Coastal boulders in Martigues, French Mediterranean: evidence for extreme storm waves during the Little Ice Age

unco

rrecte

d proo

fsCoastal boulders in Martigues, French Mediterranean: evidence for Coastal boulders in Martigues, French Mediterranean: evidence for

extreme storm waves during the Little Ice Ageextreme storm waves during the Little Ice Age

Dedicated to Pr. Jacques Laborel (1936 – 2011) a talented teacher and a friend who discovered the siteDedicated to Pr. Jacques Laborel (1936 – 2011) a talented teacher and a friend who discovered the site

M. Shah-Hosseini, C. Morhange, A. De Marco, J. Wante, E. J. Anthony, F. Sabatier, M. Shah-Hosseini, C. Morhange, A. De Marco, J. Wante, E. J. Anthony, F. Sabatier, G. Mastronuzzi, C. Pignatelli and A. PiscitelliG. Mastronuzzi, C. Pignatelli and A. Piscitelli

with 9 fi gures and 3 tableswith 9 fi gures and 3 tables

Summary. Summary. Boulder accumulations occur along a stretch of rocky coast of about 1.5 km near the French Boulder accumulations occur along a stretch of rocky coast of about 1.5 km near the French Mediterranean city of Martigues. The boulders occur up to 100 m inland from the present shoreline and Mediterranean city of Martigues. The boulders occur up to 100 m inland from the present shoreline and some contain marine bio-constructions that are proof of residence in a subtidal or intertidal setting. The set-some contain marine bio-constructions that are proof of residence in a subtidal or intertidal setting. The set-ting, spatial distribution, morphology and characteristics of these boulders indicate that they were detached ting, spatial distribution, morphology and characteristics of these boulders indicate that they were detached from the rocky shore platform and transported landward by high-energy waves. The size, position and from the rocky shore platform and transported landward by high-energy waves. The size, position and distance from the shoreline of 1475 boulders were measured in order to determine their volume and mass, distance from the shoreline of 1475 boulders were measured in order to determine their volume and mass, as well as the conditions under which they were transported landward to their present positions. The results as well as the conditions under which they were transported landward to their present positions. The results were then statistically analyzed and confronted with hydrodynamic models commonly used to evaluate the were then statistically analyzed and confronted with hydrodynamic models commonly used to evaluate the charactestics of the transporting waves. The wave characteristics thus obtained were compared to recorded charactestics of the transporting waves. The wave characteristics thus obtained were compared to recorded and modeled extreme waves in the region. Dating of the boulders shows age ranges that correspond to the and modeled extreme waves in the region. Dating of the boulders shows age ranges that correspond to the Little Ice Age (LIA), thus suggesting a relationship between their deposition and the high storm frequency Little Ice Age (LIA), thus suggesting a relationship between their deposition and the high storm frequency that characterized the LIA. The results also indicate little likelihood of a tsunami origin for these boulders, that characterized the LIA. The results also indicate little likelihood of a tsunami origin for these boulders, although there is historical evidence of tsunamis in this region. The study insists on the potential for storm-although there is historical evidence of tsunamis in this region. The study insists on the potential for storm-related hazards on this heavily populated and industrialized part of the Mediterranean coast of France.related hazards on this heavily populated and industrialized part of the Mediterranean coast of France.

Résumé. URésumé. Une importante accumulation de blocs répartis sur environ 1,5 km de rivage le long d’une plate-ne importante accumulation de blocs répartis sur environ 1,5 km de rivage le long d’une plate-forme rocheuse littorale a été identifi ée près de Martigues, sur la côte méditerranéenne française. Ces blocs forme rocheuse littorale a été identifi ée près de Martigues, sur la côte méditerranéenne française. Ces blocs se trouvent à une distance de jusqu’à 100 m du rivage actuel et certains présentent des bio-constructions se trouvent à une distance de jusqu’à 100 m du rivage actuel et certains présentent des bio-constructions d’origine marine qui sont la preuve d’un temps de résidence dans un milieu infralittoral ou médiolittoral. Le d’origine marine qui sont la preuve d’un temps de résidence dans un milieu infralittoral ou médiolittoral. Le contexte, la répartition, la morphologie et les caractéristiques de ces blocs témoignent d’un arrachement à contexte, la répartition, la morphologie et les caractéristiques de ces blocs témoignent d’un arrachement à la plateforme littorale et à un transport vers l’intérieur par des vagues de haute énergie. L’étude de la taille, la plateforme littorale et à un transport vers l’intérieur par des vagues de haute énergie. L’étude de la taille, de la position et de la distance par rapport au rivage de 1475 blocs permet de déterminer leurs volumes et de de la position et de la distance par rapport au rivage de 1475 blocs permet de déterminer leurs volumes et de préciser leurs déplacements jusqu’à leurs positions actuelles. Les résultats ont ensuite été traités statistique-préciser leurs déplacements jusqu’à leurs positions actuelles. Les résultats ont ensuite été traités statistique-ment et confrontés à des modèles hydrodynamiques couramment utilisés pour évaluer les caractéristiques ment et confrontés à des modèles hydrodynamiques couramment utilisés pour évaluer les caractéristiques des vagues de transport de blocs. Ces caractéristiques ont ensuite ont été comparées aux vagues de tempête des vagues de transport de blocs. Ces caractéristiques ont ensuite ont été comparées aux vagues de tempête extrêmes enregistrées dans la région. Les datations obtenues sur ces blocs correspondent au Petit Age de extrêmes enregistrées dans la région. Les datations obtenues sur ces blocs correspondent au Petit Age de Glace (PAG). Ces dépôts sont vraisemblablement liés aux tempêtes extrêmes fréquentes du PAG en Méditer-Glace (PAG). Ces dépôts sont vraisemblablement liés aux tempêtes extrêmes fréquentes du PAG en Méditer-ranée. Les résultats suggèrent peu de probabilité d’une origine de la mobilisation des blocs par des vagues de ranée. Les résultats suggèrent peu de probabilité d’une origine de la mobilisation des blocs par des vagues de tsunamis, bien que des tsunamis aient été historiquement répertoriés dans cette région. L’étude insiste sur tsunamis, bien que des tsunamis aient été historiquement répertoriés dans cette région. L’étude insiste sur les risques liés aux tempêtes dans cette zone particulièrement peuplée et industrialisée de la côte méditer-les risques liés aux tempêtes dans cette zone particulièrement peuplée et industrialisée de la côte méditer-ranéenne de France.ranéenne de France.

Keywords:Keywords: boulder, storm, tsunami, Little Ice Age, geomorphology, coast, natural hazard boulder, storm, tsunami, Little Ice Age, geomorphology, coast, natural hazard

© 2013 Gebrüder Borntraeger Verlagsbuchhandlung, Stuttgart, Germany www.borntraeger-cramer.deDOI: 10.1127/0372-8854/2013/00132 0372-8854/13/00132 $ 0.00

Zeitschrift für Geomorphologie, Supplementary Issue Fast Track ArticleStuttgart, January 2013

unco

rrecte

d proo

fs22 M. Shah-Hosseini et al.M. Shah-Hosseini et al.

1 Introduction Introduction

Coastal hazards have elicited a lot of attention in the scientifi c community as well as among disaster Coastal hazards have elicited a lot of attention in the scientifi c community as well as among disaster management decision-makers. Coastal hazards are predominantly related to high-energy events, management decision-makers. Coastal hazards are predominantly related to high-energy events, such as storms, tsunamis, earthquakes, landslides and volcanic eruptions. Any of these events can such as storms, tsunamis, earthquakes, landslides and volcanic eruptions. Any of these events can generate extremely destructive waves on developed coasts that can lead to massive erosion, fl ood-generate extremely destructive waves on developed coasts that can lead to massive erosion, fl ood-ing and damage to properties and infrastructure. However, by far the most common of these haz-ing and damage to properties and infrastructure. However, by far the most common of these haz-ards are extreme storms and large tsunamis because the waves they generate can affect large areas ards are extreme storms and large tsunamis because the waves they generate can affect large areas of coast. Recent major events such as the tsunamis of December 2004 in the Indian Ocean and of coast. Recent major events such as the tsunamis of December 2004 in the Indian Ocean and March 2011 in Japan have had catastrophic social, environmental and economic consequences. In March 2011 in Japan have had catastrophic social, environmental and economic consequences. In France, as in most of the coastal countries of the North Atlantic, extreme storms are considered France, as in most of the coastal countries of the North Atlantic, extreme storms are considered as the most important coastal hazard. Storm Xynthia, for instance, which hit the Atlantic coast of as the most important coastal hazard. Storm Xynthia, for instance, which hit the Atlantic coast of France from 27th February to 1st March 2010, led to the deaths of at least 51 people and caused France from 27th February to 1st March 2010, led to the deaths of at least 51 people and caused massive damage. Most of the casualties occurred as a result of the coincidence of a powerful storm massive damage. Most of the casualties occurred as a result of the coincidence of a powerful storm with waves up to 7.5 m high with an extreme surge and large tides. The Mediterranean is not ex-with waves up to 7.5 m high with an extreme surge and large tides. The Mediterranean is not ex-empt from high-energy marine events, although studies have generally tended to recognize the empt from high-energy marine events, although studies have generally tended to recognize the predominance of historical and pre-historical tsunamis, especially in the tectonically more active predominance of historical and pre-historical tsunamis, especially in the tectonically more active eastern Mediterranean (e.g., eastern Mediterranean (e.g., KELLETATKELLETAT & & SCHELLMANNSCHELLMANN 2002, 2002, MASTRONUZZIMASTRONUZZI & & SANSÒSANSÒ 2000, 2004, 2000, 2004, MASTRONUZZIMASTRONUZZI et al. 2007, et al. 2007, MORHANGEMORHANGE et al. 2006, et al. 2006, SCHEFFERSSCHEFFERS & & SCHEFFERSSCHEFFERS 2007, 2007, SCICCHITANOSCICCHITANO et et al. 2007, al. 2007, VÖTTVÖTT et al. 2010).The western North African part of the basin has also been reported et al. 2010).The western North African part of the basin has also been reported as tsunami-exposed. Historic events have been reported from the Algerian coast and tsunami as tsunami-exposed. Historic events have been reported from the Algerian coast and tsunami propagation has been modeled (propagation has been modeled (ROGERROGER & & HÉBERTHÉBERT 2008, 2008, ÁLVAREZÁLVAREZ-GÓMEZGÓMEZ et al. 2011). Geomorphic et al. 2011). Geomorphic evidence of tsunami impacts has also been documented (evidence of tsunami impacts has also been documented (MAOUCHEMAOUCHE et al. 2009). Storms, however, et al. 2009). Storms, however, can also attain extreme intensities, despite the more limited wave fetch context of the Mediterra-can also attain extreme intensities, despite the more limited wave fetch context of the Mediterra-nean compared to open-ocean coasts such as those of the Atlantic. Storms, for instance, have been nean compared to open-ocean coasts such as those of the Atlantic. Storms, for instance, have been shown to be particularly intense in the Mediterranean during the Little Ice Age (e.g., shown to be particularly intense in the Mediterranean during the Little Ice Age (e.g., DEZILEAUDEZILEAU et et al. 2010, al. 2010, SABATIERSABATIER et al. 2012). Extreme storms have also been recorded in modern times and their et al. 2012). Extreme storms have also been recorded in modern times and their recurrence has reportedly increased (recurrence has reportedly increased (GIANFREDAGIANFREDA et al. 2005, et al. 2005, LIONELLOLIONELLO et al. 2006). A number of et al. 2006). A number of large recorded and modeled extreme storms are listed in Table 1.large recorded and modeled extreme storms are listed in Table 1.

One of the major potential effects of large waves on rocky coasts is the detachment and One of the major potential effects of large waves on rocky coasts is the detachment and landward transport of blocks and boulders (e.g., landward transport of blocks and boulders (e.g., DAWSONDAWSON 1994, 1994, NOORMETSNOORMETS et al. 2004, et al. 2004, NOTTNOTT 1997, 1997, 2003, 2003, SCHEFFERSSCHEFFERS et al. 2008, et al. 2008, MASTRONUZZIMASTRONUZZI et al. 2006, et al. 2006, PARISPARIS et al. 2010). Transport of cliff-top et al. 2010). Transport of cliff-top boulders by extreme storms has been reported in the North Atlantic (boulders by extreme storms has been reported in the North Atlantic (WILLIAMSWILLIAMS & & HALLHALL 2004, 2004, SU-SU-ANEZANEZ et al. 2009, et al. 2009, ETIENNEETIENNE & & PARISPARIS 2010) and in the Mediterranean ( 2010) and in the Mediterranean (MASTRONUZZIMASTRONUZZI & SANSÒ 2004, & SANSÒ 2004, BARBANOBARBANO et al. 2010). Transport processes generated by extreme events have been documented for et al. 2010). Transport processes generated by extreme events have been documented for the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami and tropical storms in the Pacifi c Ocean (the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami and tropical storms in the Pacifi c Ocean (GOTOGOTO et al. 2007, 2009). et al. 2007, 2009).

Considering the limited period of instrumental records, geomorphic studies are of consider-Considering the limited period of instrumental records, geomorphic studies are of consider-able importance both in interpreting ancient high-energy deposits (able importance both in interpreting ancient high-energy deposits (ANTHONYANTHONY 2009) and in coastal 2009) and in coastal management planning aimed at the mitigation of natural hazards (management planning aimed at the mitigation of natural hazards (NOTTNOTT 2004, 2004, LEONELEONE et al. 2011). et al. 2011). Coastal boulders inevitably evoke the question of the nature and origin of the transporting waves. Coastal boulders inevitably evoke the question of the nature and origin of the transporting waves. Several studies have been devoted to the thorny issue of distinguishing between tsunami- and Several studies have been devoted to the thorny issue of distinguishing between tsunami- and storm-transported deposits (review in storm-transported deposits (review in ANTHONYANTHONY 2009). Concerning certain ancient boulder depos- 2009). Concerning certain ancient boulder depos-its, there is no single criterion enabling the resolution of this issue. The general view from these its, there is no single criterion enabling the resolution of this issue. The general view from these

unco

rrecte

d proo

fs33Coastal boulders in Martigues, French MediterraneanCoastal boulders in Martigues, French Mediterranean

studies is that the transport medium and processes are commonly inferred on the basis of the studies is that the transport medium and processes are commonly inferred on the basis of the geomorphic properties of the site concerned.geomorphic properties of the site concerned.

Coastal boulders weighing up to 31 metric tons occur near Martigues in the Gulf of Fos on the Coastal boulders weighing up to 31 metric tons occur near Martigues in the Gulf of Fos on the Mediterranean coast of France (Fig. 1). These boulders have marks of transport and exhibit marine Mediterranean coast of France (Fig. 1). These boulders have marks of transport and exhibit marine organisms that show that they are not in situ forms but were transported by waves. organisms that show that they are not in situ forms but were transported by waves. VELLAVELLA et al. et al. (2011) recently summarily described these boulders and conducted four radiocarbon age determi-(2011) recently summarily described these boulders and conducted four radiocarbon age determi-nations from marine organisms on these boulders that yielded a large range from 2100BC to nearly nations from marine organisms on these boulders that yielded a large range from 2100BC to nearly modern. Although these authors did not carry out statistic analyses and wave parameter studies on modern. Although these authors did not carry out statistic analyses and wave parameter studies on these boulders, they concluded, nevertheless, that south westerly storms appeared to be the most these boulders, they concluded, nevertheless, that south westerly storms appeared to be the most plausible explanation for their transport. The presence of these wave-transported boulders can be plausible explanation for their transport. The presence of these wave-transported boulders can be considered as evidence for the exposure of this highly populated and industrial part of the coast of considered as evidence for the exposure of this highly populated and industrial part of the coast of France, which includes the port of Marseilles, one of the largest ports in the Mediterranean, to the France, which includes the port of Marseilles, one of the largest ports in the Mediterranean, to the hazard of extreme waves. The objective of this study is to map and characterize these boulders and hazard of extreme waves. The objective of this study is to map and characterize these boulders and hence evaluate the origin and characteristics of the waves responsible for their deposition. To this hence evaluate the origin and characteristics of the waves responsible for their deposition. To this end, we confront the morphometric characteristics of the boulders with hydrodynamic models of end, we confront the morphometric characteristics of the boulders with hydrodynamic models of extreme wave transport. We also estimate the height and inland inundation of the transporting extreme wave transport. We also estimate the height and inland inundation of the transporting

Fig.Fig. 1. Photo-map, digital elevation model of the coastal area and bathymetry of Fos-sur-mer. Inset bottom 1. Photo-map, digital elevation model of the coastal area and bathymetry of Fos-sur-mer. Inset bottom left shows annual wave directions and heights (data from Atlas Numérique d’Etats de mer Océanique et left shows annual wave directions and heights (data from Atlas Numérique d’Etats de mer Océanique et Côtier-ANEMOC) from 1979 to 2008 (CETMEF 2009).Côtier-ANEMOC) from 1979 to 2008 (CETMEF 2009).

unco

rrecte

d proo

fs44 M. Shah-Hosseini et al.M. Shah-Hosseini et al.

waves, compare the computed wave properties to the records of a nearby weather station and to waves, compare the computed wave properties to the records of a nearby weather station and to data from the national archives on waves, and then confront our results with extreme historical data from the national archives on waves, and then confront our results with extreme historical coastal events in the western Mediterranean.coastal events in the western Mediterranean.

2 Setting Setting

2.12.1 Geological setting and tectonic activity Geological setting and tectonic activity

The rocky coast of Martigues is cut in Miocene bioclastic limestone and is oriented southeast to The rocky coast of Martigues is cut in Miocene bioclastic limestone and is oriented southeast to northwest. It lies in the easternmost part of the Nerthe Anticline. The French Mediterranean basin northwest. It lies in the easternmost part of the Nerthe Anticline. The French Mediterranean basin is considered as a moderately active tectonic zone (is considered as a moderately active tectonic zone (VELLAVELLA et al. 1998, et al. 1998, VELLAVELLA & & PROVANSALPROVANSAL 2000, 2000, JO-JO-LIVETLIVET et al. 2008). Earthquakes of magnitudes that could generate important tsunamis have rarely et al. 2008). Earthquakes of magnitudes that could generate important tsunamis have rarely been reported historically, judging from the archives of the French Geological Survey (Bureau de been reported historically, judging from the archives of the French Geological Survey (Bureau de Recherches Géologiques et Minières – BRGM), the most reliable source on extreme events. The Recherches Géologiques et Minières – BRGM), the most reliable source on extreme events. The BRGM archives document the occurrence, since 1755, of 14 tsunamis with an intensity of 4 to 6 BRGM archives document the occurrence, since 1755, of 14 tsunamis with an intensity of 4 to 6 in the Sieberg-Ambraseys scale in the Bouches-du-Rhône department, which includes Martigues. in the Sieberg-Ambraseys scale in the Bouches-du-Rhône department, which includes Martigues. The only reported destructive event (intensity of 4) with a seismic source in the Mediterranean The only reported destructive event (intensity of 4) with a seismic source in the Mediterranean basin is that of 27 June 1812. This event caused minor damage to boats and infrastructure in the basin is that of 27 June 1812. This event caused minor damage to boats and infrastructure in the old port of Marseilles. Minor tsunami events have been recorded in historic and modern times on old port of Marseilles. Minor tsunami events have been recorded in historic and modern times on the French Riviera coast, about 150 km east of Martigues, probably triggered by submarine land-the French Riviera coast, about 150 km east of Martigues, probably triggered by submarine land-slides (slides ( JULIANJULIAN & & ANTHONYANTHONY 1996). Other recorded tsunamis were reportedly generated outside the 1996). Other recorded tsunamis were reportedly generated outside the Mediterranean, mostly in the Atlantic Ocean (www.tsunamis.fr).Mediterranean, mostly in the Atlantic Ocean (www.tsunamis.fr).

2.22.2 Wave climate, storm surges and tides Wave climate, storm surges and tides

There are large sets of observational data on waves on the French Mediterranean coast but they are There are large sets of observational data on waves on the French Mediterranean coast but they are of limited durations and, consequently, identifying extreme waves remains diffi cult. The wave cli-of limited durations and, consequently, identifying extreme waves remains diffi cult. The wave cli-mate conditions summarized in Table 1 are based on instrumental records and model outputs. The mate conditions summarized in Table 1 are based on instrumental records and model outputs. The wave climate consists of short-fetch waves generated by winds from two main directions (Fig. 1). wave climate consists of short-fetch waves generated by winds from two main directions (Fig. 1). Offshore storm waves (with heights exceeding those of the 1-year return period) represent 3.5 % Offshore storm waves (with heights exceeding those of the 1-year return period) represent 3.5 % of the time. 12.9 % of storm waves are from the southeast, 11.5 % from the south and 0.2 % from of the time. 12.9 % of storm waves are from the southeast, 11.5 % from the south and 0.2 % from the southwest. Consequently, waves impinging perpendicular to the orientation of the coastline the southwest. Consequently, waves impinging perpendicular to the orientation of the coastline are very rare and are only statistically present 1.4 hours per year. The highest southwest storm wave are very rare and are only statistically present 1.4 hours per year. The highest southwest storm wave recorded between 1978 and 2008 is about 6 m high. Previous studies (recorded between 1978 and 2008 is about 6 m high. Previous studies (SABATIERSABATIER et al. 2006, 2009) et al. 2006, 2009) have presented evidence showing that the largest waves are from south to southeast but these have presented evidence showing that the largest waves are from south to southeast but these studies also document the occurrence of extreme waves from the southwest. The 100-year return studies also document the occurrence of extreme waves from the southwest. The 100-year return period varies between 4.9 to 7.3 m. Wave directions at the shoreline after refraction and shoal-period varies between 4.9 to 7.3 m. Wave directions at the shoreline after refraction and shoal-ing are crucial in terms of breaker height and energy. Based on linear wave theory, for instance, ing are crucial in terms of breaker height and energy. Based on linear wave theory, for instance, an extreme offshore wave of around 7 m in height is close to 5.8 m at the break point when the an extreme offshore wave of around 7 m in height is close to 5.8 m at the break point when the wave is from the southeast, and up to 7.2 m when from the southwest. In this paper, we include wave is from the southeast, and up to 7.2 m when from the southwest. In this paper, we include refraction in our calculations of wave breaking heights. The waves described above are associated refraction in our calculations of wave breaking heights. The waves described above are associated with onshore wind speeds of more than 100 km/h and depressions that generate important surges with onshore wind speeds of more than 100 km/h and depressions that generate important surges (SABATIERSABATIER et al. 2009). et al. 2009).

The highest surge level observed (since 1904) around the study site attained close to 1.2 m The highest surge level observed (since 1904) around the study site attained close to 1.2 m during a major storm in 1997, according to the French Geodesic Service. Statistical analysis of the during a major storm in 1997, according to the French Geodesic Service. Statistical analysis of the

unco

rrecte

d proo

fs55Coastal boulders in Martigues, French MediterraneanCoastal boulders in Martigues, French Mediterranean

long-term (1904 – 2005) time series of sea level yields around 1.13 m for a 100-year return period long-term (1904 – 2005) time series of sea level yields around 1.13 m for a 100-year return period (ULLMANNULLMANN et al. 2007). Surge amplitude in the Gulf of Lions west of Martigues is reported to have et al. 2007). Surge amplitude in the Gulf of Lions west of Martigues is reported to have increased over the last century, especially after 1960, in association with higher frequency and increased over the last century, especially after 1960, in association with higher frequency and speeds of southeast winds. This increase is, however, only of about 1.9 mm/year (speeds of southeast winds. This increase is, however, only of about 1.9 mm/year (ULLMANNULLMANN et al. et al. 2007, 2008, 2007, 2008, ULLMANNULLMANN & & MORONMORON 2008). The Mediterranean coast of France is micro-tidal with a 2008). The Mediterranean coast of France is micro-tidal with a mean spring tidal range of about 0.3 m.mean spring tidal range of about 0.3 m.

Wave records from the Alghero buoy in Sardinia, Italy are also useful. The analysis of data Wave records from the Alghero buoy in Sardinia, Italy are also useful. The analysis of data recorded between 1989 and 2001 indicates a maximum wave from the NW with a height of 9.9 m recorded between 1989 and 2001 indicates a maximum wave from the NW with a height of 9.9 m and a period of 12.5 s during a storm on December 28, 1999. The 100-year return period has been and a period of 12.5 s during a storm on December 28, 1999. The 100-year return period has been estimated at between 10 and 12 m (estimated at between 10 and 12 m (CORSINICORSINI et al. 2006). These data suggest that the coast of Mar- et al. 2006). These data suggest that the coast of Mar-tigues can experience offshore storm waves ranging between 6 and 8 m, and that waves up to 10 m tigues can experience offshore storm waves ranging between 6 and 8 m, and that waves up to 10 m high are probable in a return period of 100 years.high are probable in a return period of 100 years.

3 Methods Methods

3.13.1 Boulder measurements Boulder measurements

We measured the dimensions and positions of 1475 megaclasts longer than 25 cm. The length (a We measured the dimensions and positions of 1475 megaclasts longer than 25 cm. The length (a axis), width (b axis) and thickness (c axis) of each boulder were directly measured in the fi eld. Ac-axis), width (b axis) and thickness (c axis) of each boulder were directly measured in the fi eld. Ac-cording to the classifi cation of cording to the classifi cation of BLAIRBLAIR & & MCPHERSONMCPHERSON (1999), clasts with a length of 0.25 to 4.1 m are (1999), clasts with a length of 0.25 to 4.1 m are defi ned as boulders and those ranging from 4.1 to 65.5 m are blocks.defi ned as boulders and those ranging from 4.1 to 65.5 m are blocks.

3.23.2 Mapping and image analysis Mapping and image analysis

The spatial position of each boulder was recorded using a Trimble RTK differential GPS and then The spatial position of each boulder was recorded using a Trimble RTK differential GPS and then captured on a digital elevation model (DEM) of the rocky coast. In the same way, we constructed captured on a digital elevation model (DEM) of the rocky coast. In the same way, we constructed

TableTable 1. Wave height records from weather stations near Martigues, and output from GlobeOcean and 1. Wave height records from weather stations near Martigues, and output from GlobeOcean and ANEMOC wave models.ANEMOC wave models.

Site/model Record duration

Signifi cantwave height

(m)

Direction (degrees)

100 yr return period min–max (m)

Reference

Harbour of SèteHarbour of Sète 1978 – 20081978 – 2008 – – 5.67– 8.725.67– 8.72 CETMEF 2009CETMEF 2009La BalancelleLa Balancelle 1988 – 20011988 – 2001 6.986.98 – – CETMEF 2009CETMEF 2009Cap CouronneCap Couronne 1988 –19991988 –1999 5.005.00 – – CETMEF 2009CETMEF 2009Port of GuardianPort of Guardian 1964 –19781964 –1978 5.005.00 – 6.356.35 SOGREAH 1979SOGREAH 1979GlobeOcean modelGlobeOcean model 1999 – 20031999 – 2003 4.564.56 200°200° – GLOBEOCEAN 2008GLOBEOCEAN 2008GlobeOcean modelGlobeOcean model 1993 – 20081993 – 2008 5.485.48 165°–195°165°–195° 5.2 –7.75.2 –7.7 GLOBEOCEAN 2008GLOBEOCEAN 2008ANEMOC modelANEMOC model 1993 – 20081993 – 2008 5.255.25 195°– 225°195°– 225° 4.9 –7.34.9 –7.3 GLOBEOCEAN 2008GLOBEOCEAN 2008

ANEMOC modelANEMOC model 1978 – 20081978 – 2008 5.665.66 165°–195°165°–195° – CETMEF 2009CETMEF 2009ANEMOC modelANEMOC model 1978 – 20081978 – 2008 5.965.96 195°– 240°195°– 240° – CETMEF 2009CETMEF 2009ANEMOC modelANEMOC model 1978 – 20081978 – 2008 – – 5.92 – 8.255.92 – 8.25 Sustainable development Sustainable development

agencyagency

unco

rrecte

d proo

fs66 M. Shah-Hosseini et al.M. Shah-Hosseini et al.

a 3 D bathymetric map based on data from the French Marine Hydrographic and Oceanographic a 3 D bathymetric map based on data from the French Marine Hydrographic and Oceanographic Service (Service Hydrographique et Océanographique de la Marine-SHOM) that enabled us to Service (Service Hydrographique et Océanographique de la Marine-SHOM) that enabled us to document the relationship between the nearshore bathymetry and the distribution pattern of the document the relationship between the nearshore bathymetry and the distribution pattern of the boulders (Fig. 1).boulders (Fig. 1).

3.33.3 Boulder bio-markers Boulder bio-markers

Some boulders and blocks contain remains of marine organisms that are evidence of origin or Some boulders and blocks contain remains of marine organisms that are evidence of origin or a long residence time in a submerged setting. We extracted two identical marine bio-markers a long residence time in a submerged setting. We extracted two identical marine bio-markers from six different boulders and subjected the samples to radiocarbon dating (Poznan Radiocar-from six different boulders and subjected the samples to radiocarbon dating (Poznan Radiocar-bon Laboratory) in order to determine the time of emergence of the boulders: (i)bon Laboratory) in order to determine the time of emergence of the boulders: (i) Lithophyllum Lithophyllum byssoidesbyssoides: an algal carbonate construction that develops at the base of the intertidal zone, and the an algal carbonate construction that develops at the base of the intertidal zone, and the lower limit of the population of which marks the biological sea level (lower limit of the population of which marks the biological sea level (LABORELLABOREL et al. 1994). (ii) et al. 1994). (ii) Vermetus triqueter:Vermetus triqueter: a hold-fast gastropod that develops in the subtidal zone and the upper limit of a hold-fast gastropod that develops in the subtidal zone and the upper limit of the population of which approximately marks the biological sea level (the population of which approximately marks the biological sea level (LABORELLABOREL et al. 1994). These et al. 1994). These two bio-constructions have the twin advantages of a low possibility of contamination and limited two bio-constructions have the twin advantages of a low possibility of contamination and limited life duration, and are considered more suitable for age determinations compared to the rock-life duration, and are considered more suitable for age determinations compared to the rock-boring bivalve boring bivalve LithophagaLithophaga, which has a longer life span (, which has a longer life span (KLEEMANNKLEEMANN 1973). The radiocarbon ages are 1973). The radiocarbon ages are calibrated using the program Marine 09 14C (calibrated using the program Marine 09 14C (REIMERREIMER et al. 2009). The reservoir effect in surface et al. 2009). The reservoir effect in surface waters of the Mediterranean is relatively homogenous. The recommended waters of the Mediterranean is relatively homogenous. The recommended R for calibration of the R for calibration of the Mediterranean marine samples with the 1998 marine calibration dataset is 58 to 85 14C yr (Mediterranean marine samples with the 1998 marine calibration dataset is 58 to 85 14C yr (REIMERREIMER & & MCCORMACMCCORMAC 2002).The ages obtained allowed us to reconstruct the transport history based on 2002).The ages obtained allowed us to reconstruct the transport history based on the method proposed by the method proposed by PÉRÈSPÉRÈS & & PICARDPICARD (1964), (1964), LABORELLABOREL & & LABORELLABOREL-DEGUENDEGUEN (1994), (1994), STEWARTSTEWART & & MORHANGEMORHANGE (2009) and (2009) and KAZMERKAZMER & & TABOROSITABOROSI (2012). (2012).

4 Results Results

4.14.1 Coastal topography and spatial distribution of boulders Coastal topography and spatial distribution of boulders

The boulders are spread over 1.5 km along the rocky coast near the port of Martigues (Fig. 1). They The boulders are spread over 1.5 km along the rocky coast near the port of Martigues (Fig. 1). They are associated with a rock platform lying close to present sea level. The boulders are composed are associated with a rock platform lying close to present sea level. The boulders are composed

Fig.Fig. 2. A general view of the boulder fi eld and rock platform in section A. Boulders M5 and M6 are identifi ed 2. A general view of the boulder fi eld and rock platform in section A. Boulders M5 and M6 are identifi ed in the foreground.in the foreground.

unco

rrecte

d proo

fs77Coastal boulders in Martigues, French MediterraneanCoastal boulders in Martigues, French Mediterranean

of hard biogenic carbonate identical to that of the shore platform, thus suggesting a local origin. of hard biogenic carbonate identical to that of the shore platform, thus suggesting a local origin. Density measurements by Density measurements by VELLAVELLA et al. (2011) on eight boulders using helium and dry powder pyc- et al. (2011) on eight boulders using helium and dry powder pyc-nometry yielded a mean value of 2.4 g/cm. We obtained virtually the same density using simpler nometry yielded a mean value of 2.4 g/cm. We obtained virtually the same density using simpler

Fig.Fig. 3. Coastal and submarine profi les of delimited sectors (left) and distribution of blocks and boulders on 3. Coastal and submarine profi les of delimited sectors (left) and distribution of blocks and boulders on the coastal platform (right).the coastal platform (right).

unco

rrecte

d proo

fs88 M. Shah-Hosseini et al.M. Shah-Hosseini et al.

mass/volume measurement. The largest blocks are B1 (4.3 × 3 × 0.9 m) with an approximate weight mass/volume measurement. The largest blocks are B1 (4.3 × 3 × 0.9 m) with an approximate weight of 31 t, and M7 (6.6 × 2.75 × 0.8 m), composed of two boulders M5 and M6 (Fig. 2), with an ap-of 31 t, and M7 (6.6 × 2.75 × 0.8 m), composed of two boulders M5 and M6 (Fig. 2), with an ap-proximate total weight of 35 t. We have defi ned, on the basis of high-resolution mapping and fi eld proximate total weight of 35 t. We have defi ned, on the basis of high-resolution mapping and fi eld observations, four boulder sectors presented as A to D in Fig. 1. Cross-sections representing these observations, four boulder sectors presented as A to D in Fig. 1. Cross-sections representing these four sectors are depicted in Fig. 3.four sectors are depicted in Fig. 3.

Sector A is a low-density boulder fi eld. The boulders nearest to the sea are of medium size Sector A is a low-density boulder fi eld. The boulders nearest to the sea are of medium size (~ 1.5 m(~ 1.5 m3), and are located only about 7 m from the shoreline. The largest boulders (~ 12 m), and are located only about 7 m from the shoreline. The largest boulders (~ 12 m3) are ) are located about 40 m inland, and the most inland boulders, located ~ 100 m from the shoreline, are located about 40 m inland, and the most inland boulders, located ~ 100 m from the shoreline, are relatively small (~ 0.5 mrelatively small (~ 0.5 m3). The coastal profi le shows a platform of low elevation with a continuous ). The coastal profi le shows a platform of low elevation with a continuous slope (Fig. 3A).slope (Fig. 3A).

Sector B is a 120 m long and 15 – 20 m wide band of boulders. The biggest boulders (~ 2 mSector B is a 120 m long and 15 – 20 m wide band of boulders. The biggest boulders (~ 2 m3) ) are concentrated in the western part of the sector. Most of the boulders are ~ 1 mare concentrated in the western part of the sector. Most of the boulders are ~ 1 m3. Two zones of . Two zones of boulder accumulation are prominent, respectively at 20 to 30 and 40 to 60 m from the shoreline, boulder accumulation are prominent, respectively at 20 to 30 and 40 to 60 m from the shoreline, these two zones corresponding to breaks in slope in the shore platform (Fig. 3B).these two zones corresponding to breaks in slope in the shore platform (Fig. 3B).

Sector C, about 600 m long, exhibits a ridge-like morphology and a high density of boulders. Sector C, about 600 m long, exhibits a ridge-like morphology and a high density of boulders. The largest boulder (~ 9.5 mThe largest boulder (~ 9.5 m3) is situated in the eastern part of this sector about 5 m from the ) is situated in the eastern part of this sector about 5 m from the shoreline. A 25 m-wide submarine platform is recognizable 4 m under the present mean sea level shoreline. A 25 m-wide submarine platform is recognizable 4 m under the present mean sea level on the profi le (Fig. 3C).on the profi le (Fig. 3C).

Sector D is a band of boulders 130 m long and 10 –15 m wide near the shoreline. Here, the Sector D is a band of boulders 130 m long and 10 –15 m wide near the shoreline. Here, the steep slope of the shore platform seems to have limited landward transport. The fi rst 5 metres of steep slope of the shore platform seems to have limited landward transport. The fi rst 5 metres of platform are nearly fl at and exhibit a homogeneous distribution of boulders with a clear landward-platform are nearly fl at and exhibit a homogeneous distribution of boulders with a clear landward-decreasing trend in size (Fig. 3D). In general, the size of the boulders decreases with distance from decreasing trend in size (Fig. 3D). In general, the size of the boulders decreases with distance from the shoreline (Fig. 4).the shoreline (Fig. 4).

4.24.2 Orientation of boulders Orientation of boulders

The orientation of the long axis of the largest boulders shows two main trends: W/NW to E/SE The orientation of the long axis of the largest boulders shows two main trends: W/NW to E/SE and N/NW to S/SE (Fig. 5). Generally, these orientations are orthogonal to the direction of prov-and N/NW to S/SE (Fig. 5). Generally, these orientations are orthogonal to the direction of prov-enance of the prevailing wave trains. Some blocks (e.g., M1, B937 and B1) have the a-axis direction enance of the prevailing wave trains. Some blocks (e.g., M1, B937 and B1) have the a-axis direction roughly parallel to the direction of provenance of the largest storm waves.roughly parallel to the direction of provenance of the largest storm waves.

Fig.Fig. 4. Distribution of all boulders and blocks as a function of distance from the shoreline. Boulder size 4. Distribution of all boulders and blocks as a function of distance from the shoreline. Boulder size clearly decreases landward.clearly decreases landward.

unco

rrecte

d proo

fs99Coastal boulders in Martigues, French MediterraneanCoastal boulders in Martigues, French Mediterranean

4.34.3 Biological and morphological indicators of displacement Biological and morphological indicators of displacement

The low tidal range in this part of the Mediterranean renders certain marine organisms very reli-The low tidal range in this part of the Mediterranean renders certain marine organisms very reli-able sea-level indicators. Three marine biomarkers are indentifi ed on boulders M1 and M2, for able sea-level indicators. Three marine biomarkers are indentifi ed on boulders M1 and M2, for instance (Fig. 6). instance (Fig. 6). Vermetus triqueterVermetus triqueter is a hold-fast mollusc that thrives on rocks just below the low tide is a hold-fast mollusc that thrives on rocks just below the low tide limit. limit. Lithophyllum byssoidesLithophyllum byssoides colonies develop in the intertidal zone ( colonies develop in the intertidal zone (LABORELLABOREL & & LABORELLABOREL-DEGUENDEGUEN 1994). The upper portion of the boulders exhibits solution pits and no marine organisms, thus 1994). The upper portion of the boulders exhibits solution pits and no marine organisms, thus indicating supratidal conditions. The biological and morphological indicators on these boulders indicating supratidal conditions. The biological and morphological indicators on these boulders suggest that they were transported from the subtidal and intertidal zones to the supratidal zone.suggest that they were transported from the subtidal and intertidal zones to the supratidal zone.

4.44.4 Multiple displacements of boulders Multiple displacements of boulders

Some boulders show morphological and biological evidence of several transport stages. Based Some boulders show morphological and biological evidence of several transport stages. Based on bio-indicators, we suggest two possible transport paths, a simple one from the subtidal to on bio-indicators, we suggest two possible transport paths, a simple one from the subtidal to the supratidal zone (case of boulder M1) and a complex one represented by boulders M5 and M6 the supratidal zone (case of boulder M1) and a complex one represented by boulders M5 and M6

Fig.Fig. 5. Orientations of the long axis of the largest boulders relative to wave direction. 5. Orientations of the long axis of the largest boulders relative to wave direction.

Fig.Fig. 6. Bio-facies on boulders M1 (left) and M2 (right) are characterized by an intertidal notch and biomarkers 6. Bio-facies on boulders M1 (left) and M2 (right) are characterized by an intertidal notch and biomarkers that indicate partially submerged conditions before transport to the present position in the supratidal zone.that indicate partially submerged conditions before transport to the present position in the supratidal zone.

unco

rrecte

d proo

fs1010 M. Shah-Hosseini et al.M. Shah-Hosseini et al.

that initially formed block M7 before it broke into two. According to reliable information from that initially formed block M7 before it broke into two. According to reliable information from a local inhabitant, the breakage of this block occurred following a stormy season about 20 years a local inhabitant, the breakage of this block occurred following a stormy season about 20 years ago (ago (M. FERNANDEZM. FERNANDEZ pers. com. April 2011). Based on the bio-indicators, the transport stages of pers. com. April 2011). Based on the bio-indicators, the transport stages of block M7 are reconstructed in four phases (Fig. 7): (1) detachment of the original block from its block M7 are reconstructed in four phases (Fig. 7): (1) detachment of the original block from its initial intertidal position, (2) a phase of submersion attested by the development of vermetids on initial intertidal position, (2) a phase of submersion attested by the development of vermetids on the the LithophyllumLithophyllum formations, (3) transport of the block to the supratidal zone, (4) breakdown into formations, (3) transport of the block to the supratidal zone, (4) breakdown into boulders M5 and M6 followed by the rotation of the latter.boulders M5 and M6 followed by the rotation of the latter.

4.54.5 Wave heights Wave heights

We tested a number of hydrodynamic models to evaluate the height and fl ooding distance of waves We tested a number of hydrodynamic models to evaluate the height and fl ooding distance of waves involved in boulder transport. involved in boulder transport. NOTTNOTT (1997, 2003) introduced a model to calculate the minimum (1997, 2003) introduced a model to calculate the minimum wave height (at the break point) necessary to initiate the movement of boulders based on their di-wave height (at the break point) necessary to initiate the movement of boulders based on their di-mensions, density, and setting prior to transport. According to this model, three boulder settings mensions, density, and setting prior to transport. According to this model, three boulder settings prior to displacement are possible: subaerial, submerged and joint-bounded. In the submerged pre-prior to displacement are possible: subaerial, submerged and joint-bounded. In the submerged pre-setting, boulders are loose and situated in seawater before transport (total or partial) and may thus setting, boulders are loose and situated in seawater before transport (total or partial) and may thus be covered by marine bio-constructions. In the joint-bounded pre-setting, a boulder is partially be covered by marine bio-constructions. In the joint-bounded pre-setting, a boulder is partially attached to the rocky coast before displacement. The joint-bounded pre-setting appears to be the attached to the rocky coast before displacement. The joint-bounded pre-setting appears to be the case of some of the boulders in Martigues, as their shapes correspond to voids and joints on the case of some of the boulders in Martigues, as their shapes correspond to voids and joints on the rim of the shore platform. Once a boulder is transported to the supratidal zone, its pre-setting is rim of the shore platform. Once a boulder is transported to the supratidal zone, its pre-setting is considered as subaerial for the next stage of displacement. The fi nal considered as subaerial for the next stage of displacement. The fi nal NOTTNOTT (2003) equations are as (2003) equations are as follows:follows:

Submerged pre-setting:Submerged pre-setting:

H HT[0.5 a ([0.5 a (s–w/w)] / [C)] / [CD(ac/b(ac/b2) ) CL] H HT[0.5 a ([0.5 a (s–w/w)] / [C)] / [CD(ac/b(ac/b2) ) CL]

Subaerial pre-setting:Subaerial pre-setting:

H HT[0.25 ([0.25 (s–w/w) [(2 a–C) [(2 a–CM(a/b)(ü/g)]] / [C(a/b)(ü/g)]] / [CD(ac/b(ac/b2) ) CL] H HT[([(s w/w) [(2 a–C) [(2 a–CM(a/b)(ü/g)]] / [C(a/b)(ü/g)]] / [CD(ac/b(ac/b2) ) CL]

Joint-bounded pre-setting:Joint-bounded pre-setting:

H HT[0.25 a ([0.25 a (s–w/w)] / C)] / CL

H HT[a ([a (s–w/w)] / C)] / CL]

Fig.Fig. 7. Reconstruction of transport phases of boulders M5 and M6. 7. Reconstruction of transport phases of boulders M5 and M6.

unco

rrecte

d proo

fs1111Coastal boulders in Martigues, French MediterraneanCoastal boulders in Martigues, French Mediterranean

Where HWhere HT is the tsunami wave height and H is the tsunami wave height and HS the storm wave height at the break point, a, b and the storm wave height at the break point, a, b and c the lengths of the boulder axes, c the lengths of the boulder axes, w sea water density, sea water density, s boulder density, Cs boulder density, CD the drag coeffi cient the drag coeffi cient (2), C2), CL the lift coeffi cient ( the lift coeffi cient (0.178), C0.178), CM the mass coeffi cient ( the mass coeffi cient (1), ü the fl ow acceleration (1), ü the fl ow acceleration (1 m/1 m/s2), and g the gravitational acceleration (), and g the gravitational acceleration (9.81 m/s9.81 m/s2).).

The Nott equations imply that tsunami waves are capable of transporting boulders four times The Nott equations imply that tsunami waves are capable of transporting boulders four times larger compared to storm waves with the same height. This is due to their longer wavelengths, larger compared to storm waves with the same height. This is due to their longer wavelengths, which bear more energy for transport. This model has been used in numerous coastal boulder which bear more energy for transport. This model has been used in numerous coastal boulder studies in the Mediterranean (studies in the Mediterranean (MASTRONUZZIMASTRONUZZI et al. 2007, et al. 2007, SCICCHITANOSCICCHITANO et al. 2007, et al. 2007, MAOUCHEMAOUCHE et et al, 2009, al, 2009, BARBANOBARBANO et al. 2010). The accuracy of the model has been debated in later studies (e.g., et al. 2010). The accuracy of the model has been debated in later studies (e.g., PIGNATELLIPIGNATELLI et al. 2009, et al. 2009, BENNERBENNER et al. 2010, et al. 2010, SWITZERSWITZER & & BURSTONBURSTON 2010, 2010, NANDASENANANDASENA et al. 2011). Fol- et al. 2011). Fol-lowing fi eld observations, some authors have concluded that Nott’s original formulas tend to un-lowing fi eld observations, some authors have concluded that Nott’s original formulas tend to un-derestimate wave heights (e.g., derestimate wave heights (e.g., PARISPARIS et al. 2009, et al. 2009, GOTOGOTO et al. 2010, et al. 2010, BOURGEOISBOURGEOIS & & MACINNESMACINNES 2010). 2010). Others have claimed, on the contrary, that the Nott equations tend to overestimate the height of Others have claimed, on the contrary, that the Nott equations tend to overestimate the height of the impacting waves (e.g., the impacting waves (e.g., BENNERBENNER et al. 2010, et al. 2010, SWITZERSWITZER and and BURSTONBURSTON 2010, 2010, NANDASENANANDASENA et al. 2011). et al. 2011).

H HT[0.5 c ([0.5 c (S–w/w)] / C)] / CL

H HS[2 c ([2 c (S–w/w)] / C)] / CL

BENNERBENNER et al. (2010) argued that the length of the lever arm and acceleration of the water et al. (2010) argued that the length of the lever arm and acceleration of the water around subaerial boulders is neglected in Nott’s equations. They also noted that the coeffi cient of around subaerial boulders is neglected in Nott’s equations. They also noted that the coeffi cient of lift is 1 for cuboid and 2 for prismatic boulders. lift is 1 for cuboid and 2 for prismatic boulders. BENNERBENNER et al. (2010) proposed modifi cations for et al. (2010) proposed modifi cations for the subaerial setting as follows:the subaerial setting as follows:

H Ht[0.5bc [b ([0.5bc [b ( – –w)/)/w–sCsCmüc/(üc/(wg)]] / [Cg)]] / [CD c c2 2 CLb2 ] ] H Hs[2bc [b([2bc [b(s–w)/)/w–sCmüc/(üc/(wg)]] / [Cg)]] / [CD c c2 2 CLb2 ] ]

Apart from the controversies regarding wave height, there are other uncertainties in Nott-type Apart from the controversies regarding wave height, there are other uncertainties in Nott-type equations. For example, the angle of bed slope is not considered in this type of model (equations. For example, the angle of bed slope is not considered in this type of model (ENGELENGEL & & MAYMAY 2012). On the basis of the morphology of the shore platform, we assume both joint-bounded 2012). On the basis of the morphology of the shore platform, we assume both joint-bounded and submerged pre-settings as possible pre-settings in the initial movement of the boulders. Since and submerged pre-settings as possible pre-settings in the initial movement of the boulders. Since

TableTable 2. Morphometric properties of some large blocks and boulders in Martigues and computed storm (H 2. Morphometric properties of some large blocks and boulders in Martigues and computed storm (Hs) ) and tsunami (Hand tsunami (Ht) wave heights.) wave heights.

SubaerialSubaerial Joint-boundedJoint-boundedBouldersBoulders Axis length Axis length

(m)(m)Volume Volume

(m(m3)Mass Mass

(t)(t)Distance Distance

e (m)e (m)NOTTNOTT (2003)(2003)

BENNERBENNER etetal. (2010)al. (2010)

NOTTNOTT (2003)(2003)

PIGNATELLIPIGNATELLI et al. (2009)et al. (2009)

a b c Hs Ht Hs Ht Hs Ht Hs Ht

B1B1 4.74.7 3 0.90.9 12.712.7 31.131.1 41.641.6 10.210.2 2.92.9 9.19.1 2.32.3 36.436.4 9.1 9.1 13.913.9 3.53.5M7M7 6.606.60 2.752.75 0.800.80 14.5214.52 35.635.6 4.5 4.5 1111 2.82.8 8.38.3 2.12.1 51.151.1 12.712.7 12.412.4 3.13.1 892 892 3.63.6 2.22.2 0.90.9 7.1 7.1 17.517.5 4.2 4.2 5.5 5.5 1.61.6 6.56.5 1.61.6 27.927.9 7 7 13.913.9 3.53.5 939 939 3.93.9 2.22.2 0.90.9 7.7 7.7 18.918.9 11.311.3 5.5 5.5 1.61.6 6.66.6 1.61.6 30.230.2 7.5 7.5 13.913.9 3.53.510591059 4 1.81.8 1.41.4 10.110.1 24.724.7 16.616.6 2.4 2.4 0.70.7 3.83.8 0.90.9 3131 7.7 7.7 21.721.7 5.45.411281128 4.34.3 1.21.2 1.51.5 7.7 7.7 1919 21.321.3 0.9 0.9 0.30.3 1.61.6 0.40.4 33.333.3 8.3 8.3 23.223.2 5.85.813711371 4.54.5 1.51.5 0.830.83 5.7 5.7 1414 1515 2.6 2.6 0.80.8 3.93.9 1 34.834.8 8.7 8.7 13.213.2 3.33.3

unco

rrecte

d proo

fs1212 M. Shah-Hosseini et al.M. Shah-Hosseini et al.

there is evidence of several transport phases, whatever the initial pre-setting, the boulders on the there is evidence of several transport phases, whatever the initial pre-setting, the boulders on the shore platform were transported in a subsequent phase from a subaerial pre-setting. Based on a shore platform were transported in a subsequent phase from a subaerial pre-setting. Based on a number of studies showing that the original equations of number of studies showing that the original equations of NOTTNOTT (2003) tend to overestimate wave (2003) tend to overestimate wave heights (e.g., heights (e.g., PIGNATELLIPIGNATELLI et al. 2009, et al. 2009, BENNERBENNER et al. 2010, et al. 2010, SWITZERSWITZER & & BURSTONBURSTON 2010, 2010, NANDASENANANDASENA et et al. 2011, al. 2011, ENGELENGEL & & MAYMAY 2012), we also resorted to modifi ed equations proposed by 2012), we also resorted to modifi ed equations proposed by PIGNATELLIPIGNATELLI et al. et al. (2009) and (2009) and BENNERBENNER et al. (2010) to estimate the wave heights for both storm and tsunami scenarios, et al. (2010) to estimate the wave heights for both storm and tsunami scenarios, and compared the results to recorded and possible events. The wave heights required for initiating and compared the results to recorded and possible events. The wave heights required for initiating the movement of the largest blocks and boulders in different pre-settings using the original equa-the movement of the largest blocks and boulders in different pre-settings using the original equa-tions of tions of NOTTNOTT (1997, 2003), and these modifi ed versions, are presented in Table 2. (1997, 2003), and these modifi ed versions, are presented in Table 2.

The results given by the modifi ed equations are used for interpretation. In the sub-aerial sce-The results given by the modifi ed equations are used for interpretation. In the sub-aerial sce-nario, storm wave heights of 0.9 to 9.1 m are required to displace the largest blocksComparing this nario, storm wave heights of 0.9 to 9.1 m are required to displace the largest blocksComparing this result to waves observed or modeled between 1978 and 2008 in the western Mediterranean (Table result to waves observed or modeled between 1978 and 2008 in the western Mediterranean (Table 1) implies that storm waves with a return period of less than 100 years are capable of moving most 1) implies that storm waves with a return period of less than 100 years are capable of moving most of the boulders. However, transport of the largest blocks (e.g. B1) would require storm waves of of the boulders. However, transport of the largest blocks (e.g. B1) would require storm waves of 9.1 m. The available wave data in the study area do not indicate such high values, but given the 9.1 m. The available wave data in the study area do not indicate such high values, but given the limited duration covered by these data, storm wave values close to 10 m, corresponding to storm limited duration covered by these data, storm wave values close to 10 m, corresponding to storm return periods exceeding 100 years, are quite plausible, especially with regards to the age of the return periods exceeding 100 years, are quite plausible, especially with regards to the age of the events considered here (see 4.7 below). In the joint-bounded scenario, storm waves with heights of events considered here (see 4.7 below). In the joint-bounded scenario, storm waves with heights of 12 to 23 m are required to displace the largest blocks, even though in this case it could be argued 12 to 23 m are required to displace the largest blocks, even though in this case it could be argued that the multiple actions of successive waves on the blocks are tantamount to the effect of a higher that the multiple actions of successive waves on the blocks are tantamount to the effect of a higher wave. If we consider only the results obtained using the equations, then the joint-bounded scenario wave. If we consider only the results obtained using the equations, then the joint-bounded scenario is less plausible in the fi nal emplacement of the largest blocks. In the case of a tsunami, a minimum is less plausible in the fi nal emplacement of the largest blocks. In the case of a tsunami, a minimum wave height of 2.3 m is required to displace the largest boulders. There is no historic evidence sup-wave height of 2.3 m is required to displace the largest boulders. There is no historic evidence sup-porting the occurrence of such a tsunami in the region. porting the occurrence of such a tsunami in the region. PELINOVSKIPELINOVSKI et al. (2001a, 2001b) have per- et al. (2001a, 2001b) have per-formed numerical modeling of tsunami propagation on the Mediterranean coast of France. Their formed numerical modeling of tsunami propagation on the Mediterranean coast of France. Their results demonstrate that tsunamis on this part of the Mediterranean are extremely local as a result results demonstrate that tsunamis on this part of the Mediterranean are extremely local as a result of the relatively weak magnitudes of possible earthquakes in the vicinity of France. The closest sec-of the relatively weak magnitudes of possible earthquakes in the vicinity of France. The closest sec-tor on the French Mediterranean coast potentially subject to tsunami-triggering earthquakes, i.e., tor on the French Mediterranean coast potentially subject to tsunami-triggering earthquakes, i.e., those occurring in the northern part of the Ligurian Sea, is the eastern part of the French Riviera those occurring in the northern part of the Ligurian Sea, is the eastern part of the French Riviera in the Nice-Cannes region (in the Nice-Cannes region (DADOUDADOU et al. 1984). Other potential sources of tsunamis hitting the et al. 1984). Other potential sources of tsunamis hitting the coasts of France are the tectonically active thrust and fold belts of northern Algeria (e.g., coasts of France are the tectonically active thrust and fold belts of northern Algeria (e.g., MAOUCHEMAOUCHE et al. 2009), but there has never been evidence of tsunamis from this area affecting the French et al. 2009), but there has never been evidence of tsunamis from this area affecting the French coast. coast. ÁLVAREZÁLVAREZ-GÓMEZGÓMEZ et al. (2011) assessed the risk of tsunamis from this northern Algerian et al. (2011) assessed the risk of tsunamis from this northern Algerian source in the Balearic Islands, and suggested that the worst-case tsunami can generate waves up to source in the Balearic Islands, and suggested that the worst-case tsunami can generate waves up to 2 m high. The Balearic Islands being midway between Algeria and France, it may be expected that 2 m high. The Balearic Islands being midway between Algeria and France, it may be expected that a worst-case tsunami from Algeria propagating to the French coast will have a height of less than a worst-case tsunami from Algeria propagating to the French coast will have a height of less than 2 m on arrival. Nevertheless, the possibility that a far 386 fi eld generated tsunami has hit the coast 2 m on arrival. Nevertheless, the possibility that a far 386 fi eld generated tsunami has hit the coast of Martigues in the past cannot be excluded.of Martigues in the past cannot be excluded.

4.64.6 Flooding distance Flooding distance

The maximum fl ooding distance of large waves can be calculated using the model of The maximum fl ooding distance of large waves can be calculated using the model of NOORMETSNOORMETS et et al. (2004). In this model, reduction in wave height (or bore height after the break point) is related al. (2004). In this model, reduction in wave height (or bore height after the break point) is related

unco

rrecte

d proo

fs1313Coastal boulders in Martigues, French MediterraneanCoastal boulders in Martigues, French Mediterranean

to the wave height and inversely related to the wavelength. The following equations calculate the to the wave height and inversely related to the wavelength. The following equations calculate the bore height on a rocky coast at a given distance from the break point (bore height on a rocky coast at a given distance from the break point (NOORMETSNOORMETS et al. 2004): et al. 2004):

H Hi[√(R–E) – (5X[√(R–E) – (5Xi/T√g)]/T√g)]2

Where HWhere Hi is the bore height over a distance of X is the bore height over a distance of Xi from the break point, R wave run-up and E from the break point, R wave run-up and E the minimum height of the shore platform. By including the slope of the platform, considering Xthe minimum height of the shore platform. By including the slope of the platform, considering XiXmaxmax/cos /cos , the maximum inundation on the platform (X, the maximum inundation on the platform (Xmaxmax) can be calculated using the follow-) can be calculated using the follow-ing equation (ing equation (BARBANOBARBANO et al. 2010): et al. 2010):

X Xmaxmax[(T√g)√(R–E)cos [(T√g)√(R–E)cos ] / 5] / 5

Due to longer wave periods, tsunami waves are supposed to penetrate farther inland com-Due to longer wave periods, tsunami waves are supposed to penetrate farther inland com-pared to storm waves with the same height. According to this model, huge storm waves are capable pared to storm waves with the same height. According to this model, huge storm waves are capable of detaching large blocks from a rocky coast but are not capable of transporting them far inland of detaching large blocks from a rocky coast but are not capable of transporting them far inland (NOORMETSNOORMETS et al. 2004). Another approach to estimate tsunami fl ooding is presented by et al. 2004). Another approach to estimate tsunami fl ooding is presented by HILLSHILLS & & MADERMADER (1997). In their model, fl ooding distance depends on the height of the tsunami and on (1997). In their model, fl ooding distance depends on the height of the tsunami and on surface roughness. A derived formula by surface roughness. A derived formula by PIGNATELLIPIGNATELLI et al. (2009) includes the distance of the larg- et al. (2009) includes the distance of the larg-est boulder (D) and the slope of the platform (est boulder (D) and the slope of the platform (). This model is applicable only in a scenario of ). This model is applicable only in a scenario of joint-bounded boulder transport by a tsunami of known height:joint-bounded boulder transport by a tsunami of known height:

X XmaxmaxD D (H(HT–h–hC)1.331.33 n n– 2– 2 k cos k cos

Where HWhere HT is the height of tsunami and h is the height of tsunami and hC the height of the shore platform, k the height of the shore platform, k0.06 (0.06 (BRYANT BRYANT 2008), and n the surface roughness represented by the Manning coeffi cient, which ranges from 2008), and n the surface roughness represented by the Manning coeffi cient, which ranges from 0.047 to 0.052 for a rocky karstifi ed coast (0.047 to 0.052 for a rocky karstifi ed coast (PIGNATELLIPIGNATELLI et al. 2009). In order to evaluate the coastal et al. 2009). In order to evaluate the coastal fl ooding distance of the strongest possible storm, we tested the approach proposed by fl ooding distance of the strongest possible storm, we tested the approach proposed by NOORMETSNOORMETS et al. (2004) and later adopted by et al. (2004) and later adopted by BARBANOBARBANO et al. (2010). A storm wave height of 8.5 m and a period et al. (2010). A storm wave height of 8.5 m and a period of 12 s are assumed for the maximum probable storm reoccurrence in 100 years in the Gulf of Fos of 12 s are assumed for the maximum probable storm reoccurrence in 100 years in the Gulf of Fos (Table 1). An average platform slope of 2.7 degrees and platform elevation of 1.7 m were taken into (Table 1). An average platform slope of 2.7 degrees and platform elevation of 1.7 m were taken into account. Calculated storm wave heights capable of transporting each boulder to its fi nal position account. Calculated storm wave heights capable of transporting each boulder to its fi nal position are shown as dots versus wave decay curves in Fig. 8. According to this model, a single storm wave are shown as dots versus wave decay curves in Fig. 8. According to this model, a single storm wave with a height of 8.5 m overtopping the platform and a period 12 s can fl ood the coast of Martigues with a height of 8.5 m overtopping the platform and a period 12 s can fl ood the coast of Martigues over a distance of about 20 m.over a distance of about 20 m.

However, some recent studies have shown that observed storm fl ooding distances do not However, some recent studies have shown that observed storm fl ooding distances do not agree with the results of this model. agree with the results of this model. ENGELENGEL & & MAYMAY (2012), reported, for instance, fl ooding dis- (2012), reported, for instance, fl ooding dis-

Fig.Fig. 8. Simulated storm wave (H 8. Simulated storm wave (H8.5 m, T8.5 m, T12 s) height reduction on the shore platform (the curve) and 12 s) height reduction on the shore platform (the curve) and minimum required storm wave height at fi nal position of the boulders.minimum required storm wave height at fi nal position of the boulders.

unco

rrecte

d proo

fs1414 M. Shah-Hosseini et al.M. Shah-Hosseini et al.

tances in the Antilles that far exceeded model results. In our study area, the fact that the boulders tances in the Antilles that far exceeded model results. In our study area, the fact that the boulders are located up to about 100 m inland points to a longer fl ooding distance than the model results. are located up to about 100 m inland points to a longer fl ooding distance than the model results. On the other hand, accumulations of gastropods and bivalve shells observed up to about 70 m On the other hand, accumulations of gastropods and bivalve shells observed up to about 70 m inland from the shore could be considered as further evidence of marine fl ooding. In the case inland from the shore could be considered as further evidence of marine fl ooding. In the case of a tsunami, the minimum wave height calculated from the boulder dimensions is considered as of a tsunami, the minimum wave height calculated from the boulder dimensions is considered as 3.5 m. With this height, waves can inundate the coast more than 300 m inland if the distance is 3.5 m. With this height, waves can inundate the coast more than 300 m inland if the distance is calculated using the method of calculated using the method of BARBANOBARBANO et al. (2010), and 130 435 m using that of et al. (2010), and 130 435 m using that of PIGNATELLIPIGNATELLI et et al. (2009) (Fig. 9).al. (2009) (Fig. 9).

4.74.7 Ages of boulders Ages of boulders

Six radiocarbon ages were obtained from Six radiocarbon ages were obtained from Vermetus triqueterVermetus triqueter extracted from large boulders. This bio- extracted from large boulders. This bio-indicator has been selected because of its clearly defi ned life zone (intertidal), short life period and indicator has been selected because of its clearly defi ned life zone (intertidal), short life period and low risk of contamination. Two samples confi rm the recent age of boulders M5 and M6. Ages for low risk of contamination. Two samples confi rm the recent age of boulders M5 and M6. Ages for boulders M1 to M6 are presented in Table 3 along with the four ages from different bio-markers at boulders M1 to M6 are presented in Table 3 along with the four ages from different bio-markers at the same site reported by the same site reported by VELLAVELLA et al. (2011). We excluded the ages from the rock-boring bivalve et al. (2011). We excluded the ages from the rock-boring bivalve LithophagaLithophaga because of its long period of life and higher risk of contamination. Eight of the ten ages because of its long period of life and higher risk of contamination. Eight of the ten ages range from 1660 to 1866AD, which corresponds to the period to the Little Ice Age (LIA).range from 1660 to 1866AD, which corresponds to the period to the Little Ice Age (LIA).

Fig.Fig. 9. Simulated tsunami wave height (H 9. Simulated tsunami wave height (H2.5 m, T2.5 m, T400 s) reduction on the shore platform (the curve) and 400 s) reduction on the shore platform (the curve) and minimum required tsunami wave height at fi nal position of the boulders.minimum required tsunami wave height at fi nal position of the boulders.

TableTable 3. Radiocarbon ages of boulders near Martigues in the French Mediterranean. 3. Radiocarbon ages of boulders near Martigues in the French Mediterranean.

Boulder Volume (m3)

Weight (tones)

Distance from shoreline (m)

Dated Biomarker Age 14C BP Calendar age AD (2 δ range)

Reference

M1M1 3.3 3.3 8.09 8.09 1515 Vermetus triqueterVermetus triqueter 550 ± 30 BP550 ± 30 BP 1679 –18661679 –1866 This workThis workM2M2 7.18 7.18 17.5817.58 2020 Vermetus triqueterVermetus triqueter 565 ± 30 BP565 ± 30 BP 1670 –18401670 –1840 This workThis workM3M3 1.26 1.26 3.09 3.09 1616 Vermetus triqueterVermetus triqueter 455 ± 30 BP455 ± 30 BP 1805 – < 19501805 – < 1950 This workThis workM4M4 7.48 7.48 18.3318.33 9 9 Vermetus triqueterVermetus triqueter 570 ± 30 BP570 ± 30 BP 1712 –18321712 –1832 This workThis workM5M5 11.7411.74 28.7828.78 1010 Vermetus triqueterVermetus triqueter 107.35 ± 0.35 BP107.35 ± 0.35 BP modernmodern This workThis workM6M6 3.82 3.82 9.36 9.36 1010 Vermetus triqueterVermetus triqueter 107.82 ± 0.34 BP107.82 ± 0.34 BP modernmodern This workThis workB2B2 0.3 0.3 0.73 0.73 1212 SerpulidaeSerpulidae 415 ± 30 BP415 ± 30 BP 1839 – < 19501839 – < 1950 Vella et al. 2011Vella et al. 2011B5B5 0.55 0.55 1.34 1.34 13.413.4 SerpulidaeSerpulidae 585 ± 30 BP585 ± 30 BP 1661–18181661–1818 Vella et al. 2011Vella et al. 2011B7B7 5.83 5.83 14.214.2 5 5 Lithophyllum bissoidesLithophyllum bissoides 895 ± 30 BP895 ± 30 BP 1339 –14931339 –1493 Vella et al. 2011Vella et al. 2011B8B8 0.97 0.97 2.34 2.34 13.813.8 SerpulidaeSerpulidae 550 ± 30 BP550 ± 30 BP 1679 –18661679 –1866 Vella et al. 2011Vella et al. 2011

unco

rrecte

d proo

fs1515Coastal boulders in Martigues, French MediterraneanCoastal boulders in Martigues, French Mediterranean

4.84.8 Origin of waves Origin of waves

A number of studies have documented increased intensity and frequency of storms during the LIA A number of studies have documented increased intensity and frequency of storms during the LIA in the Mediterranean. Reliable data on increased storm intensity during the LIA is notably derived in the Mediterranean. Reliable data on increased storm intensity during the LIA is notably derived from palaeoclimatic studies of back-barrier lagoon deposits a few kilometres west of Martigues from palaeoclimatic studies of back-barrier lagoon deposits a few kilometres west of Martigues (DEZILEAUDEZILEAU et al. 2011, et al. 2011, SABATIERSABATIER et al. 2012), and from studies in the northern Adriatic Sea ( et al. 2012), and from studies in the northern Adriatic Sea (CA-CA-MUFFOMUFFO et al. 2000). Concerning tsunamis, there is historical evidence on the French Riviera of low- et al. 2000). Concerning tsunamis, there is historical evidence on the French Riviera of low-intensity events that occurred in 1564, 1818 and 1887, generated probably by submarine landslides intensity events that occurred in 1564, 1818 and 1887, generated probably by submarine landslides on the steep slopes of the Var delta near Nice (on the steep slopes of the Var delta near Nice ( JULIANJULIAN & & ANTHONYANTHONY 1996). Tsunami waves of the 1996). Tsunami waves of the order of 3 m were recorded on the coasts of the Ligurian Sea following a submarine landslide that order of 3 m were recorded on the coasts of the Ligurian Sea following a submarine landslide that affected this delta in October 1979 (affected this delta in October 1979 (IOUALALENIOUALALEN et al. 2010). This tsunami event was exacerbated by et al. 2010). This tsunami event was exacerbated by the immediate collapse, following the landslide, of a harbour structure adjacent to the airport of the immediate collapse, following the landslide, of a harbour structure adjacent to the airport of Nice, which is built on the sub-aerial plain of this delta (Nice, which is built on the sub-aerial plain of this delta (ANTHONYANTHONY & & JULIANJULIAN 1997). The continental 1997). The continental shelf in this part of the Mediterranean is particularly narrow and steep, in contrast to the Gulf of shelf in this part of the Mediterranean is particularly narrow and steep, in contrast to the Gulf of Fos where the shelf is wide and the slope far offshore, conditions that are not propitious to the gen-Fos where the shelf is wide and the slope far offshore, conditions that are not propitious to the gen-eration of large submarine landslides. No such event has ever been reported in the Martigues area. eration of large submarine landslides. No such event has ever been reported in the Martigues area. Two events generated by earthquakes, and with more far-reaching consequences than the French Two events generated by earthquakes, and with more far-reaching consequences than the French Riviera ones, occurred in the Mediterranean over the period from 1665 to 1835AD (www.ngdc.Riviera ones, occurred in the Mediterranean over the period from 1665 to 1835AD (www.ngdc.noaa.gov). The earlier one, generated by a strong earthquake in the Alboran Sea, between Spain noaa.gov). The earlier one, generated by a strong earthquake in the Alboran Sea, between Spain and Morocco, occurred on October 10, 1680 (and Morocco, occurred on October 10, 1680 (SOLOVIEVSOLOVIEV et al. 2000). This event has been classifi ed et al. 2000). This event has been classifi ed as one of magnitude 3 in the Tsunami Intensity Scale. Considering the distance of the epicentre as one of magnitude 3 in the Tsunami Intensity Scale. Considering the distance of the epicentre and general features of this event, it is very unlikely that it propagated onto the Martigues area. and general features of this event, it is very unlikely that it propagated onto the Martigues area. The second event, reported to have occurred on March 24th, 1721, was generated by an earthquake The second event, reported to have occurred on March 24th, 1721, was generated by an earthquake probably associated with a landslide near the Balearic Islands (probably associated with a landslide near the Balearic Islands (SOLOVIEVSOLOVIEV et al. 2000). The certainty et al. 2000). The certainty of this event has not been 478 authenticated and it is assumed of low intensity (of this event has not been 478 authenticated and it is assumed of low intensity (TRANSFERTRANSFER 2009). 2009). Various lines of evidence presented in this study tend to indicate that the coastal landscape of Mar-Various lines of evidence presented in this study tend to indicate that the coastal landscape of Mar-tigues has been affected by a succession of exceptional wave impacts during the LIA. Considering tigues has been affected by a succession of exceptional wave impacts during the LIA. Considering the available data examined in the foregoing sections, it is not possible to accurately recognize one the available data examined in the foregoing sections, it is not possible to accurately recognize one (or more) tsunami events to which may be attributed the inland scattering of the largest blocks in (or more) tsunami events to which may be attributed the inland scattering of the largest blocks in Martigues. In contrast, there is clear evidence that these boulders are compatible with large storm Martigues. In contrast, there is clear evidence that these boulders are compatible with large storm waves with a long return period.waves with a long return period.

5 Conclusions Conclusions

Boulders and blocks on the Mediterranean coast near Martigues, in southern France, are evidence Boulders and blocks on the Mediterranean coast near Martigues, in southern France, are evidence of the impact of high-energy waves. Wave height modeling shows that the largest blocks could of the impact of high-energy waves. Wave height modeling shows that the largest blocks could have been displaced initially by a 3.5 m high tsunami wave or by combined storm waves and surge have been displaced initially by a 3.5 m high tsunami wave or by combined storm waves and surge of 10 m at the break point. There is no recorded or historical evidence of a tsunami event with wave of 10 m at the break point. There is no recorded or historical evidence of a tsunami event with wave heights capable of transporting these boulders. Tsunami propagation models also do not support heights capable of transporting these boulders. Tsunami propagation models also do not support the possibility of such an event. On the other hand, there is ample evidence of historical extreme the possibility of such an event. On the other hand, there is ample evidence of historical extreme storms on this coast. Storms large enough to displace the boulders are probable in 100-year return storms on this coast. Storms large enough to displace the boulders are probable in 100-year return period modeling for most of the boulders (below 30 tons) and in over a 100-year return period for period modeling for most of the boulders (below 30 tons) and in over a 100-year return period for the largest blocks (above 30 tons). Breakup of one of the largest blocks occurred during a stormy the largest blocks (above 30 tons). Breakup of one of the largest blocks occurred during a stormy

unco

rrecte

d proo

fs1616 M. Shah-Hosseini et al.M. Shah-Hosseini et al.

season two decades ago. Biological markers and the morphology of the coast suggest historical and season two decades ago. Biological markers and the morphology of the coast suggest historical and multiple displacements for a number of boulders, which implies repeated impact of extreme waves. multiple displacements for a number of boulders, which implies repeated impact of extreme waves. The radiocarbon age determinations obtained from marine organisms on the boulders fall within The radiocarbon age determinations obtained from marine organisms on the boulders fall within the Little Ice Age, a period of enhanced storm activity, as suggested by palaeoclimatic studies. The the Little Ice Age, a period of enhanced storm activity, as suggested by palaeoclimatic studies. The vulnerability of the highly populated and industrial coast around Martigues must be considered in vulnerability of the highly populated and industrial coast around Martigues must be considered in coastal risk assessments. Although the hazard of extreme storms appears to be much more prob-coastal risk assessments. Although the hazard of extreme storms appears to be much more prob-able, the risk of tsunamis from distant sources cannot be excluded.able, the risk of tsunamis from distant sources cannot be excluded.

ReferencesReferences

ÁLVAREZ-GÓMEZ, J. A., ANIEL-QUIROGA, I., GONZÀLEZ M. & OTERO, L.ÁLVAREZ-GÓMEZ, J. A., ANIEL-QUIROGA, I., GONZÀLEZ M. & OTERO, L. (2011): Tsunami hazard at the West- (2011): Tsunami hazard at the West-ern Mediterranean Spanish coast from seismic sources. – Nat. Haz. Earth Syst. ern Mediterranean Spanish coast from seismic sources. – Nat. Haz. Earth Syst. 11:11: 227– 240. 227– 240.

ANTHONY, E. J.ANTHONY, E. J. (2009): Shore processes and their palaeoenvironmental applications. – Dev. Mar. Geol. (2009): Shore processes and their palaeoenvironmental applications. – Dev. Mar. Geol. 4:4: 519 p., Elsevier, Amsterdam.519 p., Elsevier, Amsterdam.

ANTHONY, E. J. & JULIAN, M.ANTHONY, E. J. & JULIAN, M. (1997): The 1979 Var Delta landslide on the French Riviera: a retrospective (1997): The 1979 Var Delta landslide on the French Riviera: a retrospective analysis. – J. Coast. Res. analysis. – J. Coast. Res. 13:13: 27– 35. 27– 35.

BARBANO, M. S., PIRROTTA, C. & GERARDI, FBARBANO, M. S., PIRROTTA, C. & GERARDI, F. (2010): Large boulders along the south-eastern Ionian coast of . (2010): Large boulders along the south-eastern Ionian coast of Sicily: Storm or tsunami deposits? – Mar. Geol. Sicily: Storm or tsunami deposits? – Mar. Geol. 275:275: 140 –154. 140 –154.

BLAIR, T. C. & MCPHERSON, J. GBLAIR, T. C. & MCPHERSON, J. G. (1999): Grain-size and textural classifi cation of coarse sedimentary parti-. (1999): Grain-size and textural classifi cation of coarse sedimentary parti-cles. – J. Sediment. Res. cles. – J. Sediment. Res. 69:69: 6 –19. 6 –19.

BENNER, R., BROWNE, T., BRÜCKNER, H., KELLETAT, D. & SCHEFFERS, ABENNER, R., BROWNE, T., BRÜCKNER, H., KELLETAT, D. & SCHEFFERS, A. (2010): Boulder transport by waves: . (2010): Boulder transport by waves: progress in physical modeling. – Z. Geomorph. N. F. Suppl. progress in physical modeling. – Z. Geomorph. N. F. Suppl. 5454 (3): 127–146. (3): 127–146.

BOURGEOIS, J. & MACINNES, B.BOURGEOIS, J. & MACINNES, B. (2010): Tsunami boulder transport and other dramatic effects 540 of the 15 (2010): Tsunami boulder transport and other dramatic effects 540 of the 15 November 2006 central Kuril Islands tsunami on the island of Matua. – Z. Geomorph. N. F. Suppl. November 2006 central Kuril Islands tsunami on the island of Matua. – Z. Geomorph. N. F. Suppl. 5454 (3): 175 –195.(3): 175 –195.

BRYANT, E.BRYANT, E. (2008): Tsunami – the Underrated Hazard. – Springer, Berlin. (2008): Tsunami – the Underrated Hazard. – Springer, Berlin.CAMUFFO, E., SECCO, A., BRIMBLECOMBE, P. & MARTIN-VIDE, JCAMUFFO, E., SECCO, A., BRIMBLECOMBE, P. & MARTIN-VIDE, J. (2000): Sea storms in the Adriatic Sea and the . (2000): Sea storms in the Adriatic Sea and the

western Mediterranean during the last millennium. – Climatic Change western Mediterranean during the last millennium. – Climatic Change 46:46: 209 – 223. 209 – 223.CETMEF (2009): Analyse des données de houles Sète, mesures du 21/05/2003 au 31/10/2009. – Rapp. CE-CETMEF (2009): Analyse des données de houles Sète, mesures du 21/05/2003 au 31/10/2009. – Rapp. CE-

TMEF, Ministère de l’Ecologie, de l’Energie, du Développement Durable et de la Mer, 24 p.TMEF, Ministère de l’Ecologie, de l’Energie, du Développement Durable et de la Mer, 24 p.DADOU, C., GODEFROY, P. & VAGNERON, J. M.DADOU, C., GODEFROY, P. & VAGNERON, J. M. (1984): Evaluation probabilistique de I’aléa sismique regional (1984): Evaluation probabilistique de I’aléa sismique regional

dans le sud-est de la France. – Bur. Rech. Geol. et Minieres, dans le sud-est de la France. – Bur. Rech. Geol. et Minieres, 59:59: 246 pp. 246 pp.DAWSON, A. GDAWSON, A. G. (1994): Geomorphological effects of tsunami run-up and backwash. – Geomorphology . (1994): Geomorphological effects of tsunami run-up and backwash. – Geomorphology 10:10:

83 – 94.83 – 94.DEZILEAU, L., SABATIER, P., BLANCHEMANCHE, P., JOLY, B., SWINGEDOUW, D., CASSOU, C., CASTAINGS, J., MAR-DEZILEAU, L., SABATIER, P., BLANCHEMANCHE, P., JOLY, B., SWINGEDOUW, D., CASSOU, C., CASTAINGS, J., MAR-

TINEZ, P. & VON-GRAFENSTEIN, U.TINEZ, P. & VON-GRAFENSTEIN, U. (2011): Intense storm activity during the Little Ice Age on the French (2011): Intense storm activity during the Little Ice Age on the French Mediterranean coast. – Palaeogeogr., Palaeoclimateol., Palaeoecol. Mediterranean coast. – Palaeogeogr., Palaeoclimateol., Palaeoecol. 299:299: 289 – 297. 289 – 297.

ENGEL, M. & MAY, S. MENGEL, M. & MAY, S. M. (2012): Bonaire’s boulder fi elds revisited evidence for Holocene tsunami impact on . (2012): Bonaire’s boulder fi elds revisited evidence for Holocene tsunami impact on the Leeward Antilles. – Quatern. Sci. Rev., doi:10.1016/j.quascirev.2011.12.011the Leeward Antilles. – Quatern. Sci. Rev., doi:10.1016/j.quascirev.2011.12.011

ETIENNE, S. & PARIS, RETIENNE, S. & PARIS, R. (2010): Boulder accumulations related to storms on the south coast of the Reykjanes . (2010): Boulder accumulations related to storms on the south coast of the Reykjanes Peninsula (Iceland). – Geomorphology Peninsula (Iceland). – Geomorphology 114:114: 55 –70. 55 –70.

GIANFREDA, F., MIGLIETTA, M. & SANSÒ, PGIANFREDA, F., MIGLIETTA, M. & SANSÒ, P. (2005): Tornadoes in Southern Apulia (Italy). –Nat. Haz. . (2005): Tornadoes in Southern Apulia (Italy). –Nat. Haz. 34:34: 71– 89.71– 89.

GLOBEOCEAN (2008): Climat de houle au large des Stes-Maries-de-la-Mer, 8 p.GLOBEOCEAN (2008): Climat de houle au large des Stes-Maries-de-la-Mer, 8 p.GOTO, K., CHAVANICH, S. A., IMAMURA, F., KUNTHASAP, P., MATSUI, T., MINOURA, K., SUGAWARA, D. & YANAG-GOTO, K., CHAVANICH, S. A., IMAMURA, F., KUNTHASAP, P., MATSUI, T., MINOURA, K., SUGAWARA, D. & YANAG-

ISAWA, HISAWA, H. (2007): Distribution, origin and transport process of boulders deposited by the 2004 Indian . (2007): Distribution, origin and transport process of boulders deposited by the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami at Pakarang Cape, Thailand. – Sediment. GeolOcean tsunami at Pakarang Cape, Thailand. – Sediment. Geol. 202:. 202: 821– 837. 821– 837.

GOTO, K., OKADA, K. & IMAMURA, FGOTO, K., OKADA, K. & IMAMURA, F. (2009): Characteristics and hydrodynamics of boulders transported by . (2009): Characteristics and hydrodynamics of boulders transported by storm waves at Kudaka Island, Japan. – Marin. Geol. storm waves at Kudaka Island, Japan. – Marin. Geol. 262:262: 14 – 24. 14 – 24.

GOTO, K., MIYAGI, K., KAWAMATA, H. & IMAMURA, FGOTO, K., MIYAGI, K., KAWAMATA, H. & IMAMURA, F. (2010): Discrimination of boulders deposited by tsuna-. (2010): Discrimination of boulders deposited by tsuna-mis and storm waves at Ishigaki Island, Japan. – Marin. Geol. mis and storm waves at Ishigaki Island, Japan. – Marin. Geol. 269:269: 34 – 45. 34 – 45.

unco

rrecte

d proo

fs1717Coastal boulders in Martigues, French MediterraneanCoastal boulders in Martigues, French Mediterranean

HILLS, J. G. & MADER, C. L.HILLS, J. G. & MADER, C. L. (1997): Tsunami produced by the impacts of the small asteroids. – Ann. (1997): Tsunami produced by the impacts of the small asteroids. – Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 822:822: 381– 394. 381– 394.

IOUALALEN, M., MIGEON, S. & SARDOUX, OIOUALALEN, M., MIGEON, S. & SARDOUX, O. (2010): Landslide tsunami vulnerability in the Ligurian Sea: case . (2010): Landslide tsunami vulnerability in the Ligurian Sea: case study of the 1979 October 16. Nice international airport submarine landslide and of identifi ed geological study of the 1979 October 16. Nice international airport submarine landslide and of identifi ed geological mass failures. – Geophys. J. Int. mass failures. – Geophys. J. Int. 181:181: 724 –740. 724 –740.

JOLIVET, L., PROUTEAU, G., BRUN, J. P., MEYER, B., ROUCHY, J. M. & SCAILLET, BJOLIVET, L., PROUTEAU, G., BRUN, J. P., MEYER, B., ROUCHY, J. M. & SCAILLET, B. (2008): Géodynamique mé-. (2008): Géodynamique mé-diterranéenne. – Vuibert-SGS, 232 p.diterranéenne. – Vuibert-SGS, 232 p.

JULIAN, M. & ANTHONY, E. JJULIAN, M. & ANTHONY, E. J. (1996): Aspects of landslide activity in the Mercantour Massif and the French . (1996): Aspects of landslide activity in the Mercantour Massif and the French Riviera, south eastern France. – Geomorphology Riviera, south eastern France. – Geomorphology 15:15: 275 – 289. 275 – 289.

KAZMÉR, M. & TABOROSI, D.KAZMÉR, M. & TABOROSI, D. (2012): Bioerosion on the small scale, examples from the tropical and subtropi- (2012): Bioerosion on the small scale, examples from the tropical and subtropi-cal littoral. – Monostori Jubilee cal littoral. – Monostori Jubilee 7:7: 37– 94. 37– 94.

KELLETAT, D. & SCHELLMANN, GKELLETAT, D. & SCHELLMANN, G. (2002): Tsunami in Cyprus, fi eld evidence and 14 C dating results. –Z. Ge-. (2002): Tsunami in Cyprus, fi eld evidence and 14 C dating results. –Z. Ge-omorph. N. F. Suppl. omorph. N. F. Suppl. 4646 (1): 19 – 34. (1): 19 – 34.

KLEEMANN, KKLEEMANN, K. (1973): Lithophaga lithophaga (L.) (Bivalvia) in different limestone. –Malacologia . (1973): Lithophaga lithophaga (L.) (Bivalvia) in different limestone. –Malacologia 14:14: 345 – 347.345 – 347.

LABOREL, J. & LABOREL-DEGUEN, FLABOREL, J. & LABOREL-DEGUEN, F. (1994): Biological indicators of relative sea-level variations and of co-. (1994): Biological indicators of relative sea-level variations and of co-seismic displacements in the Mediterranean region. – J. Coast. Res. seismic displacements in the Mediterranean region. – J. Coast. Res. 10:10: 395 – 415. 395 – 415.

LABOREL, J., MORHANGE, C., LAFONT, R., LE CAMPION, J., LABOREL-DEGUEN, F. & SARTORETTO, S.LABOREL, J., MORHANGE, C., LAFONT, R., LE CAMPION, J., LABOREL-DEGUEN, F. & SARTORETTO, S. (1994): (1994): Biological evidence of sea-level rise during the last 4500 years on the rocky coast of continental south-Biological evidence of sea-level rise during the last 4500 years on the rocky coast of continental south-western France and Corsica. – Marin. Geol. western France and Corsica. – Marin. Geol. 120:120: 203 – 223. 203 – 223.

LEONE, F., LAVIGNE, F., PARIS, R., DENAIN, J. C. & VINET, F.LEONE, F., LAVIGNE, F., PARIS, R., DENAIN, J. C. & VINET, F. (2011): A spatial analysis of the December 26 (2011): A spatial analysis of the December 26thth, , 2004, tsunami-induced damage. Lessons learned from a better risk assessment integrating guildings 2004, tsunami-induced damage. Lessons learned from a better risk assessment integrating guildings vulnerability. – Appl. Geogr. vulnerability. – Appl. Geogr. 31:31: 363 – 375. 363 – 375.

LIONELLO, P., BHEND, J., BUZZI, A., DELLA-MARTA, P. M., KRICHAK, S., JANSA, A., MAHERAS, P., SANNA, A., LIONELLO, P., BHEND, J., BUZZI, A., DELLA-MARTA, P. M., KRICHAK, S., JANSA, A., MAHERAS, P., SANNA, A., TRIGO, I. F. & TRIGO, R.TRIGO, I. F. & TRIGO, R. (2006): Cyclones in the Mediterranean region: climatology and effects on the (2006): Cyclones in the Mediterranean region: climatology and effects on the environment. – In: environment. – In: LIONELLO, P., MALANOTTE-RIZZOLI, P. & BOSCOLO, RLIONELLO, P., MALANOTTE-RIZZOLI, P. & BOSCOLO, R. (eds.): Mediterranean Climate . (eds.): Mediterranean Climate Variability, 324 – 372, Elsevier, Netherlands.Variability, 324 – 372, Elsevier, Netherlands.

MAOUCHE, S., MORHANGE, C. & MEGHRAOUI, M.MAOUCHE, S., MORHANGE, C. & MEGHRAOUI, M. (2009): Large boulder accumulation on the Algerian coast (2009): Large boulder accumulation on the Algerian coast evidence tsunami events in the western Mediterranean. – Mar. Geol. evidence tsunami events in the western Mediterranean. – Mar. Geol. 262:262: 96 –104. 96 –104.

MASTRONUZZI, G. & SANSÒ, PMASTRONUZZI, G. & SANSÒ, P. (2000): Boulders transport by catastrophic waves along the Ionian coast of . (2000): Boulders transport by catastrophic waves along the Ionian coast of Apulia (Southern Italy). – Mar. Geol. Apulia (Southern Italy). – Mar. Geol. 170:170: 93 –103. 93 –103.

MASTRONUZZI, G. & SANSÒ, PMASTRONUZZI, G. & SANSÒ, P. (2004): Large boulder accumulations by extreme waves along the Adriatic . (2004): Large boulder accumulations by extreme waves along the Adriatic coast of southern Apulia (Italy). – Quatern. Int. coast of southern Apulia (Italy). – Quatern. Int. 120:120: 173 –184. 173 –184.

MASTRONUZZI, G., PIGNATELLI, C. & SANSÒ, PMASTRONUZZI, G., PIGNATELLI, C. & SANSÒ, P. (2006): Boulder Fields: A Valuable Morphological Indicator of . (2006): Boulder Fields: A Valuable Morphological Indicator of Paleotsunami in the Mediterranean Sea. – Z. Geomorph. N. F. Suppl. Paleotsunami in the Mediterranean Sea. – Z. Geomorph. N. F. Suppl. 146:146: 173 –194. 173 –194.

MASTRONUZZI, G., PIGNATELLI, C., SANSÒ, P. & SELLERI, GMASTRONUZZI, G., PIGNATELLI, C., SANSÒ, P. & SELLERI, G. (2007): Boulder accumulations produced by the . (2007): Boulder accumulations produced by the 20th February 1743 tsunami along the coast of southeastern Salento (Apulia region, Italy). – Mar. Geol. 20th February 1743 tsunami along the coast of southeastern Salento (Apulia region, Italy). – Mar. Geol. 242:242: 191– 205. 191– 205.

MORHANGE, C., MARRINER, N. & PIRAZZOLI, A.MORHANGE, C., MARRINER, N. & PIRAZZOLI, A. (2006): Evidence of late-Holocene tsunami events in Leba- (2006): Evidence of late-Holocene tsunami events in Leba-non. – Z. Geomorph. N. F. Suppl. non. – Z. Geomorph. N. F. Suppl. 146:146: 81– 95. 81– 95.

NANDASENA, N. A. K., PARIS, R. & TANAKA, NNANDASENA, N. A. K., PARIS, R. & TANAKA, N. (2011): Reassessment of hydrodynamic equations: Minimum . (2011): Reassessment of hydrodynamic equations: Minimum fl ow velocity to initiate boulder transport by high energy events (storms, tsunamis). – Marin. Geol. fl ow velocity to initiate boulder transport by high energy events (storms, tsunamis). – Marin. Geol. 281:281: 70 – 84.70 – 84.

NOORMETS, R., CROOK, K. A. W. & FELTON, E. ANOORMETS, R., CROOK, K. A. W. & FELTON, E. A. (2004): Sedimentology of rocky shorelines: Hydrodynam-. (2004): Sedimentology of rocky shorelines: Hydrodynam-ics of megaclast emplacement and transport on a shore platform, Oahu, Hawaii. – Sediment. Geol. ics of megaclast emplacement and transport on a shore platform, Oahu, Hawaii. – Sediment. Geol. 172:172: 41– 65.41– 65.

NOTT, J. F.NOTT, J. F. (1997): Extremely high-energy wave deposits inside the Great Barrier Reef, Australia: determin- (1997): Extremely high-energy wave deposits inside the Great Barrier Reef, Australia: determin-ing the cause tsunami or tropical cyclone. – Mar. Geol. ing the cause tsunami or tropical cyclone. – Mar. Geol. 141:141: 193 – 207. 193 – 207.

NOTT, J. F.NOTT, J. F. (2003): Waves, coastal boulder deposits and the importance of the pre-transport setting. – Earth (2003): Waves, coastal boulder deposits and the importance of the pre-transport setting. – Earth Plan. Sci. Lett. Plan. Sci. Lett. 210:210: 269 – 276. 269 – 276.

PARIS, R., FOURNIER, J., POIZOT, E., ETIENNE, S., MORIN, J., LAVIGNE, F. & WASSMER, FPARIS, R., FOURNIER, J., POIZOT, E., ETIENNE, S., MORIN, J., LAVIGNE, F. & WASSMER, F. 632 (2010): Boulder . 632 (2010): Boulder and fi ne sediment transport and deposition by the 2004 tsunami in Lhok Nga (western Banda Aceh, and fi ne sediment transport and deposition by the 2004 tsunami in Lhok Nga (western Banda Aceh, Sumatra, Indonesia): A coupled offshore-onshore model. – Mar. Geol. Sumatra, Indonesia): A coupled offshore-onshore model. – Mar. Geol. 268:268: 43 – 54. 43 – 54.

unco

rrecte

d proo

fs1818 M. Shah-Hosseini et al.M. Shah-Hosseini et al.

PARIS, R., WASSMER, P., SARTOHADI, J., LAVIGNE, F., BARTHOMEUF, B., DESGAGES, E., GRANCHER, D., BAUMERT, PARIS, R., WASSMER, P., SARTOHADI, J., LAVIGNE, F., BARTHOMEUF, B., DESGAGES, E., GRANCHER, D., BAUMERT, P., VAUTIER, F., BRUNSTEIN, D. & GOMEZ, CP., VAUTIER, F., BRUNSTEIN, D. & GOMEZ, C. (2009): 637 Tsunamis as geomorphic crises: lessons from . (2009): 637 Tsunamis as geomorphic crises: lessons from the December 26, 2004, tsunami in Lhok Nga, West Banda Aceh (Sumatra, Indonesia). – Geomorphol-the December 26, 2004, tsunami in Lhok Nga, West Banda Aceh (Sumatra, Indonesia). – Geomorphol-ogy ogy 104:104: 59 –72. 59 –72.

PELINOVSKY, E., KHARIF, C., RIABOV, I. & FRANCIUS, MPELINOVSKY, E., KHARIF, C., RIABOV, I. & FRANCIUS, M. (2001a): Study of tsunami propagation in the Ligu-. (2001a): Study of tsunami propagation in the Ligu-rian Sea. – Nat. Haz. Earth Sys. rian Sea. – Nat. Haz. Earth Sys. 1:1: 195 – 201. 195 – 201.

PELINOVSKY, E., KHARIF, C., RIABOV, I. & FRANCIUS, M.PELINOVSKY, E., KHARIF, C., RIABOV, I. & FRANCIUS, M. (2001b): Modeling of tsunami propagation in the (2001b): Modeling of tsunami propagation in the vicinity of the French coast of the Mediterranean. – Nat. Haz. vicinity of the French coast of the Mediterranean. – Nat. Haz. 2525 (2): 135 –159. (2): 135 –159.

PERES, J. M. & PICARD, J. PERES, J. M. & PICARD, J. (1964): Nouveau manuel de bionomie benthique. – Rec. Trav. Stat. mar. d’Endoume (1964): Nouveau manuel de bionomie benthique. – Rec. Trav. Stat. mar. d’Endoume 31:31: 47–137. 47–137.

PIGNATELLI, C., SANSÒ, P. & MASTRONUZZI, G. PIGNATELLI, C., SANSÒ, P. & MASTRONUZZI, G. (2009): Evaluation of tsunami fl ooding using geomorphologic (2009): Evaluation of tsunami fl ooding using geomorphologic evidence. – Mar. Geol. evidence. – Mar. Geol. 260:260: 6 –18. 6 –18.

REIMER, P. J. & MCCORMAC, F. G. REIMER, P. J. & MCCORMAC, F. G. (2002): Marine radiocarbon reservoir corrections for the Mediterranean (2002): Marine radiocarbon reservoir corrections for the Mediterranean and Aegean Seas. – Radiocarbon and Aegean Seas. – Radiocarbon 44:44: 159 –166. 159 –166.

REIMER, P. J., BAILLIE, M. G. L., BARD, E., BAYLISS, A., BECK, J. W., BLACKWELL, P. G., BRONK RAMSEY, C., REIMER, P. J., BAILLIE, M. G. L., BARD, E., BAYLISS, A., BECK, J. W., BLACKWELL, P. G., BRONK RAMSEY, C., BUCK, C. E., BURR, G. S., EDWARDS, R. L., FRIEDRICH, M., GROOTES, P. M., GUILDERSON, T. P., HAJDAS, BUCK, C. E., BURR, G. S., EDWARDS, R. L., FRIEDRICH, M., GROOTES, P. M., GUILDERSON, T. P., HAJDAS, I., HEATON, T. J., HOGG, A. G., HUGHEN, K. A., KAISER, K. F., KROMER, B., MCCORMAC, F. G., MANNING, I., HEATON, T. J., HOGG, A. G., HUGHEN, K. A., KAISER, K. F., KROMER, B., MCCORMAC, F. G., MANNING, S. W., REIMER, R. W., RICHARDS, D. A., SOUTHON, J. R., TALAMO, S., TURNEY, C. S. M., VAN DER PLICHT, S. W., REIMER, R. W., RICHARDS, D. A., SOUTHON, J. R., TALAMO, S., TURNEY, C. S. M., VAN DER PLICHT, J. & WEYHENMEYER, C. E.J. & WEYHENMEYER, C. E. (2009) IntCal09 and Marine09 radiocarbon age calibration curves, 0 – 50,000 (2009) IntCal09 and Marine09 radiocarbon age calibration curves, 0 – 50,000 years cal BP. – Radiocarbon years cal BP. – Radiocarbon 51:51: 1111–1150. 1111–1150.

ROGER, J. & HÉBERT, H.ROGER, J. & HÉBERT, H. (2008): The 1856 Djijelli (Algeria) earthquake and tsunami: source parameters and (2008): The 1856 Djijelli (Algeria) earthquake and tsunami: source parameters and implications for tsunami hazard in the Balearic Islands. – Nat. Haz. Earth Sys. implications for tsunami hazard in the Balearic Islands. – Nat. Haz. Earth Sys. 8:8: 721–731. 721–731.

SABATIER, F., MAILLET, G., FLEURY, J., PROVANSAL, M., ANTONELLI, C., SUANEZ, S. & VELLA, C.SABATIER, F., MAILLET, G., FLEURY, J., PROVANSAL, M., ANTONELLI, C., SUANEZ, S. & VELLA, C. (2006): Sedi- (2006): Sedi-ment budget of the Rhône delta shoreface since the middle of the 19th century. – Mar. Geol. ment budget of the Rhône delta shoreface since the middle of the 19th century. – Mar. Geol. 234:234: 143 –157.143 –157.

SABATIER, F., SAMAT, O., ULLMANN, A. & SUANEZ, S.SABATIER, F., SAMAT, O., ULLMANN, A. & SUANEZ, S. (2009): Connecting large-sacle coastal behaviour with (2009): Connecting large-sacle coastal behaviour with coastal management of the Rhône delta. – Geomorphology coastal management of the Rhône delta. – Geomorphology 107:107: 79 – 89. 79 – 89.

SABATIER, P., DEZILEAU, L., COLIN, C., BRIQUEU, L., BOUCHETTE, F., MARTINEZ, P., SIANI, G., RAYNAL, O. & SABATIER, P., DEZILEAU, L., COLIN, C., BRIQUEU, L., BOUCHETTE, F., MARTINEZ, P., SIANI, G., RAYNAL, O. & VON-GRAFENSTEIN, U.VON-GRAFENSTEIN, U. (2012): 7000 years of paleostorm activity in the NW Mediterranean Sea in re- (2012): 7000 years of paleostorm activity in the NW Mediterranean Sea in re-sponse to Holocene climate events. – Quaternary Res. sponse to Holocene climate events. – Quaternary Res. 77:77: 1–11. 1–11.

SCICCHITANO, G., MONACO, C. & TORTORICI, L.SCICCHITANO, G., MONACO, C. & TORTORICI, L. (2007): Large boulder deposits by tsunami waves along the (2007): Large boulder deposits by tsunami waves along the Ionian coast of south-eastern Sicily (Italy). – Mar. Geol. Ionian coast of south-eastern Sicily (Italy). – Mar. Geol. 238:238: 75 – 91. 75 – 91.

SCHEFFERS, A. & SCHEFFERS, S.SCHEFFERS, A. & SCHEFFERS, S. (2007): Tsunami deposits on the coastline of west Crete (Greece). – Earth (2007): Tsunami deposits on the coastline of west Crete (Greece). – Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. Planet. Sci. Lett. 259:259: 613 – 624. 613 – 624.

SCHEFFERS, S. R., SCHEFFERS, A., KELLETAT, D. & BRYANT E. A.SCHEFFERS, S. R., SCHEFFERS, A., KELLETAT, D. & BRYANT E. A. (2008): The Holocene paleo-tsunami history (2008): The Holocene paleo-tsunami history of West Australia. – Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. of West Australia. – Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 270270 (1– 2): 137–146. (1– 2): 137–146.

SOGREAH (1979): Conditions de houle au Cap Couronne. – Sogreah pour le Port Autonome de Marseille, SOGREAH (1979): Conditions de houle au Cap Couronne. – Sogreah pour le Port Autonome de Marseille, 24 p.24 p.

SOLOVIEV, S. L., SOLOVIEVA, O. N., GO, C. N., KIM, K. S. & SHCHETNIKOV, N. A.SOLOVIEV, S. L., SOLOVIEVA, O. N., GO, C. N., KIM, K. S. & SHCHETNIKOV, N. A. (2000): Tsunamis in the (2000): Tsunamis in the Mediterranean Sea 2000B. C.– 2000A. D. – Adv. Nat. Technol. Haz. Mediterranean Sea 2000B. C.– 2000A. D. – Adv. Nat. Technol. Haz. 1313, Kluwer Academic Publishers, , Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht, Netherlands.Dordrecht, Netherlands.

STEWART, I. S. & MORHANGE, C.STEWART, I. S. & MORHANGE, C. (2009): Coastal geomorphology and sea-level change. – The Physical Geog- (2009): Coastal geomorphology and sea-level change. – The Physical Geog-raphy of the Mediterraneanraphy of the Mediterranean. – – In:In: WOODWARD WOODWARD (ed.): Oxford University Press, 385 – 414. (ed.): Oxford University Press, 385 – 414.

SUANEZ, S. FICHAUT, B. & MAGNE, RSUANEZ, S. FICHAUT, B. & MAGNE, R. (2009): Cliff-top storm deposits on Banneg Island, Brittany, France: . (2009): Cliff-top storm deposits on Banneg Island, Brittany, France: Effects of giant waves in the Eastern Atlantic Ocean. – Sediment. Geol. Effects of giant waves in the Eastern Atlantic Ocean. – Sediment. Geol. 220:220: 12 – 28. 12 – 28.

SWITZER, A. D. & BURSTON, J. M.SWITZER, A. D. & BURSTON, J. M. (2010): Competing mechanisms for boulder deposition on the southeast (2010): Competing mechanisms for boulder deposition on the southeast Australian coast. – Geomorphology Australian coast. – Geomorphology 114:114: 42 – 54. 42 – 54.

ULLMANN, A. PIRAZZOLI, P. A. & TOMASIN, A.ULLMANN, A. PIRAZZOLI, P. A. & TOMASIN, A. (2007): Sea surges in Camargue, Trends over the 20th century. (2007): Sea surges in Camargue, Trends over the 20th century. – Cont. Shelf Res. – Cont. Shelf Res. 27:27: 922 – 934. 922 – 934.

ULLMANN A. & MORON, V.ULLMANN A. & MORON, V. (2008): Weather regimes and sea surge variations over the Gulf of Lions during (2008): Weather regimes and sea surge variations over the Gulf of Lions during the 20th century. –Int. J. Climatol. the 20th century. –Int. J. Climatol. 28:28: 159 –171. 159 –171.

ULLMANN A., PIRAZZOLI, P. A. & MORON, V.ULLMANN A., PIRAZZOLI, P. A. & MORON, V. (2008): Sea surges around the Gulf of Lions and atmospheric (2008): Sea surges around the Gulf of Lions and atmospheric conditions. – Global. Planet. Change conditions. – Global. Planet. Change 63:63: 203 – 214. 203 – 214.

unco

rrecte

d proo

fs1919Coastal boulders in Martigues, French MediterraneanCoastal boulders in Martigues, French Mediterranean

VELLA, C., BOURCIER, M. & PROVANSAL, M.VELLA, C., BOURCIER, M. & PROVANSAL, M. (1998): Montée du niveau marin et sédimentation holocène sur la (1998): Montée du niveau marin et sédimentation holocène sur la marge orientale du delta du Rhône, Provence, France. – B. Soc. Geol. Fr. marge orientale du delta du Rhône, Provence, France. – B. Soc. Geol. Fr. 169:169: 403 – 414. 403 – 414.

VELLA, C. & PROVANSAL, M.VELLA, C. & PROVANSAL, M. (2000): Relative sea-level rise and neotectonic events during the last 6500 years (2000): Relative sea-level rise and neotectonic events during the last 6500 years on the southern eastern Rhône delta, France. – Mar. Geol. on the southern eastern Rhône delta, France. – Mar. Geol. 170:170: 27– 39. 27– 39.

VELLA, C., DEMORY, F., CANUT, V., DUSSOUILLEZ, P. & FLEURY, T. J.VELLA, C., DEMORY, F., CANUT, V., DUSSOUILLEZ, P. & FLEURY, T. J. (2011): First evidence of accumulation (2011): First evidence of accumulation of mega boulders on the Mediterranean rocky coast of Provence (southern France). – Nat. Haz. Earth of mega boulders on the Mediterranean rocky coast of Provence (southern France). – Nat. Haz. Earth Sys. Sys. 11:11: 905 – 914. 905 – 914.

VÖTT, A., LANG, F., BRÜCKNER, H., GAKI-PAPANASTASSIOU, K., MAROUKIAN, H., PAPANASTASSIOU, D., GIAN-VÖTT, A., LANG, F., BRÜCKNER, H., GAKI-PAPANASTASSIOU, K., MAROUKIAN, H., PAPANASTASSIOU, D., GIAN-NIKOS, A., HADLER, H., HANDL, M., NTAGERETZIS, K., WILLERSHÄUSER T. & ZANDER, A.NIKOS, A., HADLER, H., HANDL, M., NTAGERETZIS, K., WILLERSHÄUSER T. & ZANDER, A. (2010): Sedi- (2010): Sedi-mentological and geoarchaeological evidence of multiple tsunamigenic imprint on the Bay of Palairos-mentological and geoarchaeological evidence of multiple tsunamigenic imprint on the Bay of Palairos-Pogonia (Akarnania, NW Greece). – Quatern. Int. Pogonia (Akarnania, NW Greece). – Quatern. Int. 242242 (1): 213 – 239. (1): 213 – 239.

WILLIAMS, D. M. & HALL, A. M.WILLIAMS, D. M. & HALL, A. M. (2004): Cliff-top megaclast deposits or Ireland, a record of extreme waves (2004): Cliff-top megaclast deposits or Ireland, a record of extreme waves in the North Atlantic, storms or tsunami. – Mar. Geol. in the North Atlantic, storms or tsunami. – Mar. Geol. 206206 (1– 4): 101–117. (1– 4): 101–117.

Addresses of the authors:Addresses of the authors:M. Shah-Hosseini (corresp. author), C. Morhange, A. De Marco, J. Wante, J. Anthony and F. Sabatier, M. Shah-Hosseini (corresp. author), C. Morhange, A. De Marco, J. Wante, J. Anthony and F. Sabatier, Aix Marseille Université, CEREGE, UMR 7330, Europôle Méditerranéen de l’Arbois, BP80, 13545, Aix Marseille Université, CEREGE, UMR 7330, Europôle Méditerranéen de l’Arbois, BP80, 13545, Aix-en-Provence, France.Aix-en-Provence, France.e-mail corresponding author: [email protected] corresponding author: [email protected]. Mastronuzzi, Università degli sudi di Bari «Aldo Moro», Department of Geology and 520 Geophysics, G. Mastronuzzi, Università degli sudi di Bari «Aldo Moro», Department of Geology and 520 Geophysics, Via E. Orabona 4, Bari 70125, Italy.Via E. Orabona 4, Bari 70125, Italy.C. Pignatelli, Geo Data Service S.R.L., Via della Croce 142, 74100, Taranto, ItalyC. Pignatelli, Geo Data Service S.R.L., Via della Croce 142, 74100, Taranto, ItalyA. Piscitelli, Environmental Survey S.R.L., Via della Croce 142, 74100 Taranto, ItalyA. Piscitelli, Environmental Survey S.R.L., Via della Croce 142, 74100 Taranto, Italye-mail: [email protected]: [email protected]