeaceticacid)withanunpleasantacidity.Harsh:Aroughcoffeegivingasensationofcoarsenessinthemouth.Woody:Anegativeattribute foranespresso.Thewoodyaroma isdue topoorstorageofthegreencoffeeand/oranunsuitableroastprofile.Rancid:Rancidtasteduetobeingstoredpoorlyorfortoolong,oftenafteroverroasting.Bitter:Bitterness,whenexcessive,isconsideredaflaw.Old crop: A coffee lacking freshness, rancid, woody, with odorsreminiscentofhessian(seehere).

EXAMPLEOFATASTINGFORM

NAME:ElSalvadorFincaLaFany

VARIETY:RedBourbon

DRYING:washedandsun-dried

ROASTDATE:04/14/16

TASTINGDATE:04/30/16

NOSE

POSITIVE

NUTS

REDFRUITTROPICALFRUIT

STONEFRUITCITRUSVEGETAL

FLORALSPICE

NEGATIVE

SMOKY

GRASSY

WOODY

BURNT

NOTES:almonds

AROMAS

POSITIVE

NUTS

REDFRUITTROPICALFRUITSTONEFRUIT

CITRUSVEGETAL

FLORALSPICE

NEGATIVE

SMOKY

GRASSY

WOODY

BURNT

NOTES:blackcurrant,hazelnut

BODY

CLEANCUP

BALANCE

LENGTHOFFINISH

CREMA

PRIMARYTASTES

FLAVOR,GENERALMOUTHFEEL

Livelyespresso.Sournessbrings

freshnessanddepth.Quitecreamy.

Lingeringandpleasantfinish.Slightly

lackinginbalance.

Aninterestingespressothatis

pleasurabletodrink.

THEESPRESSOMACHINE

Typesofmachines

Domesticmachine

GOODVIBRATIONS…

Domesticmachinesworkon the principle of an oscillatingpiston, which unfortunately emits vibrations and is verynoisy inoperation.But it alsohas somepositiveattributes.Thoughnoisy,thelowcostandsmallsizeofthepumphavemadethedomesticespressomachineaccessibletoall.

Filtersandportafilters

Professionalmachine

THERE’SCREMA,ANDTHENTHERE’SCREMA:THETRICKWITHPRESSURIZEDFILTERS

Entry-level espressomachines aimed at the general publicareoftenequippedwithpressurizedfilters.Thesearebasketswithjustasingleholeinthem,ratherthana conventional basket. The idea is to spare the user fromhaving to buy a grinder, because rather than carefullyadapting thegrind to achieve the idealpressure andgive aperfectcrema,thesefiltersusethis“technicaltrick”tocreateartificialpressure,maskingthetruepercolationspeedofthecoffee. The result is a foam consisting of rather largebubblesonyourespresso,regardlessofthesizeofthegrind,buttheflavorresultisfarfromsatisfactoryforatruecoffeelover…

MachinemodelsThetraditionalmachineisthemostwidelyused.Itisalsoknownasaninjectionmachine.Designedin1961byCarloErnestoValenteandnamedtheE61(EforEclipse,1961beingtheyearofatotalsolareclipse)forthecompanyFAEMA,whichsetthestandardforespressomachinesforsomefortyyears.

TRADITIONALMACHINE

PRINCIPLE:An electromechanical pump injects water under pressure to produce theextraction.USE:

Professionalordomestic.

PROS:Multipurpose,good-qualitybrew.

CONS:

Needtohaveagoodunderstandingofespressoextractiontoachieveagoodresult.

A compromise between a traditional machine and a capsule machine, theautomaticmachineleavesthechoiceofcoffeeuptoyou.

AUTOMATICMACHINE

PRINCIPLE:This machine is equipped with an integrated grinder. There are variouspreset programs to choose from; you just have to press the appropriatebutton.

USE:

Domestic.PROS:

Easytouse(althoughsomemenuscangetverycomplex!),possibletousecoffeebeans.CONS:

Coffeequalityleavesroomforimprovement(lackofbody,aromasnotfully revealed…), less reliable than a traditional machine, high purchasecost.

The levermachine is the forerunnerof themotorizedpumpmachine. It is stillwidelyusedinsouthernItaly.

LEVERMACHINE

PRINCIPLE:It uses the sameprinciple as a bicyclepump to createpressure; the forceexertedbythebaristaontheleveristransmittedtoapiston(insomecasesspring-loaded).USE:

Professionalordomestic.PROS:

Attractive-looking, flavorsome ristretto, silent (no electric pump!),strengthensyourarmmuscles!CONS:

Notverypractical,notreallysuitableforlongespressos.

Designedforhomeuserswantingawayofmakinganespressoquickly,easily,and regularly, the capsule machine also appeals to a lot of cateringprofessionals.

CAPSULEMACHINE

PRINCIPLE:Youinsertapre-dosedcapsuleintothemachine,pushabutton,andapresetprogramextractsthecoffee.USE:

Domestic.PROS:

Simple touse,consistentresult in thecup,machine is inexpensive topurchase.CONS:

Limited choice of coffee, cost per cup, coffee of mediocre quality,baristacannotinfluencethebrewotherthanthelengthinthecup,noteco-friendly.

CHOOSINGYOURMACHINE

Thereareseveralstylesofespressomachineavailable,andsuchaplethoraofproductsthatitisdifficulttoknowwheretostart.Theespressomachineyouchoosedependsfirstandforemoston

howmuchcoffeeyouneedtobreweachday.Thisshouldhelpgiveyouabetteridea…

FromthebakerytothelargerestaurantThebrewinggroupofanespressomachineisthepartintowhichtheportafilterengages; it is the part that connects thewater reservoir to the portafilter. Thenumber of groups is chosen to suit the amount of coffee to be brewed.Homeespressomachinesonlyhaveasinglegroup,whereasprofessionalmachinescanhaveup to four groups, andmachineswith evenmoregroups canbemade toorder.

Forthosewhocan’tdecide:theprosumerMachines intended for commercial settings are made usingmore reliable anddurable components to enable them to copewith intensive, continuous use. Inthe early 2000s, private consumers who wanted to have their own high-performance machine at home started purchasing single-group professionalmachines,generallysecondhand.Inresponsetothisnewdemand,manufacturersstarted developing semiprofessional machines known as “prosumer” (acontraction of “professional” and “consumer”) machines, which combinetechnicalsolutionsandprofessionalcomponentsinsmallespressomachinesfordomesticuse.

AmachinetosuiteveryoneThelatteartgeekYou’reacoffeegeekwholikestopracticelatteartathome.Asingle-groupsemiprofessional(prosumer)machinewithaheatexchangerwillsuityourneeds. You can have steam whenever you want it, and can brew onecappuccinoafteranothertoenableyoutopracticeyourephemeralart.

ThefanofterroirYou’re fascinated by the amazing diversity of coffees offered by thecountlessterroirs,orcoffee-producingregions,aroundtheworld.Asingle-group,single-boilermachinedoesagoodjobofconveyingallthenuancesand aromatic complexity of the best coffee beans. The fact that thismachine does not offer steam on demand is not a problem, especially ifyou’renot bigonmilky coffee, andonlyoccasionallyprepare this if youhappentohaveguestsvisiting.

ThebaristaAtwo-groupespressomachineisgoodforuseinasmallcoffeeshop.Themachine needs to operate at a stable, accurate temperature, and provideplenty of steam power, enough to cope with the high demand for milkydrinks.

TheofficecoffeeklatchAnautomaticmachineisprobablybestfortheoffice.Thismachine,whichis very easy to use, can be operated individually by ten or so differentpeoplethroughouttheday,andallowseachofthemtoselect theirdesiredprogram.Withitsintegratedcoffeegrinder,itusescoffeebeans,ratherthancapsules,makingitanenvironmentallyfriendlychoice.Thehighpurchasepricemaybe lessofaproblemsince it’susuallypurchasedbycompaniesforusebyemployees.

ThevacationhomeAcapsulemachinemaybethebestoption,sinceitmayonlygetuseafewweeksoutoftheyear.It’srelativelyinexpensiveandtheamountofcoffeeoneneedstobuy(ascapsules)canbetailoredtotheexactamountofcoffeeconsumed.The intuitiveoperation and speedwithwhichyoucanpreparecoffeesareusefulinahousewherethereisalotofcomingandgoing.

MAINTAININGYOURMACHINE

Youwon’tgetagoodespressoifyoudon’thaveaspotlessmachine.Sometipsforkeepingyourmachineinpristinecondition.

THEGROUPHEAD,SEENFROMBELOW

BACKWASHING FOR MACHINES WITH A DEPRESSURIZATIONSYSTEMWhy?Thisinnovationmakesitpossibletoremovetheportafilterfromthegroup

justaftertheextractionofthecoffee.Butthiscausesgroundstoworktheirwayupinsidethegroup,foulingtheinternalcircuitandproducingarancidtaste.How?Backwashingwithaspecialdetergent:Placeablindfilter(i.e.,onewithnoholes)intheportafilter,placethedoseofdetergent(between3and9g)intheblindfilter,fastentheportafiltertothegrouphead,andrunfivecycles(runfor5seconds/stopfor15seconds).Removetheportafilter,runarinsecycletoflushthe detergent out of the group, and rinse the blind filter.Repeat the operationwithout detergent to rinse the circuit.The first coffee after cleaning shouldbediscarded.How often? Once a week in a domestic setting; at the end of each day in aprofessionalsetting.

DETERGENTINTHEFILTER

HOWITWORKS

Theprincipleofoperationofanespressomachineisthesameforall,regardlessofthemodel.Aboiler,usuallyequippedwithaheatingelement,isusedtoproducehotwater,whichisthen

pressurizedwiththeaidofapumpandforcedthroughthecoffeegrounds.

TEMPERATURE198°F+PRESSURE9BAR=GOODEXTRACTION

OFTHEAROMASANDFLAVORSSOTHEAIMISALWAYSTO

MAINTAINATEMPERATUREOF198°F(SEEhere)

It is, technically speaking,easy tomaintainstablepressure.But temperature isanothermatter.Itistrickyenoughtokeepthetemperaturestableduringthetimeittakestopulloneshotofcoffee,letalonewhenyouarepullingseveralshotsinsuccession.Anyvariations in temperature thencause inconsistency in the tasteofthecoffee.

HIGHPRESSURE=AQUALITYSHOT?

HIGHPRESSURE=AQUALITYSHOT?

Someespressomachinemanufacturersofferpressuresofupto 18 bar, suggesting this improves the quality of theextraction.Theoptimumpressureforespressois8to10bar;if it is > 10 bar, there is a risk of overextraction of thegrounds,yieldingabittercoffee.Professionalmachinesareset to 9 bar by installers, and serious domestic machinescomewithabuilt-inpressurelimiterincasethepumphasatendency to become overzealous. So don’t let yourself beimpressedbyhighnumbers!

BUTWHATISPRESSURE?

Pressure is a force that acts on a surface. Its unit ofmeasurement is the bar, with 1 bar equal to the pressureexerted by a mass of 1 kg on an area of 1 cm2.We findexamples of different pressure levels in daily life:atmospheric pressure, that is, the pressure of the air thatsurrounds us (approximately 1 bar); submarine pressure,which increases by 1 bar for every 10 m (33 ft) you godown;cartirepressure(2bar);publicworkswaterpressure(3bar),etc.

EXPERT

HOWTOMAINTAINASTABLETEMPERATURE

Espressomachinesarefittedwithoneortwoboilerstoheatthewater.Boilersarecategorizedaccordingtovolume,andtheirjobistoincreasethetemperatureofthewater.Whilenearlyallboilermechanismsuseanelectricelement(nowadays,gasmodelsaregenerallyonlyusedincountriesthatdonothaveastable,effectivepublic

electricalnetwork),therearevariousdifferenttechniquesforobtainingbothhotwaterandsteamatthesametime.

HeatexchangerFirstusedin1961ontheFAEMAE61, theheatexchangerworksonthesameprincipleasthebain-marie.Asingleboilerwithacapacityofseveralpintsisheatedto270°Ftoproducesteamandheatsthewaterenteringviathe heat exchanger, which is simply a thin, submerged tube. The heatexchangerreceivescoldwaterfromthewaterreservoirorthewatermains,

andbrings it to the right temperature for extracting the coffeedrink fromthegrounds.

SingleboilerThe system could not be simpler. In coffeemode, the boiler provides anideal temperature of 198°F for making espresso. In steam mode, thetemperature is increasedbyabout122°F inorder togenerate thesteamtofroththemilkforacappuccino,forexample.

DoubleboilerThis is themost advanced technology, first employedbyLaMarzocco in1970. This works on the principle that you have one boiler dedicated tocoffeebrewingandtheothertosteamgeneration.

WHATABOUTTHERMOBLOCKMACHINES?

The thermoblock is a narrow coil equipped with a

heating element that flash-heats the water passingthrough it. The benefit with this method is that theheating time is massively reduced. The machine isready to use in two to threeminutes, compared to atleast thirtyminutes foraboilermachine.However, itslackofthermalstabilitymeansitonlytendstobeusedin entry-level domestic machines and capsulemachines.Notrecommended,then!

INANUTSHELL

FOR

TAKENOTE

SINGLEBOILERDomesticespressomachinesWell-designedtechnicalsolution,highlyefficientintermsofextraction,withastabletemperature.•Impossibletogeneratesteamwhilebrewinganespresso.•Youhavetowaitseveralminutesbeforeyoucanproducesteam,andwaitforthewatertocooldownagainafterwardifyouwanttobrewmorecoffees.Optforabrassboiler,ratherthananaluminumone,withacapacityofatleast10flozforoptimumperformance(bestthermalinertia).

HEATEXCHANGERThemajorityofprosumerandprofessionalmachines•Simultaneouscoffeeandsteamfunctions.•Itssmallcapacitymeanstheinfusionwaterisconstantlyrenewed.•Thetemperatureofthewaterheatedinthiswaymayvarybyseveraldegreesonexitfromthegrouphead.•Theextractiontemperatureisdependentonthatofthesteamboiler.

•Theextractiontemperatureisdependentonthatofthesteamboiler.Theheatexchanger’ssmallvolumemakesitvulnerabletolimescale.

DOUBLEBOILERThetop-performingprosumerandprofessionalmachinesThefactthatithastwoindependentboilersmeansyoudon’thavetosettleforacompromiseintermsofsteampowerversusextractiontemperature(extremelystable).Thecost,assomepartsareduplicated(boilers,heatingelements,etc.).Thewaterinthecoffeeboilerisrefreshedlessfrequentlythaninaheatexchanger,butthisnolongerposesahealthissuethankstoimprovementsinthequalityofpublicwaterandfiltrationsystems.

DIGITALTEMPERATURECONTROL

This technologywas launched on themarket in 2005byLaMarzocco in response to an initiativebyDavidSchomer, pioneer of specialty coffee and founder ofEspresso Vivace in Seattle. Together they developedelectronic temperature controllers, known as PID(proportional, integral, and derivative) controllers, forespresso machine boilers. This system offers betterthermal stabilityand the facility toaccurately regulatethe extraction temperature with the aid of a digitalcontrol panel. This technology is becomingincreasingly common in prosumer and professionalmachines.

THEBARISTA’SROUTINE

Thesearetheactionsthebaristaperformsoverandovereachday.

SETTINGTHEMACHINETIMER

Not allmachines comewith a function for setting the start-up time.Theotherwayistouseasmalltimerpluggeddirectlyintothepowersocket,whichissettowakeupthecoffeemachinebeforetherestofthehousehold.

In the case of professional machines, it is more environmentallyfriendlytoleavethemconstantlyswitchedon,becauseittakesthemavery long time to heat up. Some machines offer an eco-friendly,money-saving standby function that allows the temperature to dropslightlyduringthenight.

Warm-uptime

Allpartsof theespressomachinehavetobehot.This takesat least thirty

minutesforadomesticmachineandonehourforacommercialone.Don’tgobythelight!Itindicatesthetemperatureofthewater,notofthemachineitself.Note:Theportafilterneedstobeattachedtothegroupheadsothatitheatsuptoo.Similarly,thecupsneedtobeplacedonthecup-warmingtray.

Dosing,distribution,andtamping

Dosing and distribution involve taking freshly ground coffee from thegrinder and placing it in the basket of the portafilter, which you havealready wiped with a cloth, then leveling the coffee grounds, withoutcompressing them, using one’s fingers or a tool or by tapping theportafilter.Verylightleveling,delicatelycompactingatthesametime.Firmer compacting exerting a pressure of around33 lb, keepingone’s

armasverticalaspossible.Takecarenottomakeanycracksinthegroundsbypressingtoohard!Polishingthesurfacebyrotatingthetamperunderitsownweight.

USINGABARISTA-STYLEDOSINGGRINDER

Baristas do not fill up the doser with ground coffee, as the coffeewould then deteriorate.Theyuse it as a single doser by running thegrinderandactivelyshakingthelevertofilltheportafilter.

TAMPERS

Thetamperisatoolthebaristauses.Tampersareavailableinvariousmaterials with handles of different shapes and lengths for differentrequirements.Thediameterofthebasehastomatchthatofthebasket.Standardprofessionaltampershaveadiameterof58mm.

Purge

Waterispassedthroughthedistributionscreen(the“showerscreen”inthegroup) for two or three seconds before locking the portafilter in place inorder to stabilize the extraction temperature in machines with a heatexchanger, but above all to purge the shower screen of any particles ofcoffeeleftbehindfromthelastextraction.

Extraction

The extraction of the espresso must be initiated immediately once thehandleislockedintothegrouptopreventthecoffeegroundsfromcooking.Itisalsoadvisabletocheckbeforehandthatthegasketfaceandthelugsoftheportafilterareclean.

Emptying

Thepuckofcoffeeisemptiedintothe“knockbox,”adumpboxprovidedforthispurpose.Thenallthatremainsistowipeoutthefilterwithaspecialclothtogetridofanyresidueleftbehind.

Consumption

Theespressoisdrunkrightaway.Nowthedaycanbegin!

THESTRENGTHOFTHEESPRESSO

Concentration,strength,intensity,extractionlevel:here’saguidetousingthecorrectterminologyandunderstandingwhatitrefersto.

Thedegreeofextractiondeterminesthebalanceoftheespresso.

Therearetwohazardstoavoid:

UNDEREXTRACTION(LEVEL<18%)=THEESPRESSOHASAFLAT,SOURTASTE

OVEREXTRACTION(LEVEL>22%)=

BITTEROREVENASTRINGENTCOFFEE

Thedegreeofconcentrationdeterminesthestrength,ortasteintensity,oftheespresso.

theespresso.

TDSOFBETWEEN5AND8%

=ALUNGO(LONG),INOTHERWORDS,AVERYDILUTEESPRESSO

TDSOFBETWEEN8AND12%

=ACLASSIC/NORMALORREGULARESPRESSO

TDSOFBETWEEN12AND18%

=ARISTRETTO,INOTHERWORDS,AVERYCONCENTRATEDESPRESSO

TDS

TheconcentrationofsolidsinthefinaldrinkisknownasTDS:totaldissolvedsolids.It’sanabbreviationyou’resuretocomeacrossalotifyoustarttakinganinterestincoffeefromthetechnicalside!

STYLESOFESPRESSO

Espressoisnotjustespresso.Itcomesinmanyforms.Short,long…thewayinwhichitisprepareddiffersbyregion,butalso,firstandforemost,accordingtoindividualtaste.

THESHORTERTHEESPRESSO,THEFULLERBODIEDANDMOREPOTENTITIS.

LongblackIfyoupreferanespressothatislighterthana lungowithoutthegroundsbeingoverextracted, the answer is the long black. This style of coffee originated inAustraliaandNewZealand.Itismadebypullinganespressointoacupprefilledwithhotwater.Thismakesthecoffeemoredilute,butitremainsbalancedandkeepsitscrema.

AmericanoAnAmericanoisanespressolengthenedwithwaterafterextraction.

Thecremadissipates,makingitlighterthanalongblack.Itderivesitsnamefrom theGIsbased in Italyat theendof theSecondWorldWar,whomadeahabitoflengtheningtheirespressowithhotwater.

EXPERT

ESPRESSOBYTHENUMBERS

Brewinganespressoisonething,butimprovingandfine-tuningitisquiteanother.Itcallsforbothknowledgeandexperience,becausethereareawholehostoffactorsthatcomeintoplay.“Calibration”isthetermusedtorefertoalltheadjustmentsmadetothevarious

parametersthatcontributetoasuccessfulbrew.

IntheoryItwasAchilleGaggia,theinventoroftheleverespressomachine,whosetthe values of these parameters in 1947. Only the dose of ground coffee,initially set at 7 g per cup, has been revised up. The other values haveremainedunchangedforthelastseventyyears!

InpracticeWhen setting the parameters for the extraction of the espresso on atraditional machine, you should always use the two-cup basket. Whenswitching to a one-cup basket, all you need to do is divide the dose ofgroundcoffeeinhalf,asthevolumepercupandtheextractiontimestaythesame.Butanespressobrewedwith theone-cupportafilterwill alwaysbeless flavorfulbecause thegroupof themachine isdesignedfora two-cupbasket.

THEFIVEPARAMETERSTHATHAVEANIMPACTARE:

THEDOSEOFGROUNDCOFFEE

Thedoseofgroundsaffects thebodyandstrengthofflavorof thecoffee.Reducing the dose makes the espresso blander. The standard weightspecifiedbyAchilleGaggiaof14gforthetwo-cupbaskethasbeenrevisedupovertheyearstoaround18g,witharangeof16gto20g,dependingonthecoffeebean(variety,terroir,roastlevel,freshness)andthedesiredshotvolume.

ACCURATETOATENTHOFAGRAM!

Espressoisthemostunforgivingcoffee-brewingmethod.Thedoseofgroundsneedstobeaccuratetoatenthofagram!Acoffeescoop(7g)is not accurate enough because it does not take into account thefineness/coarseness of the grind, and not all coffees have the samedensity.

Thesefrustrationscanbeavoidedbyusingscalestoweighoutthegroundcoffee.Ifyouuseadoserlessgrinderequippedwithatimer,itispossibletoprogramthedoseofgroundsproduced,butyouhavetoadjustthefinenessfirst.

THESHOTVOLUME

It is difficult tomeasure accurately the total volumeof coffeebecauseofthevariationinthethicknessofthecrema.Thatiswhyvolumeismeasuredintermsofmass(1g=about1.5mlwithcrema).

ALITTLESETOFPRECISIONSCALESACCURATETO1/10OFA

GRAMISPERFECT!

FOREACHSTYLEOFESPRESSO,THEREISARATIOBETWEENTHEMASSOFTHESHOTOFCOFFEEANDTHEINITIALDOSE

OFGROUNDS.

THE GRIND SIZE AND EXTRACTION

TIME

To produce a balanced espresso, the coffee flow time has to be betweentwenty and thirty seconds. The count starts at themoment the extractionbutton is pressed, and the first droplets come out of the spouts on theportafilterfivetotensecondslater.

Grindsizeproblemsandsolutions:

TEMPERATURE

Adjusting the temperature enables you to influence the rate of extractionand the balance of sour/bitter flavors. The right temperature depends onseveralvariables.

•Theroast levelof thecoffeebeans:Ahigh temperature facilitatestheextractionof thearomaticcomponentsand tempers the sournessofalightlyroastedbean;amediumtemperaturelimitsthebitternessofanoverroastedbean.

•Thedensityofthebean:Adensevarietylikebourbonwilltolerateahigh temperaturebetter thana largebean likepacamara,whichwillburnmoreeasily.

•Thedoseofgrounds:The fall in the temperatureof the extractionwaterisproportionaltothegrammage.

•The length of the shot: The risk of burning the grounds increaseswiththeamountofwaterthatpassesthroughthem.

TEMPERATURESTABILITY

An unstable machine means you are unable to serveseveralidenticalespressosinsuccession.Thisconcern,much discussed in the 1990s, has attracted lessattention in recent times, yet temperature remains afundamentalfactoraffectingthetaste:evenanamateurtaster is able to tell the difference between twoespressospulledwithatemperaturedifferentialoflessthan2°F!

ACOMBINATIONOFTRIAL&ERRORANDEXPERIENCEWILLHELPYOUGETGOODATANTICIPATINGANDIMPROVINGTHE

EXTRACTIONTEMPERATURE.

BaristatipsGoodpractices

•Unlessotherwiseindicatedonthecoffeebag,baseyourcalculationsonaveragevalues.

•Varytheparametersoneatatimetoallowyoutoproperlyassesstheeffectofeachone.

•Notedownthetasteresultsfollowingeachadjustment.Ultimatelyitisthepalatethatwilljudgehowwellbalancedtheshotofcoffeeis!

LearntoreadthecoffeeresidueThetracesofcaffeolleftinthebottomofthebasketafterthepuckofcoffeehasbeenemptiedoutareanindicatorofthedegreeofextraction,whichcanbecross-checkedwiththeotherparametersandtheresultinthecup.

UNDEREXTRACTED

BALANCED

OVEREXTRACTED

RECAPOFAVERAGEVALUES

AsalastresortIfyoufindyourcoffeetoosourevenafteradjustingtheparameters,thereisa trick that works equally well with all espresso machines (automatic,capsule,etc.):letthefirstdropsthatcomeoutofthemachinedripoutsidethecup.Thishastheeffectofrebalancingthecoffeeflavorsslightly.

EXPERT

ESPRESSOMAP

Thismapsummarizesandsetsoutvisuallytheeffectofthevariousparametersontheextractionrate,theconcentration,andtheresultinthecup.

Howtoreadthemap

•THEHORIZONTALAXISSHOWSTHEDEGREEOFEXTRACTION,WHICH

DETERMINESTHESOUR/BITTERBALANCEOFTHECOFFEE.

•THEVERTICALAXISSHOWSTHEDEGREEOFCONCENTRATION:FROM

AMILDCOFFEETOASTRONGCOFFEE.

•ONTHEDIAGONAL,THEPARAMETERS:

DOSEOFCOFFEEGROUNDS

SHOTVOLUME

EXTRACTIONTIME(GRINDSIZE)

TEMPERATURE

ROASTLEVEL

EXTRACTIONPRESSURE

NotethatincreasingtheweightofthecoffeegroundsproducesanincreaseinTDS,but reduces thedegreeofextraction.Conversely, lengthening the

espresso,andthereforeincreasingthevolumeinthecup,makesthecoffeemilder (lower TDS), but also bitterer (higher degree of extraction).Increasing the other adjustable parameters (extraction time andtemperature)bringsthestrengthandbitternessofthecoffeetothefore.

Thebalancedzonesare locatedaroundtheverticalaxis.Dependingonthe desired concentration, the espresso’s representative dot needs to belocatedwithin theristretto, espresso,or lungo zone. If theespresso isnotcorrectlycalibrated,itsrepresentativedotwillbelocatedoutside,inoneoftheeightperipheralzonesrepresentingspecificsymptoms.Thebaristacanadjusttheparametersinsuchawayastobringtheespresso’srepresentativedotbackwithinthebalancedzone.

ExamplesTheexamples are representedby the coloreddotson the chart.Adjustingone of the parameters causes the dot to move along the axis of theparameterinquestion.

ACOFFEEWHOSEPARAMETERSHAVENOTBEENPROPERLYMANAGED

Solution:Reduce the extraction time to bring the coffee into the Espresso zone,and/orreducetheshotvolumetobringthecoffeeintotheRistrettozoneifyouareafteratighterbrew.

ADILUTE,BITTERCOFFEE:FRENCH-STYLE!

Solution:Reduce the shot volume (shorter coffee) and increase the dose of coffeegrounds.ThiswouldmovethebluedotintotheEspressozoneinthecenterofthechart.

ACOFFEETHATISBALANCEDBUTOVERLYCONCENTRATED

Thedegreeofextractioniscorrect.

Solution:Increase the shot volume and reduce the flow time to counteract themechanicalincreaseinthedegreeofextraction.ThedotwillthenmoveintotheRistrettozoneoreventheEspressozone,dependingonthesizeoftheadjustment.

ITDOESN’TTASTERIGHT!WHY?

“I’vebeentryingformonthsnowtoproduceagoodespressoathome.I’vetriedeverything.I’vechangedthemachine,thecoffee,thewater.Itmakesnodifference;mycoffeeisstillnothinglikethepetitnoirIgottoenjoywhentravelinginFrance…”Doyousufferthesamefrustration?Abadespressoisnottheendoftheworld.It’spossibletopinpointwhat’scausingtheproblemand,

aboveall,figureouthowtofixit.

Itishardfortheuninitiatedtofindtherightwordstodescribetheshortcomingsofabadcoffee,except tosaywithcertainty that it isnogood.Abadespressomay lack body, or may be overly bitter, sour, or pungent, offering little ornothinginthewayofaromas,andanonexistentfinish.

Coffeeisaproduct thatdoesnot toleratemediocrity,particularlywhenit isbrewedasanespresso.Theprocessofbringing thegroundcoffee intocontactwithhotwaterunderhighpressureexertsharshforcesonthecoffeeandquicklybringsoutthequalitiesofthebean…butalsoitsfaults.Hence,everyaspectofitspreparationmatters.

Amachinethatisunderperforming,notproperlylookedafter,maladjusted,

orfaulty

Althoughespressomachineshavebecomeapopularappliancetohaveathome,not all machines are equal, and it is essential to look after them properly. Inparticular, the internal components need to be kept free of coffee oil, and thepipeworkneedstobeprotectedfromlimescale.

GOTOHEREFORHOWTOLOOKAFTERYOURMACHINE.

Coldorunsuitablecups

Theimpactofthedrinkingvesselistoooftenunderestimated.Aswithwinesorspirits,theshape,size,temperature,andmaterialofthecupplayimportantpartsinhowtheflavorsandfragrancesofthecoffeeareperceived.

GOTOHERETOCHOOSEYOURCUP.

Nocoffeegrinder

Unlike coffee beans, which maintain their qualities for several days once the

package has been opened, ground coffee can lose its aromas in a matter ofminutes, as theoxidation rate increases considerablydue to thegroundsbeingexposedtotheair.Oxidizedcoffeewillnevermakeagoodcoffee.Soitisvitaltohaveacoffeegrinder,andspecificallyaburrcoffeegrinder,alongsideyourespresso machine. It allows you to obtain fresh ground coffee, ground to theidealfineness,perfectforbrewingapetitnoirjustthewayyoulikeit.

GOTOHERETOCHOOSETHERIGHTGRINDER.

Agrinderthatisfaultyornotproperlylookedafter

The coffee beans regularly passing through the grinder leave behind oilydeposits(caffeol)betweentheburrsandaroundthegrindchamber.Overtime,arancid flavormaycontaminate the freshgrounds,and theburrswilleventuallywearout.Soitisvitaltocleanyourgrinderasregularlyasyoudoyourespressomachine.

GOTOPAGEHEREFORHOWTOLOOKAFTERYOURGRINDER.

Extractionparametersnotsetcorrectly

The extraction of coffee under high pressure is a sophisticated process, theparametersofwhichmustbecorrectlyandaccuratelyset.Indeed,thewholeartof thebaristaconsistsofachievingtherightcalibrationinordertoproducethebestpossibleespresso.Masteryoftheseparameterscomeswithexperience,andacertainamountoftrialanderror.

GOTOPAGESHERETOLEARNHOWTOBREWCOFFEEBYNUMBERS.

RoastingissuesRoasting involves cooking the green coffee beans at high temperature. If thebeansarenotroastedforlongenough,theespressoisliabletobeflatandsour.Conversely,abeanthathasbeenoverroastedwillproduceabittercoffee.

GOTOHERETOFINDOUTABOUTROASTINGANDITSIMPLICATIONS.

PoorcoffeebeansCoffeebeanscultivatedwithoutduecareinaterroirwithoutcharacterwillneverproduce an exceptional coffee.Abalanceddrink is the best one canhope for.Optforagoodcoffee.Youcanalwaysaskforadviceifneedbe.

GOTOHERETODISCOVERTHEFINESTCOFFEEBEANS.

Coffeethatisnotveryfresh…oristoofresh!

Onceroasted,thecoffeebeanretainsitssensoryqualitiesforseveralmonthsinasealedbag.Afterthatitbecomesrancid.Afreshlyroastedcoffeeisnotidealforconsumption,either:theCO2thatdevelopsduringroastingcancauseextractionproblems,withlargebubblesvisibleintheflow.Toobtainbetterresults inthecup,youhave towaitat leastoneweekfor thecoffeebeans todegasand losetheirslightlymetallictaste.

GOTOHERETOFINDOUTHOWTOSTOREYOURCOFFEEPROPERLY

MILK,COFFEE&LATTEART

Thegentlecombinationofmilkandcoffeeopensupallkindsofservingoptionsdesignedtomaximizeboththetasteexperienceandthevisualappeal

FoamingthemilkWhenmakingmilkydrinks,themilkneedstobefrothedup.Itissimultaneouslyaerated, heated, and homogenized using the steam wand on the espressomachine. The resulting foam should display a dense, velvety texture, withbubblessotinythattheyareinvisibletothenakedeye.

WHOLEMILKORUNPASTEURIZEDMILK,3.5%FAT.SKIMMEDANDSEMI-SKIMMEDMILKDONOTPRODUCEACREAMYENOUGHFOAM.

STAINLESSSTEELPITCHERSFORTHEIRHEAT-CONDUCTINGPROPERTIES:

•ONE10FLOZPITCHER=1CAPPUCCINO•ONEPINTPITCHER=2CAPPUCCINOS

Themethod

Fill thepitcherhalfway,nomatterwhat itssize(up toabout½inchbelowthespout).

Tiltthesteamwandoutataslightanglefromthevertical.Purgeit.

Guide the steamwand into the spoutof thepitcher.Thenozzle should sit justbelow thesurfaceof themilk,halfwaybetween thecenterand theedgeof thepitcher.Placeonehandonthepitcherhandleandtheotherunderneathittokeepitinpositionandenableyoutofeeltheriseintemperature.

Phase1:Turnonthesteamtostartincorporatingairintothemilk.Characteristicwhistlingsound.Themilkincreasesinvolume.Phase2:Position thesteamwandslightly lowerso thewhistlingstops. In thissecondphase,theemulsionishomogenizedasaresultofthewhirlingeffect,andthemilkisheatedto140–149°F.Takeyourhandawaywhenthepitcherstartsto

feelburninghot.

Tapthepitcheronthecounter toriditofanybubbles,andfinishwithabroadswirl to “polish” themilk, giving it a silky surface sheen. It should have thetextureofheavycream.

Wipe the steam wand with a cloth provided for that purpose and purge it toremoveanymilkresidue.

TROUBLESHOOTING

Foamtoothick?Toomuchairwasincorporatedinthefirstphase.Foam that looks likehotmilk?The initialwhistlingphasewasnotlongenough.

Theclassicmilk-pouringmethodIncorporatingthefoamedmilkintoaready-pulledespressodemandsaparticulartechnique: themilkhas to flowunder thecoffee tomake thecoffeerise to thesurface; thefirstflavoryoushouldnoticewhenyousip thedrinkis thatof thecoffee.

AGOODFOAM

Test thevolumeof the foamwith thebackofa spoon: thefoam must be at least ½ inch thick, and it should have aflexible,creamytexture.

THEHEART

Thisdesignisacappuccinovariantusingtheclassicpourandisfairlysimpletocraft.

THETULIP

Thetuliprequiresalittlemoreskill,asthemilkfoamispouredinseveralstages.

THEROSETTA

Therosettaisthehardestofthebasicpatternstoproduce.Itneedsperfectlyfoamedmilk,dexterity…andseveralhoursofpractice!

CAPPUCCINO&CO.

Cappuccinoisthearchetypalmilkycoffee-baseddrink.ThecappuccinointheformweknowtodayhasitsoriginsinItaly.Ithasavelvetytexture,andthemostcomplexcoffeearomas

aretransformedintosimpler,moreaccessibleflavors(caramel,chocolate,etc.).

ItsnameissaidtohavederivedfromthecoloroftherobesoftheCapuchinmonkMarco d’Aviano, who invented the cappuccino in thewake of thebattleofViennain1683.

1Pullashotofespresso(½to1½floz)intoa5to6flozcup.2Foam5flozofmilkina10flozpitcher.3Pourthefoamedmilkintotheespresso.

WITHORWITHOUTCHOCOLATE?

A cappuccino is traditionally prepared plain. But it is possible todecorate it with chocolate shavings or cocoa powder. If you createlatte art on your cappuccino, sprinkle cocoa powder on the espressobeforeyoupourinthemilkfoam.

FlatwhiteOriginallyfromAustraliaandNewZealand,theflatwhiteisacappuccinowithafinermilkfoam.Traditionallypreparedwithtwoshotsofespresso,ithasastrongercoffeeflavor.

6FLOZCUP

1Pulltwoshotsofespressointoabouta6flozcup.2Foam5flozofmilkina10flozpitcher.Setthepositionofthenozzlesothatyouincorporatelessairthanforacappuccinofoam,givingyouadenser,lessfluffytexture.

3Pourthefoamedmilkintothecoffee.

BabyccinoThe babyccino is a coffee-free drink, intended for children, consisting ofmilkandmilkfoam.Itappearedonthesceneinthe1990sinAustralianandNewZealand coffee shops,where customerswould come and bring theirchildren.

7FLOZGLASS

1Foam5flozofmilkina10flozpitcher(heatingthemilklessthanfora

cappuccino).2Pourthefoamedmilkintothecuporglass.3Sprinklewithcocoapowder.

CaffèlatteThecaffèlatteinItaly,orlatteintheEnglish-speakingworld,issimilartotheflatwhitebutcomesinamuchlargercup.

7TO10FLOZCUP

1Pulloneortwoshotsofespressointoa7to10flozcup,dependingonthedesiredstrengthofthecoffee.

2Foam9flozofmilkina1pintpitcher.Setthepositionofthenozzlesothatyouincorporatelessairthanforacappuccinofoam,soastoachieveadenser,lessfluffytexture.

3Pourthefoamedmilkintothecoffee.

MacchiatoThe macchiato, which means “stained” or “spotted” in Italian, is anespressotoppedwithalayerofmilkfoam.

3FLOZGLASS

1Pulloneshotofespressointoabouta3flozglass.2Foamupasmallamountofmilkinasmallpitcher.3Placeoneortwocoffee-spoonfulsofmilkfoamontheespresso.

LattemacchiatoThelattemacchiatoisavariationonthecaffèlatteinwhichtheespressoispoured into themilk foam. It is served in a largeglass,which allows thedrinkertoappreciatethedifferentlayersofthedrink.

12FLOZCUP

1Foam8to10flozofmilkina1pintpitcher.Setthepositionofthenozzlesothatyouincorporateplentyofairtoachieveafluffymilkfoam.Pourthefoamintotheglass.

2Pulloneshotofespressointoasmall3½flozstainlesssteelorchinapitcher.

3Pourtheespressocarefullyintotheglass:thedifferentdensitiesoftheingredientsresultintheformationofdifferentlayers.

CortadoA cortado, from the Spanish cortar, meaning “to cut,” is similar to aFrench café noisette. It is an espresso with a dash of hot milk. In itscontemporaryversion, themilk is foamed,whichmakes it akindofminicappuccinowithahigherconcentrationofcoffee(aboutone-thirdespressoandtwo-thirdsmilk).

3FLOZGLASS

1Pulloneshotofespressointoabouta3flozglass.2Foamupasmallamountofmilkina10flozpitcher.3Pourthefoamedmilkintotheespresso.

AffogatoAcrossbetweenadrinkandadessert,theaffogatoisagourmetrecipethatissimpletomakeandcombineshotandcold.

7FLOZCUP

1Placeascoopofvanillaicecreaminthebottomofa7flozglass.2Extractadoubleespressodirectlyontothescoopoficecream.

IrishCoffeeIn an Irish coffee, the fruitiness and lightness of Irish whiskey marrybeautifullywith the coffee. The creamneeds to bewell chilled so that itcoolsthebeveragedown.Irishcoffeeisnotmixedwithanything:itshouldbeconsumedonitsown.

7FLOZGLASS

1Brew3½flozoffiltercoffeeinaFrenchpress.2Dissolvetwocoffee-spoonfulsofbrownsugarin1½flozofIrishwhiskeyheatedinadoubleboiler(oraheatproofbowlsetoverapanof

simmeringwater).3Pourthecoffeeintotheglass(warmedbeforehandwithhotwatertopreventtheglassfrombreakingduetothermalshock)andstirinthewhiskey.

4Whipheavycreamlightly.Carefullyfloatitonthesurfaceofthecoffeeusingthebackofaspoon.

CaféaulaitThe equivalent of Proust’smadeleine formany coffee enthusiasts,whosefirstexperienceofcoffeeintheiryouthcameintheshapeofthisdrink,thecaféaulaitistotheFrenchwhatthecappuccinoistotheItalians.Aclassic.

18FLOZBOWL

1Brew7flozoffiltercoffee,preferablyusingaFrenchpress.2Heat7flozofmilkinasaucepanoveragentleheat,oralternatively

usingthesteamwandonyourespressomachine,toatemperatureofapproximately149°F.

3Pourthecoffeeandthemilkintoabowl.

CappuccinofrappéThisisafreeinterpretationofthecappuccinoinaniced,whippedversion.

7FLOZGLASS

1Foam5flozofmilkina10flozpitcherandpourthefoamedmilkontoashotofespresso(½to1½floz).

2Pour½ozofsugarsyrupintoasmall3½flozstainlesssteelorchina

pitcher.3Pourthecappuccinoandthesugarintoashakerfilledwith3ozoficecubes.Thenshakevigorouslyfor30seconds.

4Pourintoa7flozglass,filteringouttheicecubes.

FILTERCOFFEE

Whilethereisonlyonewaytoproduceatrueespresso,thereareseveralmethodsofbrewingafiltercoffee,whichfallintotwocategories:immersionorfiltration.Thesearealsoreferredtoassloworgentlemethods,asopposedtotheultra-fast,harshmethodused

toprepareespresso.

ImmersionTheprincipleistomixthegroundcoffeewithhotwaterinacontainer,thenleave themincontact foracertainamountof time(betweenoneandfourminutes, depending on the method used). They are then separated toproduce a drinkable coffee. Thismethodmakes for easy, even extractionbecause the coffee particles infuse uniformly in the water, and does notrequireanyparticularskills.

FiltrationThis method involves extracting the coffee from the grounds, which areheld in a filter.The hotwaterwets and passes through the grounds, thenthrough the filter. The liquid containing the aromatic compounds and theoils runs down, under the effect of gravity, into a container placedunderneath,while the damp grounds remain in the filter. Contrary to theimmersionmethod,where the coffee/water contact time is controlled, thebrewingtimebythefiltrationmethoddependsonthespeedwithwhichthewaterispouredintothefilterbasket,andthefinenessofthecoffeegrounds.To ensure an even extraction, it is important to see that the grounds areuniformlywettedthroughouttheprocess.

Keyinformationforeachmethod

WHATYOUNEEDTOMAKEFILTERCOFFEE

Whetheryouchoosetobrewyourfiltercoffeebyimmersionorfiltration,youwillalwaysneedcoffee(ground),water(hot,usually),andafewutensils.Nowyoujustneedtofindyourideal

coffeemaker.

AGRINDER(SEEHERE)

ASPATULA,ASTIRRER

FILTERS

(SEEHERE)Madeofpaper,cloth,ormetal.Roundorcorrugated.Forsiphon

orV60.

SCALES

Asincakemaking,scalesareanindispensabletoolwhenitcomestopreparingafiltercoffee.Measuringoutthecoffeewithaspoonortheamountofwaterbyvolumeistooimprecise(waterchangesitsvolumeaccordingtoitstemperature).Measuringthecoffeedoseandthequantityofwaterbyweightismuchmoreaccurate.Forthisyouneedasetofscalesaccuratetoatenthofagram,withaplatformlargeenoughaccommodatethepitcherorthecoffeepotwhenyouareweighingoutthequantityofwatertobeaddedtothecoffee.

WATER

(SEEHERE)Whatevercoffeemakeryouareusing,makesureyouatleast

usefresh,filteredwater.

ATIMER

AKETTLE

AKETTLE

ACUP,AMUG,AGLASS

(SEEHERE)

Amust:agooseneckkettleYouwon’tbeabletoproperlyprepareacoffeebythefiltrationmethodunlessyouhaveaspecialkettlewithagooseneckpouringspout.Thisgivesyoumuchbettercontroloftheflowofwaterthanatraditionalkettle,makingforuniformextraction.TherearesomeverygoodkettlesavailablefromHarioandBonavita,whichevenofferonefeaturingatemperatureregulatoraccurateto1degree.

AflowrestrictorTocontrolthepourevenmorepreciselyandkeepitevenmoreconstant,youcanaddaflowrestrictor,anaccessorythatisparticularlyusefulwhenyouarebrewingwithaHarioV60andisreadilyavailableontheInternet.

Theidealcoffeemaker

FILTERCOFFEE:THETASTINGEXPERIENCE

Filtercoffee,justlikeespresso,canbetastedandevaluatedaccordingtoclearlydefinedcriteria.Longregardedasaninferioroption,filtercoffeeistoday

enjoyingawell-deservedresurgence.

Sensations

ThecolorofthecoffeeThequalityofthedrinkingvesselfromwhichyoudrinkyourfiltercoffeehas less of an impact on how it tastes than in the case of an espresso.Aglassor a transparentmugallowsyou toappreciate thecolorof the filtercoffee,andhencetheroastlevelofthecoffeebeans:•Dark-roastedbeansproduceadark-colored,deepbrowntoblackfiltercoffee.•Light-roastedbeansproducealightbrowntoredbrew.

ThenoseThe fragrance that emanates from the filter coffeemust be pleasant,withfruity, floral, or nutty notes. Any other note would tend to be deemed anegativeattribute.

ThetasteOfthefiveprimary tastes, themost important for filtercoffee isprobablysourness, as it lends the coffee vibrancy and freshness, is associatedwith

positive fruity notes, andgives depth to the coffee.However, this aciditymustbeoftherighttype(quinicacidisassociatedwithastringency,aceticacid gives a tart flavor, etc.—see here) and not overly intense; otherwiseunpleasantsensationscouldbetransmitted.

ThearomasThearomaticrangeofafiltercoffeeisbroaderthanthatofan espresso. The aromas can be grouped into a number ofcategories: floral, fruity, grassy, nutty, caramelized,chocolaty,medicinal,spicy,andsmoky.

As with an espresso, the aromas of a filter coffee(perceivedbyretronasalolfaction)supplementthefragrance(perceivedbythenose),butthesearomasarenotnecessarilyidenticaltothoseofanespresso(seehere).

ThebodySince a filter coffee is ten times less concentrated than anespresso,thenotionofbodyisnotjudgedonthesamescale.Theelementsthatcontributetoitsbodyarethecomponentsnot dissolved by thewater,which remain in suspension inthedrink (sediments andoils), giving it thickness.Body isfirstandforemosta tactilefeelinginthemouththatcanbedescribed as creamy, heavy, thick, light, weak, or watery.Whether the body is weak or highly intense, this feelingmustbepleasantandenjoyable.

TheflavorObviously, a filter coffeedoesnotoffer the same strength,or as much body, viscosity, and concentration as anespresso. Instead it is appreciated for its fineness, itsdelicacy, its length on the palate, its pleasant sourness, itssilkybody,andthetransparencyofitsflavors.Thetastingofafiltercoffeecanbelikenedtoalong,relaxingjourneythattransportsyouintoexpansivelandscapesalivewithdetail.

WHATISACOMPLEXCOFFEE?

A complex coffee is one that, on tasting, offers a rich array of positiveflavors(floral,fruity,spicy,etc.)atdifferenttemperatures,andabalancedand varied sensory experience (itmay bewell-rounded, tangywith some

sweetness,etc.).

EXAMPLEOFATASTINGFORM

NAME:KamwangiAA(Kenya)

VARIETY:SL28,SL34,K7,andRiuri11

DRYING:wet

ROASTDATE:03/15/16

TASTINGDATE:03/25/16

PREPARATIONMETHOD:V60

NOSE

POSITIVES

NUTS

REDFRUIT

STONEFRUITVEGETAL

TROPICALFRUITCITRUSFLORALSPICY

NEGATIVES

TOBACCOBURNTVEGETAL

WOODY

NOTES:honey,jam

AROMAS

POSITIVES

NUTS

REDFRUITSTONEFRUIT

VEGETAL

TROPICALFRUITCITRUSFLORALSPICY

NEGATIVE

TOBACCOBURNTVEGETAL

WOODY

NOTES:blackcurrant,gooseberry,marzipan

BODY

BALANCE

CLEANCUP

LENGTHOFFINISH

LENGTHOFFINISH

ACIDITY

SWEETNESS

INTENSITY

FLAVOR,GENERALSENSATION

Sweetnose,withanelegant,mellow

acidity.Medium-bodied,up-front

aromasandcleancup.Alovely

Kenyancoffee.

COFFEEFILTERS

Preparingfiltercoffeeinvolvesbringinggroundcoffeeintocontactwithhotwater.Theliquidcontainingtheextractedmaterialpercolatesthroughandisseparatedfromthegroundsbymeans

ofafilter.

PaperfilterThe paper filter, invented by Melitta in 1908, is the filter most widely usedtoday.Itisinexpensiveandcomeseitherbleachedorunbleached.Theformerispreferable,becauseanunbleachedfilterhasamorenoticeablepapertaste.

ClothfilterTheclothfilter(usuallymadeofcotton), forerunnerof thepaperfilter,givesacleancupwithmoretexturethanapaperfilter.

Itretainsalltheinsolubleelementsaswellasmostofthecoffeeoils,givingthecleanest cup of all filter coffees,with the greatest flavor clarity. It is also theeasiesttofindinstores.

Itcanonlybeusedonceandneedstoberinsedwithwaterbeforehand,otherwiseitwilltransmitanunpleasantpapertastetothecoffee.

It is reusable, and retains a large proportion of the insoluble elements whileallowingsomeofthecoffeeoiltoseepthrough;thecoffeeobtainedinthiswayisbothrichandaromatic.

Aclothfilterneedscleaningaftereachuseandhastobestoredwetinasealedcontainerintherefrigerator.Ifnot, thefabricwillgiveoffbadsmells thatwillcontaminatethecoffeeduringbrewing.

MetalfilterMetalfiltersarenotjustreservedforespressomachines:theyareusedinsomecasesforbrewingfiltercoffeeaswell.Themetalfiltercontainsmassesofholesof a predefined diameter that let liquid through, but also sediment, insolubleelements,andcoffeeoils.

Easy toclean, reusable,andhasnoparticularstoragerequirements.Thecoffeefilteredbythismethodhasmoretexture,morebody,andisalsomoreopaque.

Flavorclarityisnotasgoodaswithothertypesoffilter.

Therightfilterforthecoffeemaker

THEFRENCHPRESS

TheFrenchpress,knownasthecafetièreinFrance,istheeasiesttypeofcoffeemakertouse.

This is the easiestmethod.Coffee brewed in aFrench press has a lot ofbodyandmoretexturethanthatpreparedbyotherslow-brewmethods.Itsonlyflawisthatitproducesacupthatisnotclean.

FILTERINGCOFFEEBREWEDINAFRENCHPRESS

Coffee brewed in a French press contains a great many particles insuspension.Foracoffeewithlesssediment,youcanfilteritusingacoffeefilter;youwillbeabletoseealltheinsolubleparticlesyouhaveremovedbydoing this.The resultingcoffeehas lessbody,but flavorperception isimproved.

Method

THEAEROPRESS

Inventedin2005byAlanAdler,thefounderofAerobie,Inc.,theAeropressisaplasticcoffeemakerthatisveryeasytouse.

BrewingisquickerthanwithaFrenchpress.Andthankstothepaperfilter,thereislesssedimentleftinthecup.

Methods

THECLEVERCOFFEEDRIPPER

Thiscoffeemaker,designedbytheTaiwanesecompanyABID(AbsolutelyBestIdeaDevelopment),combinestheimmersionandfiltrationmethods,buttheextractionitselfisprimarilybyimmersion.

Ofalltheimmersionmethods,thisistheonethatleavestheleastamountofsedimentinthecup.

Method

THESIPHON

Inventedinthe1830s,thisapplianceisalsoknownasa“vacpot.”Itisquiteanimpressive-lookingcontraption,andthemethodisequallyspectacular.

Thisproducesaverydelicatecupofcoffeethatisveryclean,withexcellentflavorclarity.

HAVEYOUJUSTBOUGHTASIPHON?READON!

TheHario siphon is supplied with an alcohol burner. This gives you nocontrol at all over theheat,which iswhy it is advisable to acquire a gasburner,whichenablesyoutofinelycontroltheheatandkeepitconstant

Method

THEHARIOV60

SoldbytheJapanesecompanyHario,theV60isacoffeedripperintheshapeofaV(atanangleof60degrees,henceitsname).

Thismethodoffersaneatcompromisebetweenbodyandflavorclarity

Method

THECHEMEX

TheChemex,inventedin1941byDr.PeterSchlumbohm,isacompletecoffeemakerintheshapeofanhourglass.Theupperpartisaportafilterandthelowerpartisacollectingvessel.

ThecoffeebrewedwiththeChemexdoesnothavemuchbody,butitisveryfine,withexcellentclarityofflavor.

FOLDINGTHECHEMEXFILTER

ThepaperfilterfortheChemexisthickerthanotherpaperfiltersandneedsto be folded asymmetrically so that you end up with one layer of filterpaperononesideofthebrewerandthreelayersontheotherside.Foran

alternativefoldmethod,followthestepsshownopposite.

Method

FOLDING YOUR CHEMEX FILTER:ORIGAMIWORKSHOP

THEKALITAWAVE

TheKalitaWave,aJapaneseproduct,isaflat-bottomedcoffeedripperwiththreesmallholesinthebottom.Itisusedwithaspecialscallopedfilter.

The coffee produced with this coffee maker is full-bodied, with well-developedflavors.

Method

THEMOKAPOT

ThiscoffeemakerwasinspiredbyLouisBernardRabaut’s“washingmachine”coffeemakerinventedin1820.Patentedin1933byAlfonsoBialetti,themokapotisalsoknownasthe“Italiancoffeemaker.”Bialettistillmanufacturesthesecoffeemakers,whichremainaspopularasever.Originallymadeofaluminum,themokapotisnowmadeofstainlesssteelandcomesinvarious

designsandsizes.

This coffee maker produces a strong, relatively concentrated coffee (highcoffee-to-waterratio)slightlyresemblinganespresso—althoughthepressurein a moka pot is around 1.5 bar at most, whereas an espresso machineoperatesatapressureof theorderof8 to10bar.Onaccountof itsdesignand the very high temperature the water is heated to, the moka pot has a

tendency to extract the bitter components of the coffee unless a fewprecautionsaretaken.

Method

THEELECTRICCOFFEEMAKER

Theelectriccoffeemakerwasinventedinthe1950s,butitwasonlyinthe1970sthatitreallycaughtonandbecamepopular.

Gives a balanced cup in which the acidity is less pronounced than with amanualV60.Thiscoffeecanalsobesaidtobelessdeveloped,withlessflavorcomplexity(theflavorsarenotsoclear-cut).

THAT’SGRAVITY!

The cold water from the reservoir is drawn by gravitytowardachamberwhereanelectricelementheatsthewatertomorethan194°F.Thehotwaterpassesthroughatubetoashowerscreen,fromwhichitdrizzlesslowlydownontotheground coffee sitting in a paper filter below. The coffeeextractedbygravitytricklesintoacarafeplacedbeneaththefilter basket,which sits on a hot plate to keep the brewedcoffeewarmastherestfiltersthrough.

Method

EXPERT

FILTERCOFFEEBYTHENUMBERS

Whatevermethodyouareusing,ifyouwanttobrewagoodfiltercoffee,therearecertainparametersyouneedtokeeptabson.Besidesthat,alittleexperienceandasenseof

curiosityareallyouneed…

ThegrindThefiner thegrind, thegreater thesurfacearea,andhencethegreater thesolubilityoncontactwithwater.

To craft a good filter coffee, the grind has to be coarser than forespresso, and above all as uniformly ground as possible: fine coffeeparticles tend to be overextracted on contactwith hotwater, producing abitternessinthemouthandinterferingwithone’sperceptionoftheflavors.The finenessof thegrindmustbeadjustedaccording to themethodused,the quantity of coffee (and therefore water), and the type of filter inquestion.

Adjustingthegrind

IMMERSIONMETHOD

ISSUE:Thecoffeeisbitter,astringent,anddry,withanunpleasantaftertaste.

EXPLANATION:Thecoffeeisoverextracted.

SOLUTION:Coarsergrind

ISSUE:Thecoffeeisoverlysourandsalty

EXPLANATION:Thecoffeeisunder-extracted.

SOLUTION:Finergrind

ThewatertemperatureMostofthecomponentsofthecoffeearemoresolubleathightemperature.Theoptimumtemperatureisbetween198–203°F.

AdjustingthetemperatureBoilingwaterwillburnthecoffee,whereasifthewaterisnothotenough,theflavorpotentialofthecoffeewillnotbefullyunlocked.

Thetemperaturealsoneedstobeadjustedaccordingtotheroastlevelofthebeans.

Darkroast:lowertemperature(198°Forevenlower)Lightroast:highertemperature(201–203°F).

FILTRATIONMETHOD

ISSUE:Thecoffeeisbitter,astringent,anddry,withanunpleasantaftertaste.

EXPLANATION:Thecoffeeisoverextracted.

SOLUTION:Coarsergrind,thenthecoffeewillpercolatemorequickly

ISSUE:Thecoffeeisoverlysourandflowsthroughtooquickly.

EXPLANATION:Thecoffeeisunder-extracted.

SOLUTION:Finergrind,thenthecoffeewillpercolatemoreslowly

Thecoffee/waterratioFiltercoffeeistentimeslessconcentratedthanespresso.Comparedtothe

latter,afiltercoffeeneedsasmallerdoseofcoffee,butalargerquantityofwater. Generally this ratio is 55–80 g of coffee per 1 liter (1¾ pints) ofwater.

Adjustingthedose

•Iftheratiois55gofcoffeeto1liter(1¾pints)ofwater,thecoffeeismild.

•Iftheratiois80gofcoffeeto1liter(1¾pints)ofwater,thecoffeeisstronger.

Increaseorreducethedoseofcoffeeperliterofwatertofindtheratiothatdeliversthebestresult.

TheextractiontimeThelengthoftimeduringwhichthecoffeeisincontactwiththewaterwilldetermine the amount ofmaterial that is extracted from the grounds andpresentinthefinalbrew.Abalanceneedstobestruckbetweenincludingasmanydesirableelementsandasfewundesirableelementsaspossible.Iftheextraction time is tooshort, thecoffeewillbegreatly lacking inflavor. Iftheextraction timeis too long, thecoffeewilldevelopnegativeflavors inthecup.

STIRRING

Stirring the coffeewith a spoon or stirrer enables thewatertosoakallthegroundsthoroughlysothatallthecoffee particles are extracted simultaneously. Stirringmakes for faster, more uniform extraction. It can becountedasanadditionalparameter,provideditisdonewitharegular,constantmotion.

ThemethodTounderstandandgaugetheimpactofaparameteronthefinalbrew, thecorrect method is to adjust one parameter and compare the resultingdifferentbrews.

Startwithafirstcoffeemadeusingthebasicparameters,thenchangethegrindsize(toeitherafinerorcoarsergrind)forthesecond(ifyouareabletobrewthetwocoffeesatthesametime,that’sevenbetter).Sample,compare,andmakenoteofwhichoneyieldsthebetterresult.

Staywiththegrindparameterthatyieldsthebestcoffee,thenchangethecoffee/waterratio.Sample,compare,andmakenoteoftheresults.

Staywiththecoffee/waterratiothatyoulikedthemost,thentry

changingthetemperatureofthewater.

COLDCOFFEE

Acoldcoffeeisbrewedinjustthesamewayasafiltercoffee…butconsumedcold.Chilledcoffeesarealltheragenowadays.Insummercoldcoffeesarethecooldrinktobeseenwith!

Hotbrew“Japanese-style”icedcoffeesareoneofakind,inthattheyarebrewedhotandconsumed iced! In other words, the coffee is cooled right away, ready fordrinking.

Coldbrew

Coffeeobtainedbycoldbrewingisverydifferentfromhot-brewedcoffee.Thereis no sourness to speak of; the coffee is well rounded, sweet, even syrupy.Coffee shops often sell coffee produced by thismethod in attractively labeledbottles.

Theclassiccold-brewmethod

1Thedaybefore,placethegroundcoffeeinaliddedcontainer,pourinwater,takingcaretoensurethatallthegroundsarethoroughlywetted,thenputthelidon.Leavetosteepintherefrigeratorfor12to16hours.

2Thenextday,layaclothfilterinasieveandplacethesieveoverapitcher.Filterthecoffeeandaddicecubes.

COLDBREW

Thetechniquedescribedbelowisoneforbuddingchemists!

JAPANESE-STYLEICEDCOFFEE

Inanicedcoffee,themeltingicecubeswillpartlydilutethebrewedcoffee.Forthisreason,itispreferabletouse,firstofall,anintenselyaromaticcoffeewithastrongsourtasteand,secondly,

waterofequalqualityforboththebrewingandtheicecubes.

ICEDCOFFEEWITHICECUBES…THATDON’TMELT

You can brew an iced filter coffee using the classiccoffee/water ratio i.e., 12 to 13 g per 7 fl oz of waterprovided you use reusable ice cubes containing a liquidrefrigerant that will cool the beverage without diluting it.Justmakesureyouuseplentyofthem.

CHAPTER3

ROASTING

ROASTING

Roastinginvolvesburningthegreencoffeebeanstounlocktheirflavors.Thisisacomplicated,subtlejob,andthemasterroastermusthaveacomprehensiveunderstandingofthebeansandhisequipment.Thebaristaalsoneedstohaveagoodgraspofroastingtoenablehimtoselectanduse

hisbeanstobesteffect.

Theroaster“Roaster”isthenameforboththeartisanandthemachinethatcooksthebeans.Therearevarioustypesofmodelsavailable,withdifferentcapacities(from3½oztoseveralhundredpounds),powersources(gasorelectricity),anddesigns.Themostcommonlyusedtypeofroasterisarotarycylindricaldrumovenwithdirectgasheating.Withthistypeofmachine,small-scaleroastingtakesbetween10and20minutes,attemperaturesbetween374–446°F.

Small-scaleroastingIn a roaster, the heat is transmitted principally by convection and conduction;radiationplaysapartaswell,contributingtothestabilityoftheroastingprocess.Theartisanroastercontrols:•theheatingpower•theintensityoftheflowofairaroundthecoffeebeans(controllingconvection)• the speed of rotation of the drum,which is in direct contactwith the beans(controllingconduction)Attheendoftheroastingcycle, thebeanspassintothecooler,wheretheyarerapidlystirredandcoolair fromablower is forced through themtostop themfromcookinganyfurther.

ASPOTOFPHYSICS

Therearethreemodesofheattransfer:•byconvection(throughafluid)

•byconduction(throughdirectcontact)

•byradiation(throughspace)

IndustrialroastingThemajorityofthelarge-scaleroastersroasttheirbeansusingfastmethods(at 392°F for less than 10 minutes) or so-called “flash” methods (90secondsat1,472°F).Thesetechniquesdonotallowthearomasandflavorstodevelop,andinthelattercase,thebeanshavetobecooledinwater.Toascertainwhetheryourgroundcoffeehasbeenroastedbythismethod,putitinthefreezer:ifitsolidifies,thatmeansthat,unfortunately,itsmoisturecontentisatthemaximumlegallypermittedlevelof5percent.

HomeroastingItisperfectlypossibletoroastyourowngreencoffeebeansathome.

Whatcoffeesshouldyouchoose?Greencoffeebeans canonlybepurchased fromcertain artisan roasters.When

youarebuying,bearinmindthatthegreenbeanswill losebetween11and22percent of their mass during roasting. Choose resilient beans that are easy tomanage, such as washed coffees of the bourbon, pacas, caturra, or catuaivarieties.

SetyourselfupwithasmallhomeroasterForgetpanroasting,which,thoughaccessible,isalsounsatisfactorybecausethebeansneedconvectionandcontinuousmixing.Youcannowgetsmallroastingmachineswithabatchcapacityof3ozto1lb,2oz,whichisamplefordomesticconsumption.

FLUIDIZEDBEDROASTERAkindofslightlymodifiedpopcornmachinewithaforcedconvectionsystem.Theonlyadjustableparameteristheroastingtime.

DRUMROASTERIt comeswithmore sophisticated heating control (temperature and time).Youcanexpecttopaybetween$120and$1,200forone,butdonotexpectittobringout the flavors and aromas aswell as a commercial roaster.Nevertheless, youstill have the pleasure of roasting your own beans and having freshly roastedcoffee,roastedtotheexactdegreeyouchoose.

BATCH:QUANTITYOFCOFFEEROASTEDATATIME.

THEROASTINGOFTHEBEAN

Thesearethestagesthebeangoesthroughduringtheroastingprocess.

CHANGESTOTHECOFFEEBEAN

Thecoffeebeanchangesfromgreentoyellow.Theinternalmoisturelevelofthecoffeebeanfalls.Thisisanendothermicreaction:itabsorbsheat.

Theheattransformsthemoisturewithinthebeanintosteam.

Carbondioxide(CO2)isgeneratedinsidethebean.

Thepressureisincreasedto25bar.

Firstcrack:Thebeanmakesacharacteristiccrackingnoise.

The bean increases in volume by 1.5 to 2 times,whilelosing at least 11 percent of its mass. It emits heat(exothermic reaction), turns brown (by the Streckerreaction),andshedsalayerofskinknownasthesilverskin,whichpassesintoacollector.

Ifroastingcontinues,theCO2continuestoexpand.

SecondcrackThebeanturnsbrown:thedarkerthecolor,thegreatertheroastlevel.Thecoffeecanloseupto22percentofitsmass.

Thereactionisexothermic.

Afterthesecondcrack,thecoffeebeanundergoespyrolysis:itssurfacebecomesoilyandthebeantakesonablackened

lookandisliabletocombust.

ROASTINGSTAGES

FLAVORDEVELOPMENT

Threeorfourflavorsareunlockedduringthedryingphase.

Theflavorsandaromasareunlockedbytwophenomena:•Maillardreactions:Whenthebean’smoistureleveldropsbelow5percent,chemicalreactionsoccurbetweenthe

sugarsandtheaminoacidsproducedbythebreakdownoftheproteins.

•Caramelization:Achemicalreactionbetweenthewaterandasugar,saccharose.

Astimegoesby,theaciditydiminishesandthebitternessincreases.Thereactionbecomesendothermicagain.

By the end of the roast cycle, nearly eight hundredaromas have been unlocked, as well as flavors, acidity,sweetness, and body. Sometimes undesirable roastingflavorsareproduced.

Duringthislastphase,thearomasaredestroyedandreplacedbybitterflavors.

Theacidityiseliminatedandthebodydiminishes.

Roastingandbeantemperature

ISBEANCOLORANACCURATEGUIDE?

There is no universal bean color code to define the roastlevel.Abettermethod is tonote the timeof the firstcrackrelativetothetotalroastingtime.

RoastingandcaffeinelevelsThecaffeinecontentofagreencoffeebean(between0.6and2percentbymassfor Arabica beans) remains virtually unchanged during roasting, regardless oftheroastlevel(caffeinecontentfallsbyabout10percent).

However, the longer the roasting goes on, the more the mass of the coffeedecreases (a fallofbetween11and22percent), so thecaffeine levelnaturallyincreases.

Thetrendistowardanever-lighterroastBeyondacertainroastingpoint,thecoffee’saromasaremaskedbytheroastingflavors(caramel,followedbysmoky,bitter,andburnt);onlyalightroastallowsthecoffeearomastobepreserved.

Theroasterhastocompromisewhenitcomestothetastecharacteristicshewantstoemphasize.Forexample,ifheislookingforgreateracidity,combinedwith a broad spectrum of flavors, this will probably be at the expense of thebody.

TANGYISGOOD!

Thismoderateroasthastheeffectofbringingoutthenatural

acidityofthebeans.Theheatappliedduringroastinglargelydestroys the forty or so chlorogenic acids (the famouspolyphenolsregardedasgoodacids),whichbreakdownintoquinic and caffeic acid, two astringent compounds. Themajority of the other organic acids, like citric and malicacid, reach theirpeakconcentrationwitha light roast, thensteadilydecrease.

Thisexplainswhya fast, light roastwillproducebeanswithgreateraciditypotential.

ROASTINGSTYLES

Toproduceagoodcoffee,thereismorethanonewaytoroastthebeans.Themasterroaster,byadjustingthebeantemperatureandroastingtime,createsablendofflavorsandaromasthatis

tailoredforeachcoffee.

RoastprofilesEach green coffee bean has its own flavor and aroma potential shaped by itsterroir,itsvariety,itscultivationmethod,anditsprocessing.Itisthejobofthemasterroastertounlockthispotential.Theheatingtimeandtemperaturedonoton their own define the roast, since the roast is a matter of more than justcooking, and requires specific temperature variations, known as roast profiles.Byplayingwiththeseprofiles,theartisanroastercanemphasizeonequalityoranother (onset, acidity, aromas, body, sweetness, finish, etc.). Hence, twoidentical green coffee beans can yield two totally different brews, one moreacidic,theotherwithmorepronouncedspicyaromas,withafullerbody,andsoon.Theroaster“interprets”hiscoffeeandstampshisownstyleonit.

Beware:Appearancecanbedeceiving!If you have two beans roasted to the same color, does it mean their roastingprofile is thesame?No,aprofile isnotdefinedbyeither thefinalcolorof thebeanoridenticalstartandendtemperatures,andcertainlynotbythefinalbrew.Thefinalcolorofthebeanismerelyanindicatorofthepointatwhichroastingceased.The roast profile is the journey it took to get there.Dependingon theroastprofileforeach,thesetwoapparentlyidenticalbeanswilleachgiveavery

differentbrew.

THETWOCURVESREPRESENTROASTPROFILES.THEYHAVETHESAMESTARTINGPOINTANDTHESAMEENDPOINT,ANDYET

THERESULTINGDRINKS,BREWEDINTHESAMEWAY,WILLBEDIFFERENT.

TherightroastingstyleforeverypurposeSome beans need to be roasted differently for different brewing methods,whereasotherscancopeperfectlywellwithasingleroastingstyle.

Factor1:ThebeanCertainbeansarebettersuitedtocertainbrewingmethods.Inthiscase,roastersoffer a single roast option; it is up to the barista to alter the brewingmethodaccordingtotheselectedcoffee.

Factor2:ThebrewingmethodThe preparation method determines the balance of flavors. The same coffee,depending on the chosen method, will develop bitterness after three minutes’steeping in the case of a filter coffee, or sourness after a 20-to 30-secondextraction in the case of an espresso. To compensate for the sour/bitterimbalance,someroastersofferspeciallytailoredroastsforeachbrewingmethod.

THESAMEBEAN,BUTASPECIFICROASTSTYLEFOREACHBREWING

METHOD

Factor3:Theconsumer

Everycountryhasitsownconsumptionandroastinghabits.TheScandinaviancountries,forexample,whicharekeenonfiltercoffee,preferlight-roastcoffees,whereastheMediterraneancountriesusedark-roastedbeansfortheirespressos.Thisvariationisevenvisiblewithinasinglecountry:southernItalyusesmuch

darkerbeansthanthoseusedinthenorthofthecountry.

BLENDORSINGLEORIGIN?

Therearetwokindsofcoffeeoutthere:coffeefromasingleoriginandcoffeethatisablendofseveralorigins.

SingleoriginThere are various definitions of “single origin.” The one most commonlyaccepted defines single origin as referring to beans from a single terroir—forexample, beans harvested on a single farm.By extension, coffee harvested onseveral farms but pooled at the same washing station can be deemed singleoriginaswell.

Singleoriginpresentsaunique, typicalcharacter that theexperiencedtasterwill be able to appreciate: through the bean, he can recognize and assess theterroir(soiltype,climate,exposure,etc.)aswellastheworkthathasgoneintothecultivation,harvesting,anddrying.

EXTRAPURE?YES,BUT…

Forsome“purists,”singleoriginnotonlyhastocomefroma single terroir, it also has to be mono-varietal; in otherwords, it can only comprise a single coffee variety. Thisextremerequirement isofdubiousvalue,particularlygiventhatitwouldpreventthefarmerfrompracticingsustainableagriculture.Itisimportantthatthefarmerisabletocultivateseveralvarieties.Thisenableshimtopickvarietiessuitedtothe different altitudes on his land and limit the risk of hisentire crop being hit by a disease or parasite, but it alsomeansaparticulartastecanbeachievedbymixingvarieties.

TheblendAblend isacombinationofcoffeesofdifferentorigins (regions,countries…).Thebigcompaniesgenerallyblendtheircoffee,asitenablesthemtoharmonizetheflavorof thecoffeeandofferconsumersaconsistent tastebyadjusting theproportionsof thecoffees in theblend.Notonly that,butwhendonewell, theblendcanalsobebetterthanthecoffeesofwhichitiscomposed.

Whichpackageforwhichbrewingmethod?

Espressoisatemperamentalprocess!Thatiswhyitissafertouseablend:thismaximizes the chances of obtaining a consistent coffee that is undemanding,balanced,andeasytomake.Intherightdose,theblendcombinesthequalitiesofthe various coffees (sweetness in the case of Brazil, acidity and aromas forEthiopia,etc.)andcompensatesforthenumerousdifficultiesassociatedwiththisprocess,aswellastheinstabilityofdomesticespressomachines.Slow methods bring out the subtleties of the finest coffees; so the specialtycoffees intended for slow-brew methods are generally single origin.Nevertheless, some roasters offer blends for slow brewing to develop a richerarrayofflavors.

CREATINGYOUROWNBLEND

Anyonecanconcocttheirownblend!Therearejustthreestepstoit(definingyourobjective,choosingyourvarieties,andworkingouttherightproportions);everythingelsecomesdownto

yourtaste.

DefiningyourobjectiveBeforeputtingtogetherablend,youfirsthavetoestablishwhatkindofbrewitis intended for (espresso,cappuccino, filter, etc.), aswellas thecharacteristicsyouwanttoachieve(flavorcomplexity,body,fruitiness,balance…).

CUPPINGFORTHEPROS

“Cupping”istheprofessionaltechniquewherebythecoffees(seehere)are“cupped”onebyoneinordertoappraisethemandidentifythewaysinwhichtheymightcomplementone

another.

Choosingcountriesoforigin

THECOFFEESOFCENTRALAMERICACosta Rican, Salvadorian, or Guatemalan beans make excellent single-sourceespressos.Qualities:Flavorcomplexityandacidity.Proportion:Thebestbeansareabletostandontheirown.Result:Balancedcoffeeswithmanyqualities.

ASIANCOFFEESQualities:Body(Vietnamese,Indonesian),flavors,andparticularfeaturessuchastheiodizednotesandincrediblecremaoftheMonsoonMalabar(seehere).

THECOFFEESOFSOUTHAMERICAGoodbaseforblendsforespresso.Qualities: Sweetness, body, clarity,moderate acidity, relatively neutral flavorbase.Proportion: High (some blends are composed entirely of South Americancoffees).Result:Aconsensusblendthatisaccessibleand,aboveall,easiertoextract.

AFRICANCOFFEESQualities: Demonstrative, with fruity and floral aromas, acidity (the Kenyansscoremosthighlyforthis),andniceflavorcomplexity.Result:Lessbody,exceptmaybe for someTanzaniancoffees,which, in somerespects, resemble the coffees of Central America (Guatemalan coffee, forexample).

GettingtheproportionsrightLimityourself tonomore than threeor fourcoffees inyourblend.Anymore,and the qualities of each will become diluted and the blend will lose itspersonality.

Start by having all the origins in equal proportions (50/50 for two origins;30/30/30forthreeorigins,etc.):•Ifoneoftheoriginsisdominatingtheothershalveitsproportion.•Ifoneofthecoffeesistoomuted

doubleitsproportion.Exampleofablend:50%Brazil25%Guatemala25%Ethiopia

READINGACOFFEEPACKAGE

Ofcoursecoffeecanbeboughtfromallkindsofoutlets,fromsupermarketstocoffeeshops,nottomentionroastinghousesthemselvesorspecialistwebsites.Toensureyouendupwiththecoffeethatbestmeetsyourexpectations,itisusefultobeabletointerprettheinformationonthe

package…

DecodingthelabelThelabelonapackageofcoffeeprovidestheinformationyouneedtohelpyoupickaqualitycoffee.

Bewareofmarketingploys“Coffeestrength”Unless itcomeswith furtherexplanation, this term(accompaniedbyanumberscaleor terms like full-bodied, sweet, etc.) is littlemore thanmarketing speakand tells us little about the coffee’s flavor profile. The coffee’s strength is afunctionofthedoseofgroundsandtheprocessusedtobrewit,soitdependsonthemannerofpreparation.Onpackagingdestinedforthemassmarket,strengthis essentially synonymous with “roast level” or “grind fineness”—in otherwords,itisusedtomeanbitterness.

“100%Arabica”AgoodcoffeewillalwaysbeArabica.

“Slow-roasted”Certainly, slow roasting is better than flash roasting, but this doesn’t tell youwhethertheroastprofile isasuccessfulone.Thefact is,a twelve-minuteroastcan,dependingontheprofile,givebetterresultsthananeighteen-minuteroast.Soslownessisnotnecessarilysynonymouswithquality.

PURCHASINGSPECIALTYCOFFEE

Ready-groundcoffeemaywellnotgivesatisfactoryqualityorlastlongbeforeitdeteriorates.Onlythecoffeespecialistsareinapositiontoprovidecoffeethatisfreshandcorrectlyroasted.

FromtheroasterThe roaster is a passionate artisan who can provide information on roastingdates,cultivationconditions,flavorprofiles,andthebrewingmethodstowhichthebeansarebestsuited.Heisabletoprovideadviceandtailorhisproductstothecustomer’sneeds,rightdowntothedesiredgrindsize.

IDENTIFYINGAGOODROASTER

1Thecoffeesareprotectedfromtheambientair,inasiloorothercontainersforthispurpose.

2Theroastedcoffeebeansonofferareafairlylightbrown,indicatingacarefullymanagedroast.

3Thelistofavailablecoffeesshouldnotbetoolong(fifteenmaximum).Thisensuresthebeansarefreshandroastprofilesarewellmanaged.

ROASTERSTOAVOID

1Bagsofgreencoffeestrewnaroundthefloor,orinawindow,showthatstorageconditionsarenotideal;thisislikelytoshortentheshelflifeofthe

coffee.2Doesthedateofharvestindicateanoldharvest?Thisiswhatisknownasa“pastcrop.”

3Theroastedcoffeebeansaredark,withshinytracesofcaffeol:theroasttimewastoolongandthecoffeeislikelytobebitter.

IncoffeeshopsBaristas work in close collaboration with roasters and sell excellent-qualitycoffee, which you can sometimes sample on the premises. They can giveinformationonthevariouscoffees,sinceitistheywhoselectedthem,andontherecommendedbrewingmethods.Makethemostofthem!

CUPOFEXCELLENCE

These are national competitions set up in 1999 by coffeeconnoisseurs in association with the governments of theproducer countries andNGOs.Thecoffees are sampledbyan international tasting panel, and the winning coffees areputupforauctioninrealtimeontheInternet.Theproducerbenefits from the boost to his reputation, and for theconsumer,theCupofExcellencedesignationisaguaranteeofabalanced,qualitycoffee.

STORINGCOFFEEATHOME

Greencoffeeisadelicateproductthatdoesnotstorewell.Onceroasted,itisevenmorefragile.Topreserveitsflavorsasbestaspossible,thereareafewsimplemeasurestheconsumershould

take.

NonperishablebutfragileCoffeeisa“nonperishable”product,whichistosaythatthereisnoriskifyouconsume it after the best-before date, unlike “perishable” goods, which mustcarryause-bydatethatmustnotbeexceeded.Afterthebest-beforedate(BBD),onlythesensoryandnutritionalqualitiesofthecoffeearenolongerguaranteed.Whether the coffee is in the form of beans or ground, the storage advice isidentical.However,groundcoffeedegradesevenmorequicklybecauseithasalarger surface area in contact with the air, and grinding causes the release ofCO2,whichactsnaturallytopreservethebean(itspressurecreatesabarrier totheoxygen.

COFFEEDOESNOTLIKE

•hightemperatures•oxygen•moisture•excessivedryness•light

Wheretostore

Typesofpackage

Coffeepackaginghasevolvedovertimewiththeaimofhelpingthecoffeestayfreshforaslongaspossible.

SEALEDBROWNPAPERORMULTILAYERBAGS

•THESIMPLESTANDLEASTEXPENSIVE

•NOVALVE.THEYDONOTALLOWTHECOFFEETODEGASNATURALLY.•SHELFLIFECOULDBEBETTER.

BBD NOTSTATED

HERMETICALLYSEALED,RESEALABLEBAGS,FITTEDWITHADEPRESSURIZATIONVALVE.

•GOODATKEEPINGCOFFEEFRESH

•RESEALABLE

•EXPENSIVE

BBD UPTO3MONTHSINANUNOPENEDBAG.ONCEOPENED,THECOFFEEWILL

GOSTALEWITHINAFEWDAYS.

BAGSORCANSUNDERNITROGENPRESSURE

USEDBYLARGEARTISANALROASTERSAND/ORINDUSTRIAL-SCALECOMPANIES.

•THEBESTATKEEPINGCOFFEEFRESH• NITROGEN, A NEUTRAL GAS, REPLACES THE OXYGEN THAT CAUSES THE

OXIDATIONOFOILS

•ADEGASSINGVALVE

•SUBSTANTIALINVESTMENTANDLOGISTICSREQUIREMENTSFORTHEROASTER

BBD MUCHLONGER—UPTOAYEAR

VACUUM-SEALEDBAGSWITHORWITHOUTAVALVE

USEDMAINLYBYINDUSTRIAL-SCALECOMPANIES

•GOODATKEEPINGCOFFEEFRESH

•SOMEOFTHEVOLATILEAROMASARESUCKEDOUTDURINGTHEPROCESS.•NONRESEALABE

BBD UPTO3MONTHSINANUNOPENEDBAG.ONCEOPENED,THECOFFEEWILL

GOSTALEWITHINAFEWDAYS.

CUPPING

Inordertogaugethequalityandconsistencyofabatchofcoffee,bigcompanieshavedevelopedastandardizedtastingmethodknownas“cupping.”Itisapracticethatyoucaneasilyplayaround

withathomeasawayofdiscoveringdifferentcoffees.

Cupping:Whatisit?Cupping involves evaluating a quantity of infused, unfilteredground coffee inorderto:•assessthequalityandtheflavorprofileofabatchofcoffeebytestingoneormoresamples;•detectanydefects;•createblends.This technique is vital in helping green coffee buyersmake their choices (seehere).

EquipmentandparametersFor the sake of efficiency and to enable the various professionals involved(producers, green-coffee buyers, roasters) to communicate effectively, cuppingmustbeperformedinstrictcompliancewiththebrewingparameterslaiddowninaninternationalstandard.

ThemethodEvaluatingthedrygroundsGrindadoseofcoffeeinagrinder(filtergrind),thensmellthevolatilearomasthatarereleased.Aretheypleasant,fragrantornot?Whatdotheyevoke?Thisstep is a short one because it is not possible to capture the volatile aromas.Betweengrindings,purgethegrinderbygrindingafewbeansofthenextcoffeetobeevaluated.

EvaluatingthewetgroundsPourthehotwaterontothegroundsandsetthetimer.Thegroundswillfloattothesurfaceandformacrust.Allowthecoffeearomastodevelopincontactwiththewaterfor4minutes.

Breakthecrustwiththebackofthecuppingspoonandstirthreetimes.Positionyournosejustabovethebowlatthatmomentandbreatheinthegasesthathadbeentrappedbythecrustuntilthen.

Someofthegroundswillhavesunktothebottomofthebowl.Scoopoffthoseremaining on the surfacewith a spoon,making sure to rinse it each time in aglass of water—particularly when you are going between two cupping bowlscontainingdifferentcoffees.

CUPPINGFORM

Aswithanyassessment,itisvitaltomakeanoteofyourfindingsandsensationsduring the course of the tasting. You can get relatively comprehensive formscovering the following criteria:Taste the coffee, at different temperatures,untilitiscold.Useacuppingspoontotakealittlecoffeefromthebowl,inhaledeeplytomakesurethearomasreachthewholeofyourtongue,enablingyoutobetter identify thembymeansofretronasalolfaction.Analyzeboththearomasandthetactilesensationsinthemouth.Isthecoffeethickandcreamy,orwatery,likeatea?Istheaftertastepleasant,anddoesitlastorquicklydisappear?

Aromas(drygrounds):1-5Notes:grass,cereals,nuts,orchardfruits,redfruits,tropicalfruits…

Aromas(wetgrounds):1-5Notes:grass,cereals,nuts,orchardfruits,redfruits,tropicalfruits…

Flavors:1-5Notes:grass,cereals,nuts,orchardfruits,redfruits,tropicalfruits…

Lengthoffinish:1-5Acidity:1-5Intensity(mildtointense)Body:1-5Level(thintoheavy)Uniformity:1-5Balance:1-5Cleancup:1-5Sweetness:1-5

THEFLAVORWHEEL

Thewheelhelpsthetastertoidentifytheflavorsandaromasofthecoffee.Itcanbe used on its own, or in conjunction with a universal lexicon known as theSensoryLexicon,describingeacharomaandflavor,itsintensity,andthemethodbywhichitwasobtained

©SpecialtyCoffeeAssociationofAmerica

©WorldCoffeeResearch

DECAFFEINATION

Oneofcoffee’sforemostpropertiesisthatitstimulatesthebrainandheightensalertness,butthesequalitiesalsocausenegativeeffectsforsomeconsumers.Tocounterthisproblem,various

processeshavebeendevelopedfordecaffeinatingcoffee.

TheprincipleCaffeine was discovered in 1819 by a German chemist, Friedlieb FerdinandRunge. And as early as the end of the nineteenth century, research wasconductedintowaysoflimitingitseffectsoreveneliminatingitaltogetherwhilestill preserving the coffee’s other components. Since the time the firstmethodwasdevisedin1903byacoffeemerchant,LudwigRoselius,theprocesseshavemoved on a great deal, but they are still performed on green coffee beans,makingthemdifficulttoroast,andalteringtheirflavors.

DIDYOUKNOW?

In the United States, coffee must have had its caffeinecontent reduced by 97.5 percent to be labeled“decaffeinated.”

Decaffeinationusingchemicalsolvents(conventionalmethod)Therearetwomethodsinvolvingtheuseofsolvents.

Directmethod

1Thegreen coffeebeans are steamedor immersed inhotwater toopen theirpores.

2Thesolventisaddedanddecaffeinationbegins.

3Thebeansarethenwashedtoremove,asfaraspossible,anytracesofsolvent.

4Thebeansaredriedandreadyforroasting.

IndirectmethodThecoffeebeansdonotcomeintodirectcontactwiththesolvent.

1Thegreencoffeebeansarefirstimmersedinveryhotwater,whichextractsallthesolubleelementscontainedwithinthem.

2 The beans are removed from the water, which is now saturated with theseelements, and thewater is poured into another tank togetherwith the solvent,whichwillfixthecaffeine.

3Thewaterisheatedtodriveoffthecaffeine-ladensolventbyevaporation.

4 The green coffee beans are immersed in the water again, and all thecomponentsextractedatthefirststagearereintroducedintothebeans.

Decaffeinationusingwater:theSwissWaterProcess(SWP)This method does not use chemical solvents. Pioneered in 1933, it wasintroduced to the market in the 1980s and is patented as the Swiss Water

Process.

1A batch of green coffee beans is immersed in very hotwater to extract thecaffeineandallthedesirableflavorcomponentsfromthem.

2 The water saturated with all these substances is passed through a charcoalfilterthatcapturesonlythecaffeinemolecules,whicharelargerthantheothers.The batch of green coffee stripped of its caffeine, flavors, and other desirablesubstancesisdiscarded.

3Asecondbatchofgreencoffeeis immersedinthewater that iscarryingthesoluble substances from the first batch of green coffee, which is now able toabsorb only the caffeine. The flavor components of the second batch willthereforeremaininthebeans.

4Thewateris thenrefilteredtoremovethecaffeinesoit isreadytoreceiveathirdbatchofgreencoffee.Thesecondbatchisthendried.

DecaffeinationwithCO2Thisisthenewestmethod.ItusesCO2atatemperatureof88°Fandatveryhighpressure (200 bar), which makes it nearly as dense as water; it is known assupercriticalcarbondioxide(CO2).

1Thebeansaresoakedinwaterinatank.

2 Supercritical CO2 is introduced to extract the caffeine. Several cycles areneededfordecaffeination tobeeffective,but thisprocesshas theadvantageofbeingmoreselectivethanothersinitsextractionofthecaffeine.

3 The caffeine-laden CO2 is then transferred to another container where thepressureisreleasedandtheCO2returnstoitsgaseousstate,leavingthecaffeinebehind.

4Thedecaffeinatedcoffeebeansaredried.

CHAPTER4

CULTIVATION

COFFEECULTIVATION

Beforeitiscraftedintoadrink,coffeetakestheformofagreenbeanextractedfromthefruitofthecoffeeplant.Likecocoa,thisisanexoticagriculturalproductthatcanonlybegrownincertain

partsoftheworld.

ThecoffeecherryCoffeebeansaretheseedscontainedinthe“cherries”ofthecoffeeplant.Eachcherry normally contains two beans, but it sometimes happens that it onlycontainsasingleone(whichisthencalledapeaberryorcaracole)ornoneatall,orevenmorethantwobeans.

Thecherry,whichstartsoffgreen,takesonaredoryellowororangecolorasitripens,dependingonthevariety.

THEPARCHMENT

Theparchment is a hard layer surrounding the bean in thecoffeecherry.Itsjobistoprotectthebean.

THEMUCILAGE

Themucilage is the slimy part of the pulp attached to theparchment.

APOTTEDHISTORY

Accordingtosometheories,coffeecanbetracedbacktothehighplateausofEthiopiainthedaysoftheancientkingdomofAbyssinia.It isnotpossibletoattributeaprecisedatetohumanity’sdiscoveryofthecoffeeplant,butitappearsthattheEthiopiansusedtousethepulpofthecoffeecherriestomake juice.According to some sources, coffee crossed theRedSea in the tenth century, andwasprized for itsmind-stimulating effect in the Arab-Muslim world, where theconsumption of alcohol was forbidden. It reached theOttomanempireinthefifteenthcentury,andwasintroducedtotheWestintheseventeenthcentury.

TRANSVERSESECTION

LONGITUDINALSECTION

Amodestyield!Acoffeeplantproducesbetween3and5½lbofcherriesayear(somevarietiesaremoreproductive thanothers).Thesecontainbetween9and17ozofgreencoffeebeans,whichwillyield7to13ozofroastedcoffee.Allinall,onecoffee

plantonitsownproducesverylittlecoffee,sometimeslessthanhalfa1-lbbagofcoffee!

1COFFEEPLANT

=

3LB<CHERRIES/YEAR<5½LB

=

7OZ<ROASTEDCOFFEE<13OZ

GrowingconditionsforCoffeaarabicaItisinthetropicalbeltbetweentheTropicsofCancerandCapricornthatCoffeaarabicaiscultivated.

SubtropicalzoneInthesubtropicalzone,coffeeisgrownataltitudesofbetween2,000and4,000ft.Thewetanddryseasonsareclearlydistinct,allowingonlyoneharvest.

TropicalzoneInthetropicalzone,coffeeisgrownataltitudesofbetween4,000and8,000ft.Themuchmore frequent rain causes the coffee plants to flower continuously,allowingtwoharvests(oneduringtheveryrainyseason,andasecond,smallerharvestinthelessrainyseason).

Betterforthecoffee,betterfortheenvironmentAlthoughsomevarietiesofcoffeeplantcantoleratedirectexposuretothesun,most prefer shade. So a lot of producers plant banana, papaya, and other fruittreesinthecoffeeplantationstore-createthenaturalshadethattheyoungplantsneed to protect them from the sun, but also from wind or frost. Moreover,althoughithasnotbeenscientificallyproven,somekindofsymbiosisseemsto

operate,throughthesoil,betweenthefruittreesandthecoffeetrees,whichgivesthebeansagreaterrichnessofflavor.Ratherthancultivatingasinglecrop,thesecoffee producers adopt an agro-forestry approach, which aids biodiversity(preventing soil erosion, providing a habitat for native species of birds andinsects,etc.).

LIFECYCLEOFACOFFEEPLANT

Acoffeeproducerjuststartingoutwillneedtobepatient,sinceacoffeeplantdoesnotproduceitsfirstcherriesforatleastthreeyears,andinsomecasesuptofiveyears.

FromseedtocherryIntherightconditions,ittakesbetweenthreeandfourweeksfortheseedofthecoffee tree togerminate.Therootsappear, thenastemcappedwithparchmentemerges from theground threeor fourweeks later.After ten to twelveweeks,theparchmentfallsoff,givingwaytoleaves,whichgrowinoppositepairsandaredarkgreenincolor.Ittakesthreetofiveyearsforthecoffeetreetoproduceitsfirstcherries.

Flowering

Floweringtakesplaceafterrain,andittakessixtoninemonthsforthefruitstoreachmaturityandbereadyforharvesting.Ifthefirstrainisnotcontinuous,thefruits do not all ripen at the same speed. That is why red cherries and greencherries can be found on the same branch. It means the cherries have to becarefullyhand-pickedinseveralroundstoensurethecherriesareallripewhenharvested.

CHERRIESATDIFFERENTSTAGESOFMATURITYONONEBRANCH

THEEARLYSOWERGETSTHECOFFEE…

The germination rate of the seeds of the coffee plantdeclinesovertime:from95percentforseedsstoredforlessthan three months, to 75 percent after three months,droppingto25percentafterninemonths,andfallingtozeroafterfifteenmonths.The95percentgerminationratecanbeextended to six months by storing the seeds in vacuum-sealedbagsat59°F.

MOREABOUTCOFFEEGROWING

Sowe’vecoveredthebasicswithourlookatthelifecycleofthecoffeeplant.Buttherearealsoallkindsofdetailsandpracticalitiestobeconsideredwhenitcomestocoffeecultivation.

PropagationThereare twowaysofpropagatingnewcoffeeplants:bytakingcuttingsorbysowingtheseeds.

CuttingsThis involves cuttingoff a smallpieceof the coffeeplant (the tipof abranchwithtwoleavesonit,andeachleafcutinhalf)andplantingit.Whennewleavesand roots form, the cutting has taken, and develops in the same way as aseedling. Since taking cuttings is a form of cloning, each new plant will begeneticallyidenticaltotheplantfromwhichthecuttingwastaken.

COFFEECUTTING

SeedsToobtainseedsforplanting,coffeecherriesareselectedatfullmaturity,asthisgivesthebestchancesofgermination.Theyarepulpedandlefttofermentforashorttime(lessthantenhours)beforebeingdriedandpreparedforplanting.The

seedsaresownincontainers,oftenpolyethylenebags,incompostconducivetothegrowthoftheyoungcoffeeplant(crumbly,lighttexture,fertile).

InnurseriesSeedlings and cuttings are generally grown in nurseries, rather than on aplantation itself, so as to provide a controlled, better protected environment(shelter, shade, irrigation).When theyoungplantsare strongenoughandhavegrowntoaheightofbetween15and25inches,withabouttenpairsof leaves,theycanbetransplantedintothefieldstocontinuegrowing.

NURSERYONACOFFEEPLANTATION

WHATABOUTPOLLINATION?

Pollination is essentially accomplished by the wind, sinceCoffeaarabica isaself-pollinatingshrub.Insectsonlyplayaminorroleinfertilization(between5and10percent).

Coffeeflavorsbyaltitude

The cooler climate at high altitude causes the cherries to ripen more slowly,resulting in denser beans. Broadly speaking, this means that the higher thealtitude at which the coffee is growing, the greater its acidity, the fuller itsaromas,andthebetteritstaste.

THE INFLUENCE OF ALTITIUDE ON THE FLAVOR: 5,000–6,500 FT: FLORAL, SPICY,FRUITY,ACIDIC,GREATERCOMPLEXITY

4,000–5,000FT:WELL-DEVELOPEDACIDITY,MOREAROMAS

3,300–4,000FT:LOWACIDITY,ROUNDNESS

2,600–3,300FT:NOACIDITY,LITTLECOMPLEXITY

GrowingorganiccoffeeOrganic farming is relatively rare incoffee-producingcountries,where theuseof pesticides is the norm. Unfortunately, from a flavor perspective, organiccultivationdoesnotenhancethequalityofthebrew.Therefore,flavordoesnotcount as a reason for a farmer to change his approach. However, in somecountrieslikeEthiopia,small-scalegrowersdonotuseanyinputsbecausetheyare too expensive,whichmeans that they practice organic farming by default,without being officially certified. In Brazil, the world’s number one coffee-

producing country, some producers, like Fazenda Ambiental Fortaleza, growcoffeebyorganicmethods.

EnemiesofthecoffeeplantThere are various natural organisms that attack Coffea arabica, but its twobiggestenemiesarethefungusthatcausescoffeeleafrust(Hemileiavastatrix),andthecoffeeborerbeetle(Hypothenemushampei).

CoffeeleafrustDiscoveredinSriLankainthenineteenthcentury,coffeeleafrustisnowfoundin virtually all coffee-producing countries. It attacks the leaves during rainyperiods,preventingphotosynthesisandevencausingtheleavestodropoff.Thecoffee plant is weakened and its growthmay come to a halt. To combat thisdisease,whichtakesaheavytollonaharvest,growerscanoptformoreresistanthybridvarieties.

ALEAFAFFECTEDBYCOFFEELEAFRUST

ThecoffeeborerbeetleThecoffeeberryborerisasmallbeetle(thefemaleis2.5mmlongandthemale,1.5 mm). Originally from Africa, today it is found in most of the coffee-producingcountries.Thefemaleborestunnelsinthecoffeecherrieswhiletheyare still green and lays her eggs in them. The larvae then feed on the seedscontainedinthecherry.

ACOFFEEBORERBEETLE

COFFEEVARIETIES

Overthecenturiesinwhichcoffee—orArabica,tobeprecise—hasbeencultivated,differentvarietieshavedeveloped.Toensurecost-effectiveproductionandgoodresultsinthecup,itisimportanttohaveasoundknowledgeofthevarietiesandtheirpotentialinaparticularterroir.

Whatisavariety?The variety is a botanical classification on a lower level than species. TheCoffeaarabicaand theCoffeacanephoraare twospeciesofcoffeeplant.Avarietyisasubgroupofindividualsthatdisplaydifferences(intermsoftheir

morphology,thesizeofthefruits,etc.)relativetothestandardvariety,which,in the case of the Coffea arabica, is the Typica variety. These differentvarietiescomeaboutasaresultofeithermutationorhybridization,dependingonthecase

MutationAmutation refers tomorphological changes in ayoungplant relative to thestandard variety (size and/or shape of plants, leaves, cherries). The mutantseedlings are considered to be a new variety if they keep their newcharacteristicswhentheyproduceseedsoftheirown.

HybridizationA hybrid is a cross between two varieties. Hybridization can be natural orartificial.

THECASEOFROBUSTA

Inactualfact,Robustaisnotitselfaspeciesofthecoffeeplant, but a variety ofCoffea canephora.How-ever, thedesignationCoffeacanephora iscommonlyusedtorefertoRobusta, the reasonbeing thatRobusta is theoriginalandmostwidelycultivatedvarietyof thosebelonging tothe Canephora species (the other consumable varietiesbeingKouillou,Conilon,Gimé,andNiaouli).

Somewell-knownhybridvarieties

ICATU=((ARABICA+ROBUSTA)+MUNDONUOVO)+CATUAI

CATIMOR=

CATURRA+HIBRIDODETIMOR

SARCHIMOR=VILLASARCHI+HIBRIDODETIMOR

RUIRU11=SUDANRUME+HIBRIDODETIMOR+SL28+SL34

HIBRIDODETIMOR,ANEXCEPTIONALCROSS

TheArabusta family is the resultofacrossbetween theCoffeacanephoraspeciesandtheCoffeaarabicaspecies.The principal and most common of the hybrids in thisfamily is Hibrido de Timor. This cross is both resilientand strong in taste, which is why Hibrido de Timor isoftenusedinotherhybrids.

SEASONALITYANDFRESHNESSOFGREENCOFFEE

Itiseasytoforgetthatcoffeeisafresh,seasonalproduct,asitcomesfromfarawayandundergoesaraftofprocessesbetweenthetimethecherriesarepickedandthetimethebagsof

greencoffeearriveattheroastinghouse.However,seasonalityandfreshnessarekeyfactorswhenitcomestofullyappreciatingspecialtycoffees.

AseasonalproductCoffeeisharvestedeitheronceortwiceayear(onemainharvest,followedbyasecond smaller one), depending on whether it is grown in the tropical orsubtropical zone. The duration of the harvesting varies depending on thecountry,butitneverstretchesovertheentireyear.Hence,coffee,likeanyotheragriculturalproduct, isa“seasonalproduct.”Togetabetter ideaof thecoffeeseasonsandhelpyoumakeyourchoices, it isworth referring toacalendarofharvests in the various producing countries (see the calendar of harvestsopposite).

NOVINTAGES

Withcoffees,incontrasttowines,thereisnosuchthingasaquality vintage. But just as chefs cook with seasonalproducts,specialtycoffeeroastersalsoworkwith“coffeesinseason.”

AmatteroffreshnessThe freshness of the green coffee beans determines the length of time duringwhichtheirsensoryqualitiesareattheirbest.Thisperiodlastsseveralmonths,orayear in somecases. It ispossible toprolong the lifeof thegreenbeanbyfreezingitinasealedvacuumbag.Thedownsidesofthisaretheadditionalcost,andthefactthatdefrostedgreenbeansagemorequickly.

DATEOFHARVESTONCOFFEEPACKAGES

Theroastdateisoftenspecifiedoncoffeepackages,buttheyearofharvestisnotyetstatedasstandard.Donothesitatetoasktheroaster.

“Pastcrop”and“oldcrop”“Pastcrop”referstocoffeebeansfromapastharvest.Atthisstageintheirlifecycle,thegreenbeansarestartingtodeclineinquality,andthecoffeeislikelytoloseitsflavorqualities.Thelipidscontainedinthebeanbreakdownandoxidize,themoisture level (about 11 percent) varies andmay fall, or even rise, if thecoffee is stored under poor conditions. The coffee then develops a morenoticeablewoody flavor, its acidity declines, and it emits an odor resemblingburlap sacks. In this case one can refer to the coffee as having an “old crop”flavor profile. The green coffee from a harvestmay become “old crop” if thedrying, storage in the country of origin, transport, or storage after roasting isperformedinpoorconditions.

CalendarofharvestsThereareoneortwoharvestperiodsayear,dependingontheproducercountry.Information about coffee cultivation in each country can be found from hereonward.

TRADITIONALMETHODSOFDRYINGCOFFEE

Onceharvested,thecoffeecherry,perfectlyripe,hastobedriedinordertoextractthebeans.Thedryingmethodusedhasamarkedimpactonthecoffee’sflavorprofile.

HarvestingofthecoffeeThecherriesare,forthemostpart,harvestedbyhand;thepickersharvestonlythe ripe, undamaged cherries (whichmay be red or yellow, depending on thevariety), leavinganyoverripeorunripe(darkorgreen)cherriesbehind.Asthecherriesdonotallripenatthesamerate,severalpickingsarerequiredtoensureallcherriesarepickedwhentheyareattheirbest.Thepickersaregenerallypaidbyweight, andcancollectbetween110and265 lbofcherriesaday.Anothermanualpickingmethodknownas“strippicking”issometimesused,inwhichallthecherriesonthebranchesofthecoffeetreearestrippedoffatonetime.Theemphasiswith thismethod is on quantity and speed.Mechanical harvesting isdonebymachinesprogrammedtoshakethebranchesofthecoffeetrees,causingonly the ripe cherries to drop off. It is a method that works well forCoffeaarabica, whose cherries fall off easily. But machines can only be used onplantationsatlowaltitudeandonlandthatisnottoosteep.Thecherriescanbestoredforup toeighthoursbeforebeingdried.After that, fermentationsets inandthereisariskofproducing“stinkycherries.”

MANUAL

HARVESTINGOF

HARVESTINGOF

THERIPE

CHERRIES,

LEAVINGTHE

UNRIPEONES

FORLATER

Dryingwiththedryprocess:NaturalcoffeeThis traditional method of drying coffee is also known as “unwashed” or“naturalcoffee”(asopposedtowashedcoffees),asthecherriesstaywhole.

Where?Regionswhere thedryseason iswelldefined(Brazil,Ethiopia,Panama,CostaRica).Howlongdoesittake?Betweentenandthirtydays.PrincipleThecherriesarespreadoutinalayerthat,ideally,shouldbethethicknessoftwocherries,onaconcretepatioor,preferably,onAfrican raisedbeds,and turnedregularly to ensure the cherries ferment uniformly in contact with the air. Atnighttimetheyarecoveredtokeepthemfromabsorbinganynocturnalmoisture.Themoisturelevel inthefreshcherriesgoesfrom70percent to15–30percentduringdrying,andisthenreducedfurtherto10–12percent(theoptimumlevelintermsofkeepingthebeansfresh).ResultIntense,fruityaromas,likeanexplosioninthenoseandmouth.Thecoffeewillhavebody,butthefinishmaynotalwaysbeclean.

Sometimes the nose can be winey, recalling certain alcohols and, in badcases,vinegar.Fewtoolsrequired,andnoneedforbiginvestmentsinequipment.•Pickingissometimeshaphazard.

•Needspacetospreadoutthecherriesatpeakharvesttimes.•A lot ofworkers are needed, and carefulmonitoring is required to obtain a

coffeethatisasuniformasawashedcoffee.

AFRICANRAISEDBEDS(MATTINGRAISEDUPONTRESTLESSOTHAT

THECHERRIESAREBETTERAERATED)

Dryingwiththewetprocess:WashedcoffeeThewet processwas developed byDutch coffee producers in the seventeenthcenturyontheislandofJava,wherethedryprocessisimpracticablebecauseofthehighhumidityandlargeamountofprecipitation.

DRYING

Drying is a process that allows controlled fermentation, ineitherairorwater,withtheaimofsofteningtheparchmentinordertoextractthebeansmoreeasily.

Where?Inproduction regionswithhighhumidity levels (Ethiopia,Kenya,Rwanda,ElSalvador,Colombia,Panama).Howlongdoesittake?• Between 6 and 72 hours—between 12 and 36 hours on average—for thefermentation•Between4and10daysforthedryingPrincipleThe coffee cherries are mechanically pulped and the beans are immersed inwatertoremovethemucilagebymeansofafermentationprocess.Thebeansare

thencleanedanddried.ResultCleanerthananaturalcoffee,butalsolessbody,andmorepronouncedacidity.

The activity of the enzymes in the mucilage and the microorganisms thatdevelop in thewater cause the pH of the beans to fall to below 5, giving thewashedcoffeeamorepronouncedacidity.Uses a lot ofwater (up to22gallonsper kilo of cherries processed),which

becomespollutedwithnitratesdespiteeffortstorecycleandreducewaste.

Method

1Thecherriesareimmersedinawatertank:theripecherries,whichareheavier,sinktothebottom,whereasthedebrisandunripecherriesfloattothesurface.

2The“good”cherriesaremechanicallypulped; inotherwords, their skinandpartofthepulpareremoved.

3Thecoffeebeans,stillcoveredwithalayerofpulp,areimmersedinbathstopromptthefermentationofthemucilage.Thetemperatureiskeptatamaximumof104°Fandthebeansareregularlystirredtoensureevenfermentation.

4Thecoffeebeansarewashedinsluices,andasecondsortingtakesplace:theripebeanssinktothebottomandthedefectiveonesstayonthesurface.

5ThebeansaredriedonAfricanraisedbedsorinlargehot-airdrumsuntiltheirmoisturelevelisdownto10–12percent.

HYBRIDMETHODSOFDRYINGCOFFEE

Thefollowingarecombinedmethods,blendingelementsofthedryandwetprocessesdescribedonthepreviouspages.

HybridmethodsPulpednaturalThismethod,developedinBrazilinthe1990s,combinestheselectionprocessofthewetmethodandthedryfermentationofthenaturalcoffeemethod.

HoneyprocessThisistheothernamebywhichthe“pulpednatural”methodisknownoutsideof Brazil and Central America. The honey process is performed to differentdegrees,leavingahigherorlowerpercentageofthemucilagestillattachedtotheparchment around the beans.Themoremucilage is left behind, the darker thecoloroftheparchmentwhendryinginthesun.

HONEYPROCESSESPERFORMEDTODIFFERENTDEGREES,WITHAHIGHERORLOWERPERCENTAGEOFTHEMUCILAGE

REMOVED

Howlongdoesittake?Fromseventotwelvedays(dependingonweatherconditions).PrinciplePulpersseparatetheripe,softercherriesfromtheunripe,harderonesbypassingthem through a screen.The beans,which still havemucilage attached to their

parchment,arethensun-driedonAfricanbedsinalayer1to2inchesthick,andareturnedregularlytoensuretheydryevenly.ResultAreasonablycleancoffeewithmorebody thanawashedcoffee,butalso lessacidity.Thetasteinthecupismorelikethatofthenaturalcoffees.

•useslittlewater•goodsorting•consistentcoffeeLargecapitalinvestmentrequiredforpulpingequipment.

Semiwashedcoffee,orgilingbasahThismethodsharesthesameinitialstepsaswetprocessing,butdryingisdoneintwostages.

GILINGBASAH

GilingbasahisanIndonesiantermmeaning“wethulled.”

Where?OnlyinIndonesia,inSumatraandSulawesiinparticular.Howlongdoesittake?•Fermentationinwatergenerallytakesonenight.•Fivetosevendaysforthedryingofthebeanswithouttheirparchment.PrincipleThe fruits have their skins removed, and are then immersed inwater tanks todetach the mucilage by fermentation. The beans, now covered only inparchment, are put to dry until their moisture content has fallen to just 40percent. The beans then have their parchment removed by friction in a wet-hullingmachine,anddriedrapidly.

ResultCoffeeswithplentyofbody,andnotverypronouncedacidity.AsolutiontotheproblemsposedbytheIndonesianweather,suchashumidity,

whichcausesthecoffeetreestoflowerandneedharvestingallyearround,andwhichalsomakesdryingmoredifficult.

HULLINGMACHINEFORREMOVINGTHEPARCHMENT:WITHTHEIR

PARCHMENTGONE,THEBEANSDRYMOREQUICKLY.

Drying:Arecap

CLEANING,SORTING,ANDPACKAGINGOFGREENCOFFEE

Thedriedcoffeestillhastobecleanedandsortedbeforebeingpackagedforshippingtotheconsumercountries.

CleaningthecoffeeWhatever the dryingmethod used, the resulting dried coffee is sent to a “drymill”tobecleaned.Theaimistogetridofallimpurities(debris,stones,bitsofmetal,dust, leaves,etc.)bysuction,followedbysieving.Inthecaseofnaturalcoffeeandpulpednaturalcoffee,thecherriesgointoahullingmachine,whichcrushes thedried cherries (which still have their dried skin andpulp attached)againstoneanotherandagainstthemetalsidesofthemachine.Theouterlayerscomelooseandareblastedoffwithcompressedair.In the case of washed coffee, the machine removes the parchment (the thinmembranecoveringthebean).Thebeansarethenpolishedtoremoveasmuchaspossible of the silver skin,which is underneath the parchment (see the cross-sectionofthecoffeebeanonhere).

SortingthebeansThecleanedbeansarethensortedaccordingtocertaincriteria:size,density,andcolor:

WHATABOUTDEFECTIVEBEANS?

Thebeansrejectedduringsortingdonotendupinthetrash!Thereisamarketfor poor-quality beans, referred to as “broken beans” (for industrial espresso,instant-coffeeblends, etc.), so low-gradebatchesget tradedon the commoditymarket.

STEP1Mechanicalormanualseparationofthedense(good-quality)beansfromthelight(poor-quality)beans.

STEP2Size-sortingofthebeansbymeansofscreenswithholesofdifferentsizes.

STEP3Selectionofbeansbycoloronconveyorbeltsequippedwithcolordetectors:•Blackorverydark=fermentedbeans•Pale,white=unripebeansWhenabeanisidentifiedasdefective,itisblastedasidebyajetofair.

STEP4Finalcolorsortingofthebeans.Thisfinalmanualjobisperformedbywomensittingatconveyorbelts.

PackagingOncesorted,thecoffeeisbaggedandreadyforexport.Variouskindsofcontainersareused:JutebagsTraditionally,thecoffeeispackedin130-to150-lbbags.Theyareeconomical,tough,anddurable,andprovidegoodprotection.Decoratedwithlovelydesigns,theyarepartofcoffeefolklore.

VacuumpacksTheseappearedonthesceneafewyearsago,andareusedprimarilyforbatchesofparticularlyfinecoffeesthatsellforpremiumprices.Thebagsarethenplacedinboxes.Theygenerallyhold44to77lb,butsomeimportersuseboxedbagsholdinglessthan22lbforcertainmicro-batches.

GrainProbagsAmultilayerplasticbagdesignedtoincreasetheshelflifeofdriedbeans,cereal,andseeds.Theypreservetheflavorpotentialofthegreencoffeeforlonger.

COFFEE-PRODUCINGCOUNTRIES

Themapshowsallthecoffee-producingcountriesintheworld,withtherankingsofthetopten.

InternationalCoffeeOrganizationfiguresfor2014

ETHIOPIA

Ethiopia is known as the birthplace of coffee. Here, unlike in many otherproducercountries,coffeecultivationisnotalegacyofcolonization:thecoffeeplantusedtogrowwildorsemi-wildhere, inaregionwheremuchofthelandliesatanaltitudeofover5,000ft.

There are few plantations and large farms; coffee is grown in gardens, inforest or semi-forest, without the use of chemicals. Ninety percent of all thecoffee produced, which can be regarded as organic although not certified assuch,comesfrommorethan700,000smallproducers.Productivityisnothigh,andtraceabilitystops(withtheoddexception)atthewashingstations,wheretheharvestsarepooled.

Inparticular,EthiopiapossessesthegreatestgeneticdiversityofcoffeeplantsandArabicavarietiesintheworld,anditsforestsarehometothequalitycoffeesofthefuture.

THEFLAVORSOFANETHIOPIANCOFFEE:YIRGACHEFFEARICHA

COFFEEFACTS

Annualproduction:438,168UStons Worldmarketshare:4.6%Producer’sworldranking:5th Principalvarieties:oldvarieties Harvestperiod(s):November–February Drying:wetprocessanddryprocess Cupcharacteristics:

•Wet-processedcoffeesfloral,citricacidity,andlightbody•Dry-processedcoffeesnotesoftropicalfruits,strawberries

KENYA

CoffeewasintroducedtoKenyabyWesternerstowardtheendofthenineteenthcentury.ItproducespredominantlyArabica,particularlytheSL28,SL34,K7,andRuiru11varieties,whicharewet-processed.JustoverhalfofKenyancoffeecomes from small producers grouped bywashing station,with six hundred toone thousand members per “factory,” and these factories are in turn part ofcooperatives. The red clay soil found in central Kenya contributes to thecharacteristic flavor profile.Kenya has its own bean classification, or gradingsystem,basedonbean size.Beansare sortedbypassing them throughscreenscontaining holes of different diameters: • AA: Beans with screen size 18, adiameterofover7.22mm.Theyarethemostexpensivelotsbecause,ingeneral,theygiveabrewofhighestqualityandgreatestcomplexity.•AB:Beanssizeof16(6.8mm)and15(6.2mm).•PB:Peaberry(orcaracole;seehere).Thesearethethreereferencegradesusedforspecialtycoffees.•C,TT,T:Low-gradebeans.Mostoftheselotsaresoldatauction.

THEFLAVORSOFAKENYANCOFFEE:GICHATHAINIAA

COFFEEFACTS

Annualproduction:56,217UStons Worldmarketshare:0.6%Producer’sworldranking:16th Principalvarieties:SL28,SL34,K7,Ruiru11Harvestperiod(s):November–February Drying:wetprocessCharacteristics:notesofredfruitsandvibrantacidity

RWANDA

Coffeewas brought toRwanda in 1904 byGermanmissionaries. The climate(regular, stable precipitation) and geology of the country (altitude of 5,000 to6,500ft.fertile,volcanicsoils)areconducivetothecultivationofqualitycoffee.

Rwandanproducerstendtobegroupedintocooperatives,whichhavesetuptheirownwashingstations.Thankstoitsstrategyofproducingspecialtycoffee,Rwandacommandshigh,stableprices.ItwasalsothefirstproducercountryinAfricatostageaCupofExcellencecompetition,in2008.

THEFLAVORSOFARWANDANCOFFEE:EPIPHANYMUHIRWA

COFFEEFACTS

COFFEEFACTS

Annualproduction:18,518UStons(99%Arabica/1%Robusta)Worldmarketshare:0.2%Producer’sworldranking:28thPrincipalvariety:RedBourbonHarvestperiod(s):March–JulyDrying:wetprocessCoffeecharacteristics:floral,fruity,goodacidity

THEPOTATODEFECT

InRwandaandBurundi,coffee is sometimesaffectedbyabacteriumthatishardtodetectandwhichgivesthegroundbeans an odor of old potatoes. This bacterium strikesrandomly,contaminatingonebeanwhilesparingtherestofthelot.Althoughbeansaffectedbythisdonotposeahealthrisk,thisveryunpleasantproblemrepresentsarealchallengeforthesetwoproducingcountries.

BURUNDI

Itwasnotuntil the1930s thatcoffeewasbrought toBurundiby theBelgians.Burundi has much in common with its neighbor Rwanda: climate, soils, andaltitudewell-suitedtocoffeegrowing,butalsothepotatodefect.

Burundian coffee is grown by small producers who bring their harvest towashing stations run by the SOGESTAL cooperatives. Prior to 2008, thedifferentlotswereprocessedtogetherandblended.Sincethatdate,thewashingstations have been permitted to keep the lots separate,whichmakes for bettertraceability and allows the lots to be graded according to their taste quality.Burundi was the second African nation to stage a Cup of Excellencecompetition.

THEFLAVORSOFABURUNDIANCOFFEE:GICHATHAINIAA

COFFEEFACTS

Annualproduction:17,857UStons Worldmarketshare:0.2%Producer’sworldranking:29th Principalvariety:RedBourbon(seehere)Harvestperiod(s):March–July Drying:wetprocessCoffeecharacteristics:fruity,citricacidity

RÉUNIONISLAND

Coffeewasintroducedtotheislandin1715.RéunionIsland,whichatthetimewas called Bourbon Island, gave its name to the first variety of coffee to becultivatedthere.TheBourbonvariety,itselforiginallyfromYemen,isavarietyofTypicawhichhasundergoneanaturalmutation.Coffeecultivationbeganinthe1720s,enjoyingagoldenagearound1800,whentheisland’soutputreached4,400US tons. Then natural disasters and sugarcane farming brought about amarkeddropincoffeeproductiononRéunion.In1771,avarietyspecifictotheisland appeared: Bourbon Pointu. After virtually dying out, it began to becultivatedagainintheearly2000s.Productionofthisvarietyisverysmallandaimedatanichemarket.

THEFLAVORSOFARÉUNIONISLANDCOFFEE:BOURBONPOINTU

COFFEEFACTS

Annualproduction:3.3UStons Worldmarketshare:<0.01%Producer’sworldranking:notranked(nichemarket) Principalvarieties:Bourbon(seehere),BourbonPointu(seehere) Harvestperiod(s):October—February Drying:wetprocess Characteristics:mediumbody,mediumacidity,balancedbrew

COFFEEVARIETIES

SL28

•Origin:CreatedbyScottLaboratoryin1931,thisvarietyisrelatedtoBourbonandtoEthiopianvarieties.

•Plant:largeleavesandfairlylargebeans•Resistance:gooddisease-resistance•Yield:low•Recommendedbrewingmethod:slowmethods•Cup:pronouncedacidityandnotesofredfruits

SL34

•Origin:theresultofaBourbonmutationthatoccurredinLoreshoplantationinKabete(centralKenya)•Plant:largeleavesandfairlylargebeans•Yield:high•Resistance:copeswellwithprecipitationathighaltitude•Recommendedbrewingmethod:slowmethods•Cup:recognizedforitssensoryqualities

BOURBONPOINTU

•Origin:AnaturalmutationoftheBourbonvariety,BourbonPointu,alsoknownasLaurinaorCoffeaarabicavar.laurina,isthoughttohaveappearedonRéunionIslandin1771.Virtuallyeradicatedfollowinganepidemicin1880,thevarietywasrediscoveredintheearly2000sbyYoshiakiKawashima.And,withthehelpoftheCIRADresearchorganization,productionwasresumed.•Otherproducingcountry:Madagascar•Plant:smallsize,pyramidshaped,withsmallleavesandcherries.Thebeansareaverydistinctiverectangularshape.•Resistance:gooddroughtresistance,butsusceptibletoleafrust•Yield:low•Recommendedbrewingmethod:espresso•Cup:lowerlevelofcaffeinethantheothervarietiesofCoffeaarabica(0.6%)

HEIRLOOM

Thistermisusedtorefertotheoldestcoffeevarieties.It is used only in Ethiopia, where coffee was not

importedbyman.Itgrowsnaturally,anditisnoteasytoidentifyallthevarietiesthatcompriseaharvest.Asaresult, green coffee buyers and roasters alike use theterm“heirloom”whenreferringtotheancientvarietiesofcoffeefromEthiopia.

BRAZIL

Coffee was introduced to Brazil by the Portuguese in the eighteenth century.Brazilwassoonthenumberonecoffee-producingcountryintheworld,andbythe 1920s was already responsible for 80 percent of the coffee producedworldwide. The country is still the leading producer today, although itsproductionsharehasdiminishedsomewhatasothercountries’coffeeoutputhasgrown. Brazil’s coffee-growing areas are for the most part located in thesoutheastofthecountry.Thecountry’ssize,climate,topography(aflatcountrywith gentle hill slopes, which, importantly, makes it possible to employmachinery), and altitude have enabled it to develop intensive coffee-farmingoperations. It has nearly 300,000 coffee farms, including vast estates usingmodern industrialmethods that improveproductivityandprofitability,butalsoorganic and even biodynamic farms that use fewer chemicals and endeavor topromote biodiversity on their plantations. It is possible to trace very goodBraziliancoffeelotsallthewaytotheindividualplantation.ItwasinBrazilthattheCupofExcellencewasinstitutedin1999.

THEFLAVORSOFABRAZILIANCOFFEE:CAPIMBRANCO

COFFEEFACTS

Annualproduction:2,998,859UStons(67%Arabica,33%Robusta)Worldmarketshare:32%Producer’sworldranking:1stPrincipalvarieties:MundoNovo,Caturra(seehere),Icatu,Bourbon(seehere),Catuai(seehere)Harvestperiod(s):May—AugustDrying:dryprocessandwetprocessCharacteristics:Braziliancoffeesarerenownedfortheirverylowacidity,sweetness,andnuttyovertones;thisiswhytheyareusedasthebasefornumerousblends.

COLOMBIA

Coffee was brought to Colombia at the end of the eighteenth century andcommercialproductionbeganin theearlynineteenthcentury.Therearealmost500,000farms(mostofthemsmallinsize)producingcoffeeinColombia.TheAndesmountain range generates numerousmicroclimates conducive to coffeecultivation, but the topography of the country prevents any expansion ofproduction.Inmanycasestheverysteepmountainslopespreventtheuseofanymachinerywhatsoever, andbecause there are few trees, the soil in these steepterrains is vulnerable to erosion. So producers tend to focus on the quality oftheir output. Only Arabica varieties are cultivated. In 1960, the New Yorkadvertising agency Doyle Dane Bernbach (now know as DDB Worldwide)invented the figure of JuanValdez, the fictional character on the “ColombianCoffee”qualitylabel.Thisromanticimageofthehumblecoffeeproducerwithhis mule did much to enhance Colombian coffee’s reputation for quality.Nowadays coffee only accounts for 10 percent of the country’s exports, but itremainsastrongmarkerofnationalidentity.

THEFLAVORSOFACOLOMBIANCOFFEE:LAVIRGINIA,HUILA

COFFEEFACTS

Annualproduction:826,733UStonsWorldmarketshare:8.8%Producer’sworldranking:3rdPrincipalvarieties:Caturra,CastilloHarvestperiods:allyearroundonaccountofthemanydifferentmicroclimatesDrying:wetprocessCharacteristics:body,sweetness,mediumacidity

ECUADOR

Coffee was introduced to Ecuador in 1860, and was first cultivated in theManabi region.Coffeeproductionpeaked in the1980s,beforedeclining in the1990sasaresultofamajoreconomicrecession.AlargeproportionofEcuador’scoffee output goes into making instant coffee, therefore priority is given toRobusta,andtohigh-yieldbutlow-qualityArabica.However,thereisrealscopefor the cultivationof quality coffee inEcuador, especially at high altitude.Toaddressthischallenge,thecountryneedstoselectvarietiesknownfortheirbrewquality(Typica,Bourbon),andtocounteractthehighcostoflabor.

THEFLAVORSOFANECUADORIANCOFFEE:LASTOLAS

COFFEEFACTS

Annualproduction:42,990UStons(60%Arabica,40%Robusta)Worldmarketshare:0.45%Producer’sworldranking:20thPrincipalvarieties:Typica,Bourbon,CaturraHarvestperiod(s):May–SeptemberDrying:wetprocessanddryprocessCharacteristics:goodacidity,balancedbrew

BOLIVIA

Coffee is thought to have arrived in Bolivia in the nineteenth century. Itsfavorable climate (clearly demarcated dry and wet seasons) and ideal altitudemeanithasgoodpotentialforcoffeecultivation.However,thecountry’slackoffacilitiesandlandlockedsituation,whichmeanexportshavetogoviaPeru,areholdingbackitsdevelopment.Outputisverymodest.Mostoftheapproximately23,000 farms are family-run, covering an area of 5 to 20 acres. Coffee fromBoliviaisorganic,albeituncertified,as,onthewhole,producerscannotaffordtobuychemicals.Boliviancoffeeoffersgoodtraceability; theoriginofaspecificlot can be traced right back to the farm. There are some excellent Boliviancoffees.

THEFLAVORSOFABOLIVIANCOFFEE:7ESTRELLAS

COFFEEFACTS

Annualproduction:7,936UStons Worldmarketshare:0.08%Producer’sworldranking:33rd Principalvarieties:TypicaandCaturraHarvestperiod(s):July–October Drying:wetprocessCharacteristics:Boliviancoffeedoesnothaveagenuinelydistinctiveflavorprofile.Itcanbesweetandwellrounded,withlowacidity.

PERU

CoffeeappearedinPeruintheeigthteenthcentury,andstartedtobeexportedinthenineteenthcentury.Peruhasbecometheworld’sleadingproduceroforganicand even fair trade coffee by volume.One hundred twenty thousand farms oflessthan7acreseachproducethevastmajorityofPeruviancoffee.Someoftheplantationsaresituatedatveryhighaltitude(7,200ft).Overshadowedbythetwolarge producing countries of South America Brazil and Colombia Peruviancoffee(likeBolivian)suffersfromalackofidentity.

THEFLAVORSOFAPERUVIANCOFFEE:ELMANGO

COFFEEFACTS

Annualproduction:224,871UStons Worldmarketshare:2.4%Producer’sworldranking:11th Principalvarietiesgrown:Typica,Bourbon,Caturra Harvestperiod(s):July–September Drying:wetprocessCharacteristics:sweet,clean,lackscomplexity

COFFEEVARIETIES

MUNDONOVO

•Origin:Thisnaturalhybrid(Sumatraxbourbon)wasdiscoveredinBrazilinthe1940s.•Plant:largewithredcherries•Resistance:gooddiseaseresistanceatmediumtohighaltitude•Yield:high(30%higherthanBourbon)•Recommendedbrewingmethod:espresso•Cup:PrizedforitscharacteristicsinBrazil,butitissometimeslackinginsweetness.

ICATU

•Origin:Thishybrid([ArabicaxC.canephora]xmundonovoxcatuai)issaidtohavebeencreatedinBrazilin1985,butwasnotofficiallyrecognizeduntil1993.•Plant:largewithlargecherries;needstobegrownabove2,600ftofaltitude•Resistance:resistanttodiseases,andparticularlytoleafrust(seehere)•Yield:30–50%higherthanMundoNovo•Recommendedbrewingmethod:espresso•Cup:ReputedtobeofmoderatequalityduetotheRobustagenes.However,itcanyieldaremarkablygoodbrewwhencultivatedwell.

TYPICA

•Origin:TypicaistheoldestcultivarofArabica.Ithasgivenrise,byhybridization,toseveralvarietiesofArabica,suchasBlueMountainandMaragogype.•Othercoffee-producingcountries:Theoverwhelmingmajorityofcoffee-producingcountriesgrowTypica,eveninsmallquantities.

•Plant:quitelarge,conicalinshape,growstoaheightof11–20ftwithcopper-coloredleaves•Resistance:betterathighaltitude•Yield:relativelylow•Recommendedbrewingmethod:espressoandslowmethods•Cup:Itisrecognizedforitsflavorcomplexity.

COSTARICA

ItwasintheeighteenthcenturythatthefirstcoffeeshrubswereplantedinCostaRica,andin1832thecountrystartedexportingtoEurope.Nowadays,itishometo around fifty thousand producers with farms of less than 12 acres, growingonlyArabicavarieties;Robustaproductionisprohibitedbylaw.Inthe2000s,torespondtomarketdemandforspecialtycoffee,numerousmicrostationsweresetup, enabling small-scale producers to process their harvest separately andindependently. Lots from different farms, which until then had all beenprocessedtogether,arenowtraceable.

Thegrowers,havingtakencontroloftheirproductioninthisway,havebeenable to experiment and branch out in terms of their drying methods. What’smore, thesestationsemploycreativeapproaches toensure the impactofcoffeeproduction on nature is reduced and environmental legislation complied with.ThisCostaRicaninfrastructureisidealforthedevelopmentofqualitycoffee.

THEFLAVORSOFACOSTARICANCOFFEE:HACIENDAVALERIO

COFFEEFACTS

Annualproduction:99,737UStonsWorldmarketshare:1%Producer’sworldranking:14thPrincipalvarieties:Caturra,VillaSarchi,CatuaiHarvestperiod:November–MarchDrying:honey,dryprocess,wetprocessCharacteristics:sweetness,goodacidity,andcomplextexture

PANAMA

Coffee cultivation began in Panama at the end of the nineteenth century. Therichvolcanic soil, highaltitude, andhighhumidity are all conducive to coffeegrowing. Inaddition,multiplemicroclimatescoexistwithina relatively limitedproduction area. The coffee is produced on family farms or medium-sizedplantations. After the coffee crisis in 1996, the Panamanian coffee industrydecidedtofocusonspecialtycoffeetoboostgrowth.Today,despiteitsmodestoutput, Panama is a respected player in this market, due in particular to theproduction of Geisha, a variety with strong taste potential that thrives in thisterrain.Thebestlotsaresoldatonlineauctions.Traceabilityisexcellent.Theselotscanbetracedrightbacktotheirindividualplotonthefarmwheretheyweregrown.

THEFLAVORSOFAPANAMANIANCOFFEE:GEISHA

COFFEEFACTS

Annualproduction:628UStons Worldmarketshare:0.07%Producer’sworldranking:36th Principalvarieties:Geisha,Caturra,Typica,Bourbon,Catuai Harvestperiod:November–March Drying:wetprocess,dryprocess CharacteristicsofverygoodGeishas:sweet,elegant,balanced,complex,light-bodied,floral,andcitrusy

GUATEMALA

Coffee is said to have been introduced to Guatemala by Jesuits in the mid-eighteenthcentury.Thefirstexports toEuropedatebackto1859.Thecountryhas a varied topography,withmountains, volcanic soils, plains, andnumerousmicroclimates,whichhelpproducecoffeeswithdistinctandveryvariedflavorprofiles. These days, coffee accounts for a large share of the country’sagriculturalexports.Thereareapproximately125,000producersgrowingcoffeeacross an area of 667,184 acres in several parts of the country.Microstationshave sprung up around the country, making it possible to produce micro-lotswith guaranteed traceability. Somore andmore producers are setting up theirownwashingstations,enablingthemtocontrolthiscrucialstage.

THEFLAVORSOFAGUATEMALANCOFFEE:FINCAELPILAR

COFFEEFACTS

Annualproduction:231,485UStons(99.6%Arabica,0.4%Robusta)Worldmarketshare:2.5%Producer’sworldranking:10thPrincipalvarieties:Bourbon(seehere),Catuai,Maragogype(seehere)Harvestperiod:November–MarchDrying:wetprocessCharacteristics:veryvariedflavorprofilesdependingontheterroir:forexample,sweetness,body,roundnesswithchocolatytofloralnotes,tanginess

HONDURAS

ThefirstcoffeeplantsarethoughttohavebeenplantedinHondurasattheendoftheeighteenthcentury.Today,thecountryhasbecomeamajorcoffeeproducer,withmorethan100,000familiesinvolvedincoffeegrowing,predominantlyonsmallplantations.Althoughitsenvironmentalconditionsaresimilar tothoseinotherCentralAmericancountries, transport and infrastructuredevelopment fortheprocessingofcoffeecherriesremainsarealchallengeforHonduras.Insomeareastheveryhumidclimatemakesdryingondryingpatiosdifficult.Tocounterthisproblem,producerseitheruse tunnels,oracombinationofsun-dryingandmechanicaldrying.Formanyyears,Hondurancoffee,which isof lowquality,wasdestinedforthecommoditymarket.RecentlytheHonduranCoffeeInstitute(IHCAFE)hasstartedprovidingtechnical,practical,andeducationalassistancetosmallproducerswithaviewtoimprovingthequalityoftheiroutput.

THEFLAVORSOFAHONDURANCOFFEE:JESUSMORENO

COFFEEFACTS

Annualproduction:357,148UStons Worldmarketshare:3.8%Producer’sworldranking:7th Principalvarieties:Caturra,Catuai,Pacas,Typica Harvestperiod:November–April Drying:wetprocessCharacteristics:Hondurancoffeescanbebothsweetandlight,andcomplexandfruitywithavibrantacidity.

ELSALVADOR

ItwasbackinthenineteenthcenturythatthefirstcoffeeplantswereintroducedtoEl Salvador.Originally, productionwas intended for national consumption;then, in around 1880, the government started encouraging producers to exporttheir coffee. Nowadays, a total of around twenty thousand growers withmedium-sized plantations produce coffee that has a reputation for quality.Bourbonaccountsformorethan60percent,anditisthis,growersbelieve,thatgivesSalvadoriancoffee itsdistinctivecharacter.PacasandPacamaraare alsocultivatedthere.Thelargemajorityofthecoffeesaregrownundershade,whichplays an important part in combating deforestation and soil erosion.Infrastructure and traceability are good. The Salvadorian Coffee Institute(Consejo Salvadoreño del Café) also plays an instrumental role in promotingnationalcoffeeproductionandspreadingthewordaboveallaboutthequalityofthe terroir, with its rich volcanic soil, and the Bourbon cultivar that has beengrown there ever since coffeewas introduced toElSalvador in thenineteenthcentury

THEFLAVORSOFASALVADORIANCOFFEE:FINCALAFANY

COFFEEFACTS

Annualproduction:44,974UStons Worldmarketshare:0.48%Producer’sworldranking:18th Principalvarieties:Bourbon,Pacas,Pacamara(seehere) Harvestperiod:November–March Drying:wetprocess,dryprocess Characteristics:plentyofbody,creamy,mildacidity,balanced

NICARAGUA

Nicaraguahasbeenproducingcoffeesincethemid-nineteenthcentury.Althoughit accounts for the largest share of the country’s exports, this coffee is littleknownduetothecountry’slongperiodsofpoliticalinstability,financialcrises,andnaturaldisasters.Generallyspeaking,theaveragefarmsizeis7acres.Untilrecently, traceability was poor, as the harvests of different producers werepooled at large washing stations. Now some producers have recognized theadvantageoffocusingonthequalityofthecoffeeandonlottraceability.Thingsarestartingtochange.

COFFEEFACTS

Annualproduction:132,277UStons Worldmarketshare:1.4%Producer’sworldranking:13th Principalvarieties:Caturra,Pacamara,Bourbon,Maragogype,Catuai,Catimor Harvestperiod:October–MarchDrying:wetprocess,dryprocess,pulpednatural(seehere)Characteristics:profilesrangingfromsweetwithchocolatynotestofloralandtangy

COFFEEVARIETIES

CATUAI

•Origin:Thishybrid(mundonovoxcaturrajaune)originatingfromBrazilcameontothemarketin1968.•Otherproducercountries:widelycultivatedinBrazilandCentralAmerica•Plant:smallshrub•Resistance:Copeswellwithwindandbadweather(thecherriesdo

notdropoffeasily).Catuaiisahigh-yieldingvarietythatgrowsbestat2,600ftandabove.•Yield:high•Recommendedbrewingmethod:espresso•Cup:standardquality

BOURBON

•Origin:BourbonisanaturalmutationofTypicaoriginallyfoundonRéunionIsland(which,priortotheFrenchrevolution,wascalledBourbonIsland).Itcomesinseveralvarietiesthatproducedifferent-coloredcherries(red,yellow,andorange).•Otherproducercountries:Thegreatmajorityofcoffee-growingcountriesproduceBourbon.•Plant:BourboncherriesaresmallerthanTypicacherries.•Yield:Althoughitsyieldis20–30percenthigherthanTypica,Bourbonisregardedasalow-yieldingvariety.•Resistance:betterataltitudesofbetween3,200and6,500ft•Recommendedbrewingmethod:espressoforRedBourbon/slowmethodsandinicedcoffeeforYellowBourbon•Cup:fine,lightbody,sweet

GEISHA

•Origin:ThisvarietyisthoughttohaveoriginatedclosetoatowncalledGeshainsouthwestEthiopia,whereitwasdiscoveredin1931.In1932,GeshabeanswereintroducedtoKenya.Inthe1950s,therewereattemptstocultivateGeshainCostaRica,butitwasnotuntil1963thatthisvarietywasintroducedinPanama.Inthe2000s,thevariety,rechristenedGeisha,capturedtheattentionofthespecialtycoffeesector.•Otherproducercountries:ColombiaandCostaRica•Plant:tall,withlongleaves,cherries,andbeans•Resistance:quitegood

•Yield:low,withbetterresultsataltitudesofover5,000ft,andonlyincertainsoils•Recommendedbrewingmethod:Slowmethodsarepreferable.•Cup:Verydistinctiveflavorprofile,floral,veryrefined,complex,withthebodyofateaandaromasofcitrusfruitsandberries.GeishahasbeencrownedthewinnerinseveralconteststofindthebestcoffeesinPanama.

PACAS

•Origin:DevelopedasamutationofBourbon.Thisvarietywasdiscoveredin1949inElSalvadorbyaSalvadoriangrowerbythenameofPacas.•Plant:smallerthantheBourbonplant•Resistance:betterdiseaseresistancethanBourbon•Yield:quitegoodathighaltitude•Recommendedbrewingmethod:espresso•Cup:fairlysimilartoBourbon

PACAMARA

•Origin:Thishybrid(pacasxmaragogype)wascreatedinElSalvadorin1958,thefruitofapartnershipbetweenFranceandCIRAD.TheaimwastocombinecertaincharacteristicsofPacaswiththoseofMaragogype.•Otherproducercountries:Mexico,Nicaragua,Colombia,Honduras,andGuatemala•Plant:small,butproduceslargebeans•Resistance:Copeswellwithwindandbadweather.Arobustplant.•Yield:betterthanPacas•Recommendedbrewingmethod:slowmethods•Cup:flavorprofilesometimescomplexwithgoodaciditywhencultivatedingoodconditionsathighaltitude

VILLALOBOS

•Origin:mutationofCostaRicanBourbon•Plant:normalsizecherries•Resistance:wind-resistant•Yield:highathighaltitude•Recommendedbrewingmethod:espressoandfilter•Cup:beanswithgoodsensoryqualities

CATURRA

•Origin:ThismutationofBourbonwasdiscoveredinBrazilclosetothetownofCaturrain1937.•Producercountries:CostaRicaandNicaragua.NotwidelygrowninBrazil.•Plant:smallshrubwithlargeleaves•Resistance:betterthanthatofBourbonorTypica•Yield:good,higherthanBourbon•Recommendedbrewingmethod:espressoandslowmethods•Cup:HighlyregardedinColombia.Generally,thequalityinthecupisnotasgoodasBourbon.

VILLASARCHI

•Origin:naturalmutationofBourbonfoundnearthetownofSarchi(CostaRica)•Plant:normal-sizecherries,bronze-coloredleaves•Resistance:quitelow•Yield:productiveathighaltitude•Recommendedbrewingmethod:espresso•Cup:acidityandsweetness,clean

MEXICO

CoffeewasintroducedtoMexicoviatheAntillesinthelateeighteenthcentury.Recordsshowthefirstcoffeewasexportedin1802.

Mexican coffee was long regarded as inexpensive but of little interest.Producershad tocontendwith limitedyields,an inadequate infrastructure,andmeager support from the authorities. In 2012, things started to change whenMexico held its own Cup of Excellence competition, which gave Mexicanproducers an opportunity to showcase distinctive, high-quality coffees. Today,Mexico,withitsmedium-sizedplantations,hasbecomeamajorcoffeeproducer,especiallyofcoffeescertifiedfairtradeandorganic.

THEFLAVORSOFAMEXICANCOFFEE:FINCAKASSANDRA

COFFEEFACTS

Annualproduction:257,940UStons Worldmarketshare:2.75%Producer’sworldranking:8th Principalvarieties:Maragogype,Pacamara,Bourbon,Typica,Caturra,MundoNovo,Catuai,Catimor Harvestperiod:November–March Drying:wetprocessCharacteristics:sweetness,lightness;butwell-rounded,balancedcoffeeswithamalicandcitricacidityalsofeature

JAMAICA

In 1728, the governor of Jamaica, Sir Nicholas Lawes, obtained seeds fromcoffee trees from Martinique. Coffee was first grown in the area aroundKingston, before spreading to the slopes of the BlueMountain region, whichgaveitsnametoJamaica’siconiccoffeevariety.BlueMountain,whichhaslongbeen one of the most expensive coffees in the world, is unique in that it isexported in barrels, rather than the traditional jute bags. Virtually all of theoutput isconsumed in Japanand theUnitedStates.The famedBlueMountaincoffeeisheldinhighesteemandhasareputationasatop-of-the-line,premiumcoffee,butisperhapsalittleoverratedcomparedtootherspecialtycoffees.

THEFLAVORSOFAJAMAICANCOFFEE:BLUEMOUNTAIN

COFFEEFACTS

Annualproduction:1,102UStons Worldmarketshare:lessthan0.1%Producer’sworldranking:44th Principalvarieties:BlueMountain,Bourbon,Typica Harvestperiod:September–March Drying:wetprocessCharacteristics:sweet,rich,syrupy

HAWAII

ThefirstcoffeeplantswerebroughttoHawaiifromBrazilin1825.Productionremainedmodestuntilthe1980s,withgrowerspreferringtocultivatesugarcane.ThemosthighlyreputedHawaiiancoffeecomesfromKona,onthemainislandof the archipelago. Coffees bearing the Kona label must include at least 10percentKona-grown coffee.Hawaiian coffee is fairly expensive, owing to thehighercostoflaborandproductioncoststhaninotherproducingcountries.

THEFLAVORSOFAHAWAIIANCOFFEE:KONAEXTRAFANCY

COFFEEFACTS

Annualproduction:3,858UStons Worldmarketshare:lessthan0.1%Producer’sworldranking:41st Principalvarieties:Typica,CatuaiHarvestperiod:September–January Drying:wetprocessanddryprocessCharacteristics:mediumbody,lowacidity

COFFEEVARIETIES

BLUEMOUNTAIN

•Origin:VarietyderivedfromTypicaandothervarieties.ItisnamedaftertheBlueMountaincoffeeregionofJamaica.•Otherproducercountries:Kona(Hawaii)andwesternKenyasince1913•Plant:likeTypica,quitetall,conicalinshape,growstoaheightof11to20ft,withcopper-coloredleaves•Resistance:fairlyresilientandabletocopewithhighaltitude•Yield:low

•Recommendedbrewingmethod:espressoandfilter•Cup:wellrounded

MARAGOGYPE

•Origin:ThisnaturalmutationofTypicawasdiscoveredintheMaragogyperegioninthestateofBahia,Brazil.•Producercountries:GuatemalaandBrazil•Plant:verytall,withlargeleaves,largecherries,andlargeseeds•Resistance:nothingofnote•Yield:low•Recommendedbrewingmethod:espressoandfilter•Cup:sweetandfruity

KENT

•Origin:AmutationofTypicathatoriginatedinIndia.ThisvarietyhasbeenwidelygrowninIndiasincethe1930s.ItservedasabasefortheK7varietygrowninKenya.•Producercountries:IndiaandTanzania•Plant:likeTypica,buttheseedsarelarger•Resistance:relativelygoodresistancetoleafrust•Yield:high•Recommendedbrewingmethod:espresso•Cup:lightacidityandroundness

INDONESIA

Indonesia started exporting coffee toEurope in 1711via theDutchEast IndiaCompany.AtthattimeonlyArabicavarietieswerecultivated,butin1876,muchof the harvest was wiped out by a leaf rust epidemic. The producers thenswitched to growingRobusta,which hasmuch better resistance to this fungaldisease. Nowadays, the large majority of the coffee produced in Indonesia isRobusta. Ninety percent of the coffee plantations in the archipelago areextremelysmall insize(2 to5acres).ThemostcommonlycultivatedvarietiesareTypica,HibridodeTimor(commonlyknownas“Tim”inSumatra),Caturra,andCatimor.

THEFLAVORSOFANINDONESIANCOFFEE:SULAWESI

COFFEEFACTS

Annualproduction:595,248UStons(16.5%Arabica,83.5%Robusta) Worldmarketshare:6.3%Producer’sworldranking:4thPrincipalvarieties:Typica(seehere),HibridodeTimor,Caturra(seehere),Catimor Harvestperiods:October–May(Sulawesi),October–March(Sumatra),June–October(Java) Drying:semiwashed(gilingbasah),dryprocess,wetprocess Characteristics:

•Sumatrancoffeesarecharacterizedbynotesofwoodandspice,plentyofbody,andverylowacidity.•ThecoffeesofSulawesihavelowacidity,arichtexture,andnotesofherbsandspices.•Javancoffeesarenotedfortheirbody,lowacidity,andratherearthyovertones.

INDONESIA

Eachislandproducescoffeewithitsowndistinctcharacteristics.

Sumatra is Indonesia’s largest island. Coffee is grown in the north (Aceh,Lintong) and the south (Lampung and Mangkuraja), at altitudes of between2,600and5,000 ft.Thecoffee isdriedusingaprocessknownasgilingbasah(“semiwashed”;seehere),whichlendsthebeansacharacteristicbluishcolor.

Sulawesi is the island that produces the highest proportion of Arabica. Thegrowing areas are located in thewest and southwest of the island, at between3,600and5,000ftofaltitude.ThebestknownareaisTanaToraja,thehighestpartoftheisland,whichprovidesthebestconditionsforcoffeecultivation.Theother areas are Mamasa, Enrekang, Gowa, and Sinjal. The most commonlygrownArabicavariety isS795, ahybridofTypica.Although thegilingbasahmethodistraditionallyused,therearealsosomewashedcoffeestobefound.

AlargeproportionofthecoffeeofJavaisRobusta,growninIndonesia’slargestplantationsatlowaltitudeundergovernmentsupervision(alegacyoftheDutchcolonialera).Arabicaisproducedataltitudesof4,600to5,900ft.Javancoffeetendstobedriedusingthewetprocess.

KOPILUWAK

Thesearecoffeebeansharvestedfromthedroppingsofthecivet cat (called luwak in Indonesia). These mammals ofSoutheastAsiaeatcoffeecherries,digestthepulp,andexpelthe beans in their excrement. This discovery dates back tothe eighteenth century, when the Indonesian plantationswereownedby theDutch,whobanned local farmers fromconsumingthecoffeebeans,whichweredeemedapreciouscommodityand, at the time, intended for consumers in theWest. So by harvesting coffee beans that had beenpredigestedbycivets, farmerswereable tocircumvent thisban.This typeofcoffeeexhibitsaparticular flavorprofile (it issaid to be sweeter and richer) on account of fermentationthatoccursduringthedigestionphase.Kopi luwak is today part of global coffee folklore, and itssuccesshaspromptedsomeunscrupulousproducerstokeepcivets in cages and feed them coffee cherries (and notalways the right kind) so as to generate more predigestedcoffee in order to meet market demand. These dubiouspractices,combinedwithveryhighprices,makekopiluwakacontroversialproduct.

INDIA

CoffeeissaidtohavebeenintroducedtoIndiain1670byBabaBudan,apilgrimreturning fromMecca.He is said tohavecarried sevencoffeebeanswithhimfrom Yemen, and planted them, with success, in the Chandragiri hills in theKarnataka region (in the west of the country). It was not until the nineteenthcentury, under the British, that the coffee trade took off. Arabica varietiespredominatedatthattime,butleafrustinfestationspromptedgrowerstoswitchtoRobustaorhybrids(arabicaxliberica),oreventogiveupcoffeegrowinginfavor of tea cultivation. In 1942, the Indian government decided to regulatecoffeeexports,anditwasnotuntilthe1990sthattheywerederegulated.TodayIndiahasaround250,000producersworkingcoffeeplantationsof less than10acres.Arabica varieties tend to be produced at altitudes of between3,000 and5,000 ft, under the shade of other exotic plants (pepper, cardamom, banana,vanilla,etc.).

THEFLAVORSOFANINDIANCOFFEE:MALABARMOUSSONNÉ

COFFEEFACTS

Annualproduction:364,887UStons(27.45%Arabica,72.5%Robusta)Worldmarketshare:3.9%Producer’sworldranking:6th Principalvarieties:Sarchimor,Kent,Catimor,S795Harvestperiod(s):January–March Drying:monsooned,semiwashed,wetprocess,anddryprocess Characteristics:(seebox:MonsoonedCoffee)

COFFEEVARIETIES

SARCHIMOR

•Origin:hybrid(villasarchixhibridodeTimor)•Otherproducercountries:CostaRica,India•Resistance:ItsCoffeacanephoragenesmakeithighlyresistanttoleafrust.•Yield:decent(averageof2,200lb/2.5acres)•Recommendedbrewingmethod:espresso•Cup:notveryhighquality

HIBRIDODETIMOR

•Origin:Naturalhybrid(CoffeaarabicaxCoffeacanephora)discoveredinTimorinthe1920s.ThisvarietywasusedtoproducevarioushybridslikeCatimor,Sarchimor(villasarchixhibridodeTimor)inBrazil,andRuiru11inKenya.•Otherproducercountry:Indonesia•Plant:thishybridhas44chromosomes,likeallotherArabicavarieties.•Resistance:good•Yield:decent(averageof2,200lb/2.5acres)•Recommendedbrewingmethod:espresso•Cup:notreputedforitsflavor,owingtoitsRobustagenes

CATIMOR

•Origin:hybrid(hibridodeTimorxcaturra)createdinPortugal•Otherproducercountries:CentralAmerica,SouthAmerica•Plant:normalsizecherries•Resistance:resistant,cancopewithfairlylowaltitudes•Yield:productive•Recommendedpreparationmethod:espresso•Cup:canbe

inferior(duetobeingpartiallyderivedfromTimor,whichisahybridofCoffeaarabicaxCoffeacanephora).

MONSOONEDCOFFEE

India’smostfamouscoffeeisMonsoonMalabar,whichhas a very distinctive flavor profile as a result of itsuniquedryingprocess.Inthecolonialera,greencoffeebeans being shipped from India to Europe wereexposed to sea winds and moisture, causing them toswellandageprematurelyandgivingthemaflavorlikenone other. To re-create this specific flavor today,green coffee beans are stored in open warehouseswhere they are exposed to humid monsoon air andabsorbmoisture. The swollen beans lose their naturalacidity and turn pale. The coffee produces an earthybrew,withoutaciditybutwithalotofbody.

CHAPTER5

APPENDICES

USEFULADDRESSES&COFFEEEVENTS

Worldwideevents

WCE (World Coffee Events) World coffee championships (barista, brewer’scup,latteart,coffeeingoodspirits,cuptasters,roasting)worldcoffeeevents.org

HOSTMilanBiennial

TheSCAAExpoSpecialty Coffee Association of America, in the United States MICE(MelbourneInternationalCoffeeExpo)InAustralia

NationalAeropresschampionshipsInmorethanfortycountriesLondonCoffeeFestival

NewYorkCoffeeFestival

AmsterdamCoffeeFestival

CoLabbaristaguildofeurope.com/what-is-colab

Coffeeshopsaroundtheworld

PARIS

Coutume47,ruedeBabylone75007ParisFrance

Dose73,rueMouffetard75005ParisFrance

82,PlaceduDrFélixLobligeois75017Paris

France

Honor54,rueduFaubourg-Saint-Honoré75008ParisFrance

Loustic40,rueChapon75003ParisFrance

LONDON

AssociationCoffee10-12CreechurchLnLondonEC3A5AYUnitedKingdom

PrufrockCoffee23-25LeatherLnLondonEC1N7TEUnitedKingdom

WorkshopCoffee27ClerkenwellRdLondonEC1M5RNUnitedKingdom

DUBLIN

3fe32GrandCanalSt.Lower,Dublin2Ireland

MeetMeintheMorning50PleasantsStreetPortobello,Dublin8Ireland

COPENHAGEN

TheCoffeeCollectiveOdthåbsvej34B2000Frederiksberg,DenmarkOSLO

TimWendelboeGrünersgate10552Oslo,Norvège

SupremeRoastworkThorvaldMeyersGate18A0474OsloNorway

STOCKHOLM

DropCoffeeWollmarYxkullsgatan1011850StockholmSweden

FLORENCE

DittaArtigianaleViadeiNeri,32/R50122FlorenceItaly

NEWYORK

EverymanEspresso301WBroadwayNewYork,NY10013UnitedStates

LAKEWOOD/DENVER

SweetBloomCoffeeRoasters1619ReedSt.LakewoodCO80214

UnitedStates

LOSANGELES

G&BCoffeeC-19,317SBroadwayLosAngelesCA90013UnitedStatesSEATTLE

EspressoVivace227YaleAveNSeattleWA98109UnitedStates

MONTREAL

CafeMyriade1432rueMackayMontréalQCH3G2H7Canada

TOKYO

FuglenTokyo1-16-11TomigayaShibuya151-0063Japan

MELBOURNE

StAliCoffeeRoasters12-18YarraPlSouthMelbourneVIC3205Australia

SÃOPAULO

IssoéCaféR.CarlosComenales/nBelaVista,SãoPaulo-SP

Brazil

COFFEESHOPCAKES&COOKIES

Coffeeshopsoftenofferaselectionofcakesandpastriestoaccompanyone’scoffee.Herearesomeofthewell-knownonesfromFrenchpastrychefYohanKim.

Carrotcake

Makes8to10servings

2½OZBUTTER,ATROOMTEMPERATURE,PLUSMOREFORTHEPAN

7OZSUPERFINESUGAR

3EGGS

¼TSPFINESALT

10½OZALL-PURPOSEFLOUR

1OZBAKINGPOWDER

¼TSPGROUNDCINNAMON

5FLOZPLAINGREEKYOGURT

10½OZFINELYGRATEDCARROTS

3½OZCHOPPEDWALNUTS(ORHAZELNUTS,ALMONDS,ETC.)

1Preheattheovento350°F.Greasea9"x5"bakingpanwithbutter.

2Beattogetherthebutterandsugaruntilcreamyandsmooth.

3Beat togethertheeggsandsalt.Sift theflour,bakingpowder,andcinnamonintoanotherbowl.

4 Incorporate the eggmixture, the dry ingredients, yogurt, grated carrots, andchoppednutsinturnintothebutter-sugarmixture.

5Pourthecakebatterintothepreparedpanandbakefor35minutes.

6Leavethecarrotcaketocoolinthepan,thenturnitoutandcutitintosmallsquares.

Financiers

Makes20cakes

5½OZGROUNDALMONDS(ALMONDFLOUR)3½OZSUPERFINESUGAR

¾OZALL-PURPOSEFLOUR

7OZEGGWHITES

5½OZBUTTER

1Preheattheovento350°F.

2Sifttogetherthegroundalmonds,sugar,andflour.

3Addtheeggwhitestothedryingredientsandmix.

4Meltthebutterinamicrowave,addittothemixture,andmixwell.

5Spoonthebatterintoafinancierpan,dividingitamongtheindividualmolds,thenbakefor9to10minutes.

6Leavethefinancierstocoolinthepan,thencarefullyreleasefromtheirmolds.

PERFECTWITHANESPRESSO

Chocolatecookies

Makes20cookies

4¼OZSUPERFINESUGAR

5EGGS

1¾OZALL-PURPOSEFLOUR

1OZUNSWEETENEDCOCOAPOWDER

1¾OZBUTTER,ATROOMTEMPERATURE

3½OZDARKCHOCOLATE

1Preheattheovento325°F.Lineabakingsheetwithparchmentpaper.

2Beatthesugarandeggstogetherinabowluntilthemixtureturnspale.

3Sifttheflourandcocoapowdertogetherintoabowl,thenincorporatetheflourmixtureintothesugar-eggmixture.

4Usingaspatula,workthebuttertoacreamyconsistency.Breakthechocolateintosmallchunks.Addthebutter,thenthechocolatetothemixture.

5Placesmallspoonfulsofthedoughonthepreparedbakingsheet,takingcaretospacethemout,thenbakefor15to20minutes.

6Leavethecookiestocoolonthebakingsheet,thencarefullyliftthemofftheparchmentpaper.

PERFECTWITHANESPRESSOORAFILTERCOFFEE

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Theauthorswouldliketothanktheirfamiliesfortheirsupport.TheyalsowishtothankStéphaneCataldi,roaster-traveler,forhisvaluableadvice;YohanKimforthecakeandcookierecipes;DavidLahoz;BrianO’Keeffe;andMikaëlPortannier.

THEAUTHORS

Chung-LengTrantrainedasaphotographerbeforetakingupanewcareerasabarista. He was the French champion in the 2012 Brewers Cup. His coffeemoments: a filter coffee (from Ethiopia or Kenya) in the morning and anespressoafterlunch.

SébastienRacineuxisateacherofengineeringandabaristatrainer.In2011hesetuptheEspressologietrainingorganization.HewontheCoutumetournamentin2012,andwasnamedFrenchvice-championintheBrewersCupin2012and2014.Hiscoffeemoment:anEthiopianunwashedcoffeemidmorning.

In 2015, Sébastien and Chung-Leng, along with Stéphane Cataldi and DavidLahoz,openedtheirownroasteryandcoffeeshop,HexagoneCafé,inParis.

THEILLUSTRATOR

Yannis Varoutsikos is an artistic director and illustrator. He has illustratedseveralbooksforMarabout:LeVinc’estpassorcier(2013),LeGrandmanueldu pâtissier (2014), Le Rugby c’est pas sorcier (2015), Le Grand manuel ducuisinier(2015).Hiscoffeemoments:aBurundiancoffeewithhisgrandmother.OramorningfiltercoffeemadeintheChemex.Thankyou,Amandine!

*TDS:TOTALDISSOLVEDSOLIDS.here.

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