Cocoa Fourth Edition G. A. R. Wood, BA, DTA formerly Cadbury Schweppes plc arid R. A. Lass, B.Sc. (Agric.), DTA Cadbriry Schweppes plc b Blackwell Science
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Cocoa
Fourth Edition
G. A. R. Wood, BA, DTA formerly Cadbury Schweppes plc
arid
R. A. Lass, B.Sc. (Agric.), DTA Cadbriry Schweppes plc
b Blackwell Science
Cocoa
TROPICAL AGRICULTURE SERIES
The Tropical Agriculture Series, of which this volume forms part, is published under the editorship of Gordon Wrigley
ALREADY PUBLISHED
Tobacco B. C . Akehurst Sugar-cane Frank Blackburn Tropical Grassland Husbandry L. V. Crowder and
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Cocoa G. A. R. Wood and R. A . Lass Coffee G . Wrigley
Payne
Wilson
G. Williamson and W . J . A . Payne
Cocoa
Fourth Edition
G. A. R. Wood, BA, DTA formerly Cadbury Schweppes plc
arid
R. A. Lass, B.Sc. (Agric.), DTA Cadbriry Schweppes plc
b Blackwell Science
(For Blackwell Science Books - + IOWA address in left column & as dibtrihutor. 07/03/01) (iv)
0 Cadhury Schweppes plc (formerly Cadhury Limited/Cadhury Brothers Limited). 1961 0 Longman Group Ltd, 1975. 1985 Blackwell Science Ltd Editorial Oflices: Osney Mead, Oxford OX2 OEL 25 John Street. London WClN 2BS 23 Ainslie Place, Edinburgh EH3 6AJ 350 Main Street, Malden
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British Library Cataloguing in Publication data
Wood. G.A.R. Cocoa.4th ed. - (Tropical agriculture series) I . Cacao 2. Cocoa 1. Title I I . Las. R.A. 111. Series 633.7'4 SB267
ISBN 0-632-06398-X
Library of Congresh Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Wood. G . A. R. (George Alan Roskruge). 1920- Cocoa.
(Tropical agriculture series) Bibliography: p. Includes index. I. Cacao. 2. Cocoa. 1. Lass, R. A,. 1943-
11. Title. 111. Series. SB267.W66 1985 633.7'4 84.17152 ISBN 0-470-20618-7 (Wiley. USA only)
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Contents
PREFACE
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
NOTE ON TERMINOLOGY
LIST OF PLATES
LIST OF FIGURES
LIST OF MAPS
GLOSSARY
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
History and development G. A . R. Wood
Botany, types and populations H. Toxopeus
Environment G. A . R. Wood
Planting material H. Toxopeus
Propagation G. A . R. Wood
Establishment G. A . R. Wood
Shade and nutrition M . Wessel
Maintenance and improvement of mature cocoa farms R. A . Lass
Replanting and rehabilitation of old cocoa farms R. A . Lass
Labour usage R. A . Lass
Diseases R. A . Lass
vii
ix
X
xi
xv
xviii
xix
1
11
38
80
93
119
166
195
210
234
265
vi Contents
12 Insects and cocoa P. F. Entwistle
13 From harvest to store G. A . R. Wood
14 Quality and inspection G. A. R. Wood
15 Marketing A. P. Williamson
16 Production G. A . R. Wood
17 Consumption and manufacture G. A . R. Wood
APPENDIX 1 Visual symptoms of mineral malnutrition
APPENDIX 2 International Cocoa Standards
APPENDIX 3 Conversion factors
APPENDIX 4 Publications on cocoa
INDEX
366
444
505
528
543
587
598
60 1
607
608
610
Preface to the fourth edition
The text of the third edition was completed in 1973 just before the sharp rise in cocoa prices which stimulated a surge of interest in plant- ing cocoa, particularly in Brazil and Malaysia. This fresh interest gave rise to much new cultural information and to some new problems which led to research projects designed to overcome them. Cocoa production has not greatly increased since 1973, but there have been considerable changes in the distribution of production; Ghana and Nigeria declining in importance, while Brazil, Ivory Coast and South- East Asia have risen. These changes and the new knowledge about cocoa production are dealt with in this new edition which has been almost entirely rewritten and all aspects are dealt with in greater de- tail and from a wider range of publications than before.
This could not have been done competently and expeditiously without the help of our collaborators. P. F. Entwistle, the author of Pests of Cocoa, has rewritten and enlarged the chapter on ‘Insects and cocoa’; H. Toxopeus, a plant breeder with wide experience of cocoa, has contributed the chapters on botany and planting material, while his fellow-countryman, M. Wessel, has written the chapter on shade and nutrition. The institutions to which these three currently belong are given in the chapter heads. A. P. Williamson, the director in charge of cocoa buying for Cadbury Schweppes plc, has brought the chapter on cocoa marketing up to date. We are most grateful to all these contributors.
We would also like to thank many others for their advice and assistance to us and to our collaborators during the preparation of this book: C. A. Thorold for his interest in the history of cocoa; A. J. Smyth ana E. A. Wyrley-Birch of the Land Resources Division of the Overseas Development Administration; W. E. Freeman of Trinidad; P. de T. Alvim of CEPLAC, Brazil; H. C. Evans of the Common- wealth Mycological Institute; A. J. Bailey of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew; J. D . Mumford and B. E . J. Wheeler of Imperial College; P. H. Gregory, formerly of Rothamsted Experiment Station; Salman Shah of Borneo Abaca Ltd, Sabah; C. Prior of Lowlands
... VIII Preface
Experiment Station, Keravat, Papua New Guinea; W. Hadfield, J . S. Lawrence, A. C. Maddison and J . Orchard, ODA; M. G. Graham, Agrotech Associates, Sabah.
Many of our colleagues at Cadbury Schweppes, Bournville, have assisted us, including A. J . Beales, A. B. Cook, R. J . E. Duncan, P. M. Grist, G . D. Pearse, B. A. Penney, B. D . Powell, P. Smith, P. H. Wiggall, F. J . Stanley and his library staff, Mrs E. Wilkins and the Word Processing Department. Finally, we wish to thank Cadbury Schweppes plc for enabling us to carry out this work and our families for tolerating the inconvenience.
March 1984 G . A. R. Wood R. A. Lass
The occasion of a reprint has been taken to correct some errors and misprints and also to update the figures of production and consumption in chapters 16 and 17.
November 1986 G. A. R. Wood R. A. Lass
Acknowledgements
We are grateful to the following for permission to reproduce copyright material: Agraria Press Ltd for fig 6.3 (Nelliat et a1 1974); British Ecological Society for fig 7.1 (Murray 1975); ’the author, Dr. J . G. Carr for fig 13.3 (Carr et a1 1979); CommissCo Executiva do Plano da Lavoura Cacaueira for Table 3.7 (CEPECkEPLAC, 1974); The Cocoa Chocolate & Confectionery Alliance for figs 13.4, 13.7 (Anon 1983), Table 13.3 (Dougan 1980); the Editor, Cocoa Growers’ Bulletin pub. Cadbury Schweppes plc for fig 5.1 (Edwards 1959), Tables 3.2 (Lee 1974), 3.4 (Smyth 1980), 5.2 (Shepherd 1976), 7.5-6, 7.9, 7.14 (Wessel 1980); Cocoa Producers’ Alliance for Table 6.9 (Bonaparte 1981b) 0 Cocoa Producers’ Alliance; Department of Agriculture, Sabah for fig 6.1 (Wyrley - Birch 1978); the Controller of Her Majesty’s Stationery Office for Tables 17.3-4 (Paul & Southgate 1978); the Editor, The Journal of Horticultural Science for fig 7.2 (Ahenkorah et a1 1974); The Incorporated Society of Planters for fig 6.2 (Mainstone 1972), Tables 7.3 (Thong & Ng 1978) 7.12 (Ebon et a1 1978); Inter-American Institute for Cooperation on Agriculture for Table 13.1 from page 350 (Hardy, 1960); International Board for Plant Genetic Resources for fig 219 (Anon 1981); Koninklijk Instituut Voor De Tropen (Royal Tropical Inst.) for figs 7.3-4, Tables 7.7, 7.10-11, 7.13, 7.15 (Wessel 1971); Longman Group Ltd for figs 12.1-12.23 (Entwistle 1972); Macmillan Accounts & Administration Ltd for fig 2.7 from fig 18 (Van Hall 1932); Smithsonian Institution Press for figs 2.1-2.3a/b, 2.6, 2.8 (Cuatrecasas 1964).
We have unfortunately been unable to trace the copyright holders of figs 2.4a,b,c (Van Himme 1959) and Table 16.3 (Ankrah 1974) and would appreciate any information which would enable us to do so.
Note on terminology
In this edition we have standardised on the names of certain diseases: 1. ‘Phytophthora pod rot’ is used in place of ‘black pod’ in order to
avoid confusion in other languages. 2. ‘Monilia pod rot’ is here called ‘Moniliophthora pod rot’ owing to
the proposed change in generic name, though the former name is still in widespread usage.
I t should also be noted that BHC is referred to as HCH in line with modern nomenclature.
As the book was going to press it was learnt that the generic name of the cocoa pod borer Acrocercops cramerella has been changed to Conopomorpha (Bradley 1985). The earlier familiar name appears in the text.
Ref. Bradley, J. D. (1985) A change of generic name for the cocoa moth Acrocercops cramerella (Snellen) (Lepidoptera: Gracillariidae) Entomologists’ Record 97: 29-30.
Colour between pages 172-173 and 268-269
I.
11. 111. IV . V.
VI.
VII. VIII.
IX . X.
XI. XI1 .
Botanical illustration from Der Cacao und'die Cho- colade by Alfred Mitscherlich, Berlin 18.59. Symptoms of nitrogen deficiency. Symptoms of iron deficiency. Symptoms of potassium deficiency. Symptoms of calcium deficiency. Cocoa beans showing defects and degree of fer- mentation. Phytophthora canker, West Africa. Vascular-streak dieback, Papua New Guinea. Pods attacked by Phytophthora spp. Nigeria. Attack by Crinipellis perniciosu on pods. Pod attacked by Moniliophthora pod rot, Ecuador. Pod rot caused by Truchysphaera fructigena, Ghana.
Black and white
P1. 2.1
P1. 2.2 P1. 2.3
P1. 2.4
P1. 2.5 P1. 4.1 P1. 5.1
Amelonado cocoa pods showing arrangement of beans. Young cocoa plant showing jorquette. Young cocoa tree with jorquette and five fan branches, bearing cherelles and pods. A seven-year-old cocoa tree grown from a fan cutting . A cocoa farm in West Africa. Comum cocoa pod from Bahia, Brazil. Plastic tube covering a flower bud for hand- pollination.
13 14
1.5
15 25 8.5
97
xii Plates
PI. 5.2 A cocoa nursery in West Africa. P1. 5.3 A cocoa nursery in Malaysia under rubber trees. PI. 5.4 A cocoa nursery in Sabah, Malaysia. PI. 5.5 P1. 5.6 PI. 5.7 P1. 5.8
PI. 5.9
P1. 5.10 PI. 5.11
PI. 5.12
P1. 5.13
P1. 6.1 PI. 6.2 P1. 6.3
PI. 6.4
PI. 6.5 PI. 6.6 P1. 6.7 PI. 6.8 P1. 6.9 P1. 9.1
P1. 10.1
P1. 11.1
PI. 11.2
PI. 11.3
PI. 11.4 PI. 11.5 P1. 11.6 PI. 11.7
PI. 11.8
A seedling ready for planting. Rooted stem cutting. A simple propagating bin for cuttings, Nigeria. Budstock from fan branch, showing pruned leaf petioles. Seedling stock panel opened to receive bud- patch; note short ‘tongue’ of bark at lower end. Budpatch extracted from budstick. Operator holding budpatch by petiole remnant while placing budpatch against stock panel. Seedling stock showing budpatch and tape after tying. An oblique upward cut is made to arch over the stock of a successfully budded plant. Cocoa under forest shade, Ivory Coast. Young cocoa under thinned forest, Cameroon. Cocoa under temporary shade of bananas, Ivory Coast. Young cocoa under Leucaena leucocephala, Papua New Guinea. Cocoa under Gliricidia sepium, Malaysia. Seedling cocoa under coconuts, Malaysia. Young cocoa under coconuts, Malaysia. Young cocoa under arecanuts, India. Mature planting of rooted cuttings, Trinidad. Regrowth of an old cocoa tree from a basal chupon, Cameroon. A small cross-country vehicle in use on an estate in Trinidad. Witches’ broom disease - a typical vegetative broom. Witches’ broom disease - brooms and malformed pods. Young seedling infected with witches’ broom, Ronddnia, Brazil. Cushion gall disease. Warty pod, West Africa. Cocoa swollen shoot virus, leaf symptoms. Vascular-streak dieback. Early and advanced symptoms. White thread-blight. Mistletoe, Ivory Coast. P1. 11.9
PI. 11.10 Mistletoe, Equatorial Guinea.
100 100’ 102 103 106 110
113
113 115
115
115
115 119 121
123
127 129 139 140 143 159
223
254
286
287
288 301 305 313
325 341 348 349
Plates
PI. 12.1 Capsid damage in West Africa. PI. 12.2 Pod damage by Distantiella theobroma West
Africa. P1. 12.3 Pod damaged by Helopeltis spp. PI. 12.4 Mist-blower used for capsid control in Ghana. PI. 12.5 Pod damaged by Bathycoelia thalassina. PI. 12.6 Mealybugs: nymphs of Planococcoides njalensis. P1. 12.7 Pod damaged by Acrocercops cramerella. P1. 12.8 Pupae of A . cramerella on cocoa leaf. PI. 12.9 Pod damaged by Marmara spp. PI. 12.10 Rat damage to pod in Malaysia. P1. 12.11 Squirrel damage to pod in Malaysia. PI. 13.1 Opening pods, Cameroon. PI. 13.2 Mules carrying wet beans, Bahia, Brazil. PI. 13.3 A cascade of boxes, Ivory Coast. P1. 13.4 A row of fermenting boxes, Ecuador. P1. 13.5 A fermenting box showing'slatted floor. P1. 13.6 A cascade of boxes with moveable side wall,
Malaysia. PI. 13.7 The start of a heap ferment, Ghana. PI. 13.8 A heap ferment uncovered. P1. 13.9 Basket fermentation, Ivory Coast. P1. 13.10 Fermenting tray with matting floor. PI. 13.11 Tray fermentation: tiers of trays. PI. 13.12 Pressing wet beans with hydraulic ram, Malaysia. PI. 13.13 Simple screw press, India. PI. 13.14 Drying mats in a Ghana village. PI. 13.15 Drying cocoa beans on a concrete floor, Ivory
Coast. P1. 13.16 A row of barcaqas, Brazil. P1. 13.17 A Samoan dryer. PI. 13.18 Fermenting boxes and circular dryer, Sabah. PI. 13.19 Circular dryer, Indonesia. PI. 13.20 A rotary dryer, Papua New Guinea. PI. 13.21 Sheeting a stack prior to fumigation, Ghana. P1. 13.22 Ventilated container. PI. 14.1 The MAGRA cut test device. PI. 14.2 Carrying out a cut test, Cameroon. P1. 14.3 Sampling cocoa before shipment, Ghana. P1. 15.1 The London Cocoa Terminal Market in session. PI. 16.1 Estufa on a small farm in Bahia, Brazil. P1. 16.2 Irrigated cocoa farm in Huila Province, Col-
ombia. P1. 16.3 Drying cocoa on a farm in the Cibao, Dominican
Republic. PI. 16.4 Unloading a mule, Quevedo, Ecuador.
... xi11
373
373 373 381 384 395 402 403 406 426 426 448 450 464 464 465
466 467 467 468 469 469 474 475 480
48 1 48 1 486 488 489 490 499 501 51 1 516 517 533 547
549
551 553
xiv Hares
P1. 16.5 A Criollo tree in Chiapas State, Mexico. P1. 16.6 Sun-drying platform with sliding roof or ‘boucan’,
Trinidad. PI. 16.7 Fermenting boxes, Venezuela. P1. 16.8 A simple dryer, Cameroon. P1. 16.9 A cocoa farm in Ghana. PI. 16.10 Unshaded hybrid cocoa, Ivory Coast. PI. 16.11 Cocoa drying on mats in Nigeria. PI. 16.12 Young cocoa under Gliricidia, Indonesia. PI. 16.13 Cocoa under coconuts, Malaysia. PI. 16.14 Cocoa drying, Papua New Guinea. PI. 17.1 A 12-pot press made by Carle & Montanari.
555
557 559 562 564 569 570 575 577 579 592
Cover Photograph
The original photograph was taken by R. A. Lass and was of a high yielding Amelonado tree on Finca Bonyoma owned by Casa Mallo S. A., Bioko, Equatorial Guinea.
Fig. 2.1 Pod of Theobroma bicolor. Fig. 2.2 Pod of Theobroma grandiflorum. Fig. 2.3 Stem growth of cocoa tree. Fig. 2.4 Root development. . Fig. 2.5 The ideal cocoa plantation. Fig. 2.6 Floral diagram of Theobroma cacao. Fig. 2.7 A cocoa flower. Fig. 2.8 Examples of pod shapes. Fig. 2.9 Shapes of neck and point of pods. Figs. 3.1-11 Climatic data. Fig. 3.1 Itabuna, Brazil. Fig. 3.2 Ouro Preto, RondBnia, Brazil. Fig. 3.3 Pichilingue, Ecuador. Fig. 3.4 Yaounde, Cameroon. Fig. 3.5 Tafo, Ghana. Fig. 3.6 Gagnoa, Ivory Coast. Fig. 3.7 Ondo, Nigeria. Fig. 3.8 Lower Perak, Malaysia. Fig. 3.9 Tawau, Sabah, Malaysia. Fig. 3.10 Keravat, Papua New Guinea. Fig. 3.11 Makanga, Malawi. Fig. 3.12 Sunshine and radiation data, Pichilingue,
Fig. 3.13 Sunshine and radiation data, Tafo, Ghana. Fig. 5.1 Layout of seed garden in Sabah. Fig. 6.1 Cocoa spacing under permanent and temporary
Fig. 6.2 Planting pattern on a plantation in Malaysia. Fig. 6.3 Change in degree of shade under developing
coconut palms. Fig. 7.1 Effect of fertiliser application on yield of cocoa
grown at different light levels. Fig. 7 .2 Effect of shade removal and fertiliser appli-
cations on yield of Amelonado cocoa in Ghana.
Ecuador.
shade.
12 12 16 17 19 19 20 26 28
40 41 42 43 44 45 46 49 50 51 53
56 57 95
134 135
141
168
169
xvi Figures
Fig. 7.3
Fig. 7.4
Fig. 8.1
Fig. 12.1
Fig. 12.2
Fig. 12.3 Fig. 12.4 Fig. 12.5 Fig. 12.6
Fig. 12.7 Fig. 12.8 Fig. 12.9
The relationships between the phosphate and dry matter content of cocoa leaves on soils with an adequate and inadequate supply of available phosphate. Responses of N and P fertilisers in series I and series I1 trials on farmers' cocoa in Nigeria. Diagrammatic representation of the results of correct and incorrect pruning of cocoa. The world distribution of the genera of bryocor- ine mirids associated with cocoa. (A) Sahlbergella singularis Hagl. (B) Distantiella theobroma (Dist.). Monalonion annulipes Sign. Helopeltis clavifer Walk. Pseudodoniella laensis Miller. Bathycoelia thalassina (H.4) . (A), (B), (C), (D), (E) first; second, third, fourth and fifth instar nymphs. Bathycoelia thalassina (H.-S). Adult male. Amblypelta theobromae Brown. Empoasca devastans Dist .
Fig. 12.10 Tyora tessmanni (Aulm.) Fig. 12.11 Life cycle of Planococcoides njalensis (Laing). Fig. 12.12 Selenothrips rubrocinctus (Giard). Fig. 12.13 Zeuzera coffeae Nietn. Fig. 12.14 Acrocercops cramerella (Snell). Fig. 12.15 Earias biplaga. Fig. 12.16 Leaf damage by workers of Atta cephalotes (L.),
Fig. 12.17 Nest of Atta cephalotes. Fig. 12.18 Adoretus versutus Har. Fig. 12.19 Steirastoma breve (Sulzer). Fig. 12.20 GIenea aluensis'Gah. Fig. 12.2 1 Pantorhytes species. Fig. 12.22 Pantorhytes species. Fig. 12.23 Xylosandrus compactus (Eichh.). Fig. 13.1 Crop pattern at Tafo, Ghana. Fig. 13.2 Crop pattern at BAL, Sabah. Fig. 13.3 Major changes in the pulp during fermentation. Fig. 13.4 Temperature profiles for a box fermentation. Fig. 13.5 Temperature profiles for a heap fermentation. Fig. 13.6 Oxygen profiles for a box fermentation. Fig. 13.7 Oxygen profiles for a heap fermentation. Fig. 13.8 pH changes during fermentation. Fig. 13.9 Changes in acetic acid levels in pulp and
cotyledon of Amazon and Amelonado beans during a heap fermentation.
Brazil.
177
182
202
375 376
377 377 377
386 387 389 389 390 394 399 401 404 40'1
41 1 412 414 416 418 420 420 423 445 446 453 454 455 456 457 458
459
Figures
Fig. 13.10 Changes in lactic acid levels in pulp and cotyledon of Amazon affd Amelonado beans
Fig. 13.11
Fig. 14.1 Fig. 14.2
Fig. 14.3
Fig. 15.1
Fig. 16.1 Fig. 16.2 Fig. 16.3 Fig. 16.4 Fig. 16.5 Fig. 16.6 Fig. 16.7 Fig. 16.8 Fig. 16.9
during a heap fermentation. Monthly variation in recovery and dry bean weight on a farm in Ecuador. Seasonal changes in bean weight in Nigeria. Seasonal changes in quality of beans from one area in India in 1978. Relation of temperature 4 months previously to hardness of cocoa butter. Manufacture of a typical European milk chocolate World production of cocoa 1945/46 to 1980/81. Production graph for Brazil. Production graph for Colombia. Production graph for the Dominican Republic. Production graph for Ecuador. Production graph for Mexico. Production graph for Trinidad and Tobago. Production graph for Venezuela. Production graph for Cameroon.
Fig. 16.10 Production graph for Equatorial Guinea. Fig. 16.11 Production graph for Ghana. Fig. 16.12 Production graph for Ivory Coast. Fig. 16.13 Production graph for Nigeria. Fig. 16.14 Production graph for SCo Tome. Fig. 16.15 Production graph for Malaysia. Fig. 16.16 Production graph for Papua New Guinea. Fig. 17.1 Flow diagram of cocoa and chocolate prod-
uction.
xvii
459
494 522
524
526
541 545 546 550 55 1 552 555 556 558 561 563 565 568 569 572 576 578
59 1
Maps
2.1
11.1
Northern South America showing places and rivers
Map of Northern South America to show known dis- tribution of Crinipellis perniciosa. 284
mentioned in this chapter. 33
16.1 The cocoa-growing areas of West Africa. 573
Glossary
This glossary is confined to some of the less common technical terms used in this book and some words which are peculiar to the cocoa tree.
Allele - one of two alternative genes Cherelle - small and immature pods of the cocoa tree Chupon - vertical stems or shoots of the cocoa tree Clone - group of plants produced vegetatively from one original plant Cultivar - a variety of a plant species Dimorphic - exhibiting two distinct forms Diploid - cell having chromosomes in homologous pairs Drupe - a stone fruit Gamete - mature germ-cell which unites with another in sexual
Heterosis - tendency of cross-bred individual to show qualities
Hypertrophy - abnormal enlargement of organ Hypocotyl - part of embryo or seedling below the cotyledons Isohyet - line joining places of equal rainfall Jorquette - the point at which the vertical chupon stem changes to fan
Necrosis - death of part of leaf or other tissue Orthotropic - vertical growth (chupon) Plagiotropic - oblique growth (fan branches) Saprobic - describes a micro-organism living on decaying organic
Zygote - cell formed by the union of two gametes
reproduction
superior to both parents
growth on the cocoa tree
matter
Chapter 1
History and development G. A. R. Wood
The cocoa tree belongs to the genus Theobroma, a group of small trees which occurs in the wild in the Amazon basin and other trop- ical areas of South and Central America. There are over twenty species in the genus but the cocoa tree, Theobroma cacao, is the only one cultivated widely.
The headwaters of the Amazon basin have been said to be the origin of the cocoa tree but it is more correct to describe that area as the primary centre of diversity, an area where great variation in morphological and physiological characters is found. The develop- ment of the major forms of the species has been explained as follows:
It may be assumed that in early times a natural population of Theobrorna cacao was spread throughout the central part of Amazonia - Guiana, west- ward and northward to the south of Mexico; that these populations devel- oped into two different forms geographically separated by the Panama isthmus; and that these two original forms, when isolated, had sufficiently consistent characters to be recognised as subspecies (Cuatrecasas 1964).
These two subspecies have formed the basis of classification of T. cacao since 1882 when Morris of Jamaica distinguished two great ‘classes’: Criollo and Forastero, and divided the latter into several varieties (Morris 1882).
The varieties that had been cultivated since prehistoric times in Mexico and Central America must have belonged to the Criollo group. The beans tend to be rounded and are white in cross-section, producing cocoa of a weak and special flavour. The trees tend to be susceptible to diseases.
The seeds of Theobroma bicolor, known by the Maya as ‘pataxte’, were also used but were regarded as inferior and were therefore probably collected solely from wild trees and never cultivated.
Cocoa varieties of the Forastero group came into cultivation in historic times. Its trees are hardy and vigorous which is why they now form the greater part of all cocoa grown. Compared to Criollo
2 History and developmeni
the beans are smaller and flatter and the cotyledons are violet. The flavour derived from them is stronger and provides the basis for plain and milk chocolate. The beans have a higher fat content than Criollo beans. Of the Forastero varieties Amelonado has been the one most widely grown. It is relatively uniform and has a smooth yellow pod; it has been the major variety planted in West Africa.
Cultivation in the sixteenth century
When Cortes discovered Mexico City, the capital of the Aztecs, in the sixteenth century he found that cocoa beans were used in the preparation of a drink - ‘chocolatl’ - prepared by roasting the beans, then grinding them and mixing them with maize meal, vanilla and chilli. This mixture was a thick drink stirred with a special whisk. Although the recipe has changed considerably to cocoa beans and sugar, sometimes flavoured with vanilla or cinnamon, a similar thick drink is still made today in Colombia and the Philippines.
Much has been written of the large quantities of chocolatl consumed by Montezuma and his court. It was made from beans sent as tribute to the capital, the crop being grown not by the Aztecs, who lived in an area unsuitable for the cocoa tree but by the Mayas and other subject peoples. While chocolatl was a luxury in Mexico City, it was probably consumed by many classes of people in the growing areas. However cocoa beans had far more sign& cance than as the main ingredient of a drink. Cocoa beans are easy to count and the tributes were paid in ‘cargas’ or loads of 24,000 beans weighing 22.5-27 kg. As the beans were relatively valuable they were used as currency and Oviedo, whose history of the West Indies was published in 1526, stated that in Nicaragua:
everything is bought with cacao, however expensive or cheap, such as gold, slaves, clothing, things to eat and everything else . . . There are public women . . . who yield themselves to whomever they like for ten cacao beans . . . which is their money (Quoted in Bergmann 1969)
The use of cocoa beans as currency appears to have continued for a long time as cocoa beans were being used as small change in Yucatan markets as late as 1840 (Stephens 1843). They were also used in many social and official rituals and various medicinal prop- erties were attributed to cocoa (Thompson 1956). Cocoa held an important place among the Maya as depictions in stone reliefs and figurines from places as far apart as Honduras, Guatemala and Veracruz in Mexico indicate. These go back at least as far as the sixth century. Thus cocoa was a well established crop and article of commerce in the early sixteenth century but we do not know how it reached Central America from its supposed origin in the Amazon
Spread of cultivation 3
basin. The main cocoa areas at the beginning of the sixteenth century were Tabasco, which borders the gulf of Mexico, Soconusco on the Pacific coast of Mexico and also in what is now Guatemala and El Salvador. There is evidence of smaller and scattered areas in Mexico to the north of the major areas and in Nicaragua and Costa Rica. Another significant area was in the Sula valley on the Caribbean coast of Honduras and it was probably a load from this area that was encountered by Columbus in 1502, the first contact of the Old World with cocoa beans (Bergmann 1969).
There is no evidence that cocoa was cultivated in South America or in the Caribbean at that time, although it is thought that cocoa was used for ceremonial purposes in western Venezuela, the beans being collected from wild trees. The type of cocoa grown in Central America must have been what we now call Criollo as there is no indication that Forastero cocoa was cultivated in that region. The reason for this may well lie in the fact that Criollo beans can give a palatable drink with little or no preliminary fermentation whereas Forastero beans require several days’ fermentation.
Spread of cultivation
After the conquest of Mexico cocoa cultivation spread to Caribbean islands and parts of South America, but Mexico remained the major market for cocoa beans until the seventeenth century. Venezuela was one of the first countries where the growing of cocoa was started in the sixteenth century. Some of the earliest plantings were in the valleys along the north coast where, until recently, Criollo cocoa was grown, but there is no record of the origin of the cocoa planted there. Jamaica was another such country and enjoyed a cocoa ‘boom’ around 1670; cocoa was also grown in Trinidad but the exact date of the first introduction is uncertain. A later introduction to Trinidad was made in 1678 from Venezuela with seed of a Criollo type. At about the same time cocoa was introduced to Martinique and Haiti. In Jamaica, Trinidad and Martinique the cocoa crops were devastated by ‘blasts’ at various times. While ‘blast’ has some- times been assumed to be a hurricane, it is now considered far more likely to have been a disease, possibly Ceratocystis wilt to which Criollo cocoa is very susceptible.
Apart from movement within the Caribbean area Criollo cocoa was taken across the Pacific to the Philippines about the year 1600. From there it spread later to Sulawesi and Java and it is possible that the first introduction of cocoa to Sri Lanka and India came from the East Indies. There is evidence of an introduction of Criollo cocoa to India from Ambon in the Moluccas in 1798 (Ratnam 1961).
The greater bulk, if not the entire production, of cocoa in the
4 History and developmeni
sixteenth and seventeenth centuries was Criollo cocoa, but during the eighteenth century Forastero cocoa began to be grown and used. The first countries to produce Forastero cocoa were Brazil and Ecuador. There have always been many wild cocoa trees in the Amazon basin and when exports began in the eighteenth century much of the cocoa was collected from wild trees known as cacao bravo. The planting of cocoa in the Amazon basin started in the seventeenth century, but plantings suffered from severe shortages of labour and transport so that cultivated cocoa formed only a small proportion of Brazil’s production. Exports from Para, the State through which all exports from the Amazon area passed, were 1,000 tonnes by the end of the eighteenth century, reached 2,000 tonnes by 1820, and rose to 4-5,000 tonnes by 1870-80 (Alden 1976).
The first plantings in the State of Bahia were said to have been made in 1746 by a French planter bringing seeds from the State of Para. This introduction, which is thought to have been derived from wild Amelonado cocoa in the Guianas, gave rise to the relatively uniform type called Comum in the State of Bahia. Several decades passed before cocoa planting expanded and it was not until 1825 that any was exported. Production remained at a low level until the end of the’nineteenth century when a rapid increase took place.
In Ecuador there is no firm evidence of cocoa cultivation until the seventeenth century. Restrictions on trade discouraged expansion and production was only 1,000 tonnes in 1800. The cocoa planted was the Nacional type, which is peculiar to Ecuador and presumably arose from wild trees selected for seed for the earliest plantings. Cocoa planting started to expand early in the nineteenth century making Ecuador the largest producer, a position held for nearly 100 years.
Following the independence of Brazil, cocoa of the Amelonado type was taken from Bahia to S2o Tome in 1822. From there it was taken to Fernando Po in 1855 and later in the century to Ghana and Nigeria to form the basis for cocoa growing in West Africa.
Growth of consumpti,on
The original ‘chocolatl’ consumed in Central America has been described. Such a drink was unpalatable to Europeans. Josephus Acosta (1604) said that chocolate as drunk in Mexico is ‘loathsome to such as are not acquainted with it, having a skumme dr frothe that is very unpleasant to taste‘. The Spaniards made the drink more palatable by mixing the cocoa paste with sugar and seasoning it with cinnamon and other spices. It was this type of drink which later became popular in Europe, first in Spain, later in Italy, Flanders, France and England. At first Spain maintained a monopoly of trade
Growth of consumption 5
with the New World but this broke down when the Dutch captured Curacao enabling the trade in cocoa beans and their use to spread.
Some of the early literature on chocolate made extravagant claims for its medicinal properties. Thus the title page of J . Wadsworth’s Chocolate or an Indian Drink continues ‘by the wise and moderate use whereof health is preserved, sickness diverted and cured, especially the plague of the guts, vulgarly called the new disease, fluxes, consumption and coughs of the lungs with sundry other desparate diseases. By it also conception is caused, the birth hastened and facilitated, beauty gain’d and continued’ (Wadsworth 1652). What more could be claimed? This book was published in 1652, the printer ‘dwelling near the Vine Tavern in Holborne where the tract together with the chocolate itself may be had at reasonable rates’. This is one of the earliest references to chocolate being avail- able in London. The book was a translation from Spanish of a trea- tise on chocolate by Colmenero, which was published in 1631 and subsequently translated into several languages (Colmenero 1631). Opposite opinions were expressed by other writers who claimed that cocoa inflamed the passions, and they coupled chocolate with novels and romances as things to be treated with caution by the fair sex. Whatever may have been the effect of these various claims on the readers, consumption was very small because the price of chocolate was high, owing largely to the heavy duties levied on imports of cocoa beans and chocolate. During the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries consumption in London was largely confined to chocolate houses frequented by the wealthy.
Early in the nineteenth century duties were reduced and consumption increased. During the 1820s imports of cocoa beans to Great Britain rose from 250 to 500 tons. The only product at that time was a chocolate drink made from the whole bean which was roasted, ground and mixed with sugar. Over half the production was used by the Navy, possibly as an alternative to rum. (At a later stage the value of such a nourishing drink to the men on watch was appreciated and the same Navy cocoa continued to be made until after the Second World War.) This chocolate drink was the only cocoa product made until 1828 when Van Houten used a press to remove some of the cocoa butter. This process was the first of the major technical advances which have led to the wide variety of cocoa products available today. The separation of the cocoa butter from the cocoa bean produced a powder containing 22-25 per cent fat which was easier to prepare and digest. Previously, various types of flour or starch had been added to the chocolate to make the drink less fatty, more palatable and of course cheaper. The new products were often sold as ‘homeopathic’ or ‘soluble’ cocoa, though it should be emphasised that cocoa powder does not dissolve. When cocoa powders were produced some manufacturers emphasised the purity
6 History and development
of this new product and there was an outcry against cocoas adul- terated with flour or starch.
The availability of cocoa butter led to the making of chocolate as we know it today which is basically composed of the dried coty- ledons or cocoa nib, sugar and added cocoa butter, the addition of the extra cocoa butter making it easy to mould. Thus it became pos- sible to make a chocolate bar of good appearance and texture and to cover other confections with chocolate. The inventor of chocolate is unknown, but Fry’s sold a ‘chocolat dklicieux a manger’ in 1847 and Cadbury Brothers were selling a similar product two years later. The other major technical development was the mixing of milk solids with cocoa mass and sugar to make milk chocolate which was invented by Daniel Peter of Vevey in Switzerland and was first introduced in 1876. The Swiss had a virtual monopoly of milk choc- olate until Cadbury’s Dairy Milk chocolate was introduced in 1904. The growth of consumption of milk chocolate in a variety of forms has been the most striking feature of the cocoa and chocolate industry during the present century and today this product forms the backbone of the chocolate industry throughout the world.
Development of cocoa production since 1900
The growth of world cocoa production since 1850 is shown in Table 1.1. Reliable statistics of production or exports are only available since 1894 so the figures for 1850 are estimates. However the table shows the enormous growth of production over 130 years and also indicates the extent of the swing of production from South America and the Caribbean to West Africa. This is shown more clearly in Table 1.2. Central and South America declined gradually in import- ance for about 100 years but have recovered some of their import- ance recently. This is due largely to rapidly increasing production in Brazil which supplied the same proportion of world production in 1980 as it did in 1850. The proportion from the West Indies started to decline in 1900 and continues. Africa has, of course, shown a spectacular increase until about 1960 but has declined since.
The other great change that has taken place concerns the type of cocoa grown. The broad division between Criollo and Forastero has been explained, the Forastero group being largely represented by Amelonado in West Africa. In addition hybrids between the two major types led to Trinitario populations grown mostly in the Caribbean area, but also in Cameroon and Papua New Guinea. The cocoa market distinguishes two major categories of cocoa beans: bulk or ordinary cocoas coming from Forastero trees and giving a good strong chocolate flavour when suitably prepared; and fine flavour cocoas produced from Criollo or Trinitario trees. While the
Development of cocoa production since 1900 7
Table 1.1 Growth of cocoa production 1850-1980
Country Production (000 tonnes)
1850 I900 I940 I980
Brazil Colombia Ecuador Mexico Venezuela
Dominican Republic Grenada Trinidad
Cameroon Equatorial Guinea Ghana Ivory Coast Nigeria Sio Tom6
Malaysia
Papua New Guinea
Others
3.5
5.5
5.4
-
-
-
1.7
1.9
18 3
23 1 9
7 5
12
1 1 1
17 -
17
13 1 12 14 2
17
20 3 8
23 13
24 1 43
103 5
37
349 39 81 30 14
32 3 2
120 8
258 403 I55
8
43
28
91
World total 18 115 612 1,664
SOURCES: 1850 figures: Gordian, Essays on Cocoa, 1936; later figures: Gill and Duffus, Cocoa Statistics, April 1981 and May 1983.
Table 1.2 Movement of cocoa production
1850 1900 1920 1940 1960 1980
Total production (000 tonnes) 18 115 371 672 1,189 1,664
Proportion (70) from: Central and South America 80 51 30 28 21 32 West Indies 14 27 20 6 4 3 Africa - 17 48 6.5 73 60 Asia 4 2 1 2 5 -
Criollo beans give a mild or weak chocolate flavour, the Trinitario beans usually give a good chocolate flavour together with some fruity ancillary flavour. One anomaly in this broad division is the Cacao Nacional of Ecuador where cocoa of a distinctive fine flavour type is produced from the Nacional trees which are considered to be a Forastero type; another anomaly is Cameroon cocoa, produced from Trinitario trees but classed as a bulk cocoa.
In 1850 the fine or flavour cocoas formed 80 per cent of total production. By 1900 the proportion had fallen to 40-45 per cent and
8 History and development
since then the proportion has continued to fall steadily. By 1977/78 the production of cocoa from the traditional ‘fine flavour’ countries was 106,000 tonnes or 7.2 per cent of world production. To this figure should be added the production of Papua New Guinea, a newcomer to the ‘fine flavour’ producers, which would raise the proportion to 9 per cent. However a distinction must be drawn between production from fine flavour producers and the production of fine flavour cocoas. The latter is very much less because fine flavour cocoas are sold by mark rather than by country of origin and only a proportion of each country’s production is sold on the fine flavour market. The situation differs from country to country, but it is probably true to say that the proportion of cocoa classified as fine flavour emanating from each fine flavour producer has fallen over the past fifty years. The total production of fine flavour cocoas was estimated at 30,000 tonnes in 1977 or only about 2 per cent of world production (Wood 1977).
In the past fine flavour cocoas were referred to as cocoa of good quality while bulk or ordinary cocoas were often described as poor quality. It was probably true that Criollo and Trinitario cocoas were generally of better quality, that is, better prepared than Forastero cocoas but intrinsically there is only a difference of flavour. Now- adays the quality of Forastero cocoas is as good as the quality of fine flavour cocoas.
General characteristics of the cocoa crop
In the New World cocoa is cultivated on plantations and on small- holdings but plantations of 20 ha and upwards are the customary units. In Trinidad plantations are relatively small, few exceeding 120-160 ha, but in Brazil and Ecuador some much larger plantations have been established. In practically all cases the plantations were originally planted by individuals or family owners, but there are a few places in the West Indies and Latin America where cocoa has been planted by plantation companies. In Costa Rica, for instance, large plantings of cocoa were made by the United Fruit Company, the cocoa being planted after the failure of bananas owing to Panama disease; these plantings were subsequently split into small individual farms. There have also been some large-scale plantation developments in Ecuador.
In Africa cocoa is grown almost entirely on small-holdings and it is usually stated that each farm is very small. It is true that indi- vidual plantings representing one year’s clearing are generally small - less than 1 ha - but there is little relationship between such plant- ings and the size of one farmer’s holding. Polly Hill (1962) has made it clear that in ‘Ghana the size of farmers’ holdings and the manner
References 9
in which the farms are held vary enormously; any generalisation on this point would be unwise. In Nigeria the cocoa survey conducted by the Nigerian Cocoa Marketing Board in the early 1950s produced data which showed that the area of cocoa held by most farmers was only 0.6 ha; on the other hand ‘the bulk of the cocoa produced comes off farms with a good deal more cocoa land’, such farms being more than 2.5 ha in extent (Galletti et al. 1956). The same general picture is probably true of the other main cocoa-growing countries in West Africa - Ivory Coast and Cameroon - though there is less information available. In West Africa as a whole, therefore, the size of cocoa farms varies considerably but the majority of farmers hold relatively small areas and there are few farmers with more than 8 ha.
There are certain exceptions to this general picture. In West Cameroon several cocoa plantations were started by German companies before the First World War, but these have all been converted to other crops. In Equatorial Guinea most of the cocoa was produced on plantations. More‘ recently cocoa has been planted quite extensively on some plantations in the Congo, and in Nigeria cocoa is one of the crops grown on some state Agricultural Devel- opment Corporations’ plantations. In addition there are a few European-owned plantations in the Ivory Coast.
In the Far East cocoa is a relatively new crop and is being grown on public and private plantations as well as small-holdings in Malaysia and on privately-owned plantations and small-holdings in Papua New Guinea.
Cocoa has only recently become a crop grown by plantation companies. There are several reasons for this; first, cocoa was not grown on a large scale in those countries where plantation agricul- ture has been widespread; second, plantations are most successful where they grow a crop which requires heavy capital expenditure particularly for processing or will give better yields or achieve higher prices through skilled management. Cocoa does not require heavy capital expenditure on processing equipment; it can be processed on any scale. Furthermore, skill in processing cannot guarantee a higher price for cocoa. To be competitive with small-holdings, a cocoa plan- tation must achieve higher yields and ways of doing this are only now beginning to be developed.
References Acosta, J. (1604) Quoted in ‘Historicus’ Cocoa: all about i t . Sampson Low, Marston:
London, p 32. Alden, D. (1976) The significance of cacao production in the Amazon region during
the late colonial period: an essay in comparative economic history. Proc. Amer. Philosophical Soc. 120, 2: 103-35.
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