Coaches' Influence: Addressing Male Athletes' Behaviours ...

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Coaches’Influence:AddressingMaleAthletes’BehavioursandAttitudesAbout“BeingaMan”

By

CurtisHolmes

AThesis

presentedto

TheUniversityofGuelph

InpartialfulfilmentofrequirementsforthedegreeofMasterofScience

InFamilyRelationsandAppliedNutrition

Guelph,Ontario,Canada

©CurtisHolmes,December,2019

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ABSTRACT

COACHES’INFLUENCE:ADDRESSINGMALEATHLETES’BEHAVIOURSANDATTITUDESABOUT

“BEINGAMAN”

CurtisHolmes AdvisoryCommittee:UniversityofGuelph,2019 Dr.LyndaAshbourne Dr.RobinMilhausen Dr.JosephTindaleThisstudyisaqualitativeexplorationofcoaches’influenceontheirmaleathletestopromote

inclusivemasculinityandtoeliminateharmfuleffectsoftraditionalmasculinity.TenUniversity

ofGuelphAthleticcoachesparticipatedinsemi-structuredinterviewswhichcentredaroundthe

definitionandmanlinessandtheirinfluenceontheirathletes.Thematicanalysisindicatedthe

challengetothedefinitionofmanliness,thepreferenceforanathletetobeagoodperson

ratherthangender,identifiablequalitiesofbeingaman,thatcoacheshaveamajorinfluence

onthebehaviouroftheirathletesandthatthereareaspirationalattributesthatcoacheswould

liketoseefromtheirathletes.Thesefindingsextendthelimitedresearchthatdoesfocuseson

coachesandtheirperspectivesoninclusivemasculinityoftheirmaleathletesandprovidesnew

researchcoachesdesirefortheirathletestobeagoodpersonandtobemoreinclusiveand

positive.Futureresearchshouldinvestigatedirectactionsofathetesandthemeasurable

outcomesofcoachesinfluence.

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Acknowledgements

Iwouldliketothankmythesisadvisor,Dr.LyndaAshbournewhohasbeena

tremendousmentorformesincemyundergraduatedegreeinAdultDevelopment.Her

patienceandguidancehasbeeninstrumentalincompletionofmycourseworkandthesis.Our

meetingswillalwaysberememberedastimeswhendiscussionsoftherelevanceofthistopic

keptmefocusedontheimportanceofitscompletionandtheneedforthisworktobe

dissemninated.

Similarly,IwouldliketothankmycommitteememberDr.JosepehTindale.Sincemy

undergraduatedegree,hehasbeenagreatsupporterofmyacademicworkandhasmadea

tremendousimpactonmygoalofbeingagraduatestudent.Hisguidanceandinputonthis

workisinvaluableandappreciatedtremendously.

Iwouldalsoliketothankmyothercommitteemember,Dr.RobinMilhausen.Stepping

forwardduringmyfirstsemesterasamentorwasvitalinthecompletionofthiswork,butalso

gettingthroughthatfirstsemester.Herinputandencouragementincompletionofthisthesis

wasincredibleandwasalwaysappreciated.

IwouldliketothankStudentAccessibilityServices(SAS)attheUniverityofGuelphand

especiallymyadvisor,LyndaSlater.Ourmeetingswereusuallyfarapart,butwerealwaysso

encouragingandproductive.TheservicesofSASwereinvaluablethroughmyundergraduate

andgraduatedegrees,andIwouldnothaveaccomplishedthiswithouttheirassistance.

IwouldliketothanktheUnviversityofGuelphAthleticDepartmentfortheassistancein

therecruitmentofparticipantsandthe10participantswhoweregraciouswiththeirtimeand

inputonthisimportantsubjectmatter.

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Lastly,Iwouldliketothankmymother.Shehasalwaysbeenmyadvocatewhenothers

saidIcouldnotaccomplishmygoaloffulfillingapost-secondaryeducation.Shehasalways

beenthereforme,evenwhenIwasapain.Iwouldnotbeherewithoutyoursacrificesand

guidance.

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TableofContents

Abstract………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………ii

Acknowledgements…………………………………………………………………………………………………….iii

Introduction………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..1

LiteratureReview………………………………………………………………………………………………………..3

CriticalFeministPerspective…………………………………………………………………………...3

ReviewoftheResearchLiterature………………………………………………………………….12

ImportanceofMaleSports…………………………………………………………………12

HarmfulAspectsofTraditionalMasculinity………………………………………..14

TheInfluenceandRoleofCoaches……………………………………………………..20

RationalefortheResearch……………………………………………………………………………..24

StatementofPositionality…………………………………………………………………………………………..26

ResearchQuestions…………………………………………………………………………………………………….27

Methods……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..27

RecruitmentandSample………………………………………………………………………………….28

EthicalConsiderations……………………………………………………………………………………..29

ConductingtheInterview…………………………………………………………………………………30

DataAnalysis……………………………………………………………………………………………………32

Results………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….35

QuestioningtheDefinitionofManliness…………………………………………………………..35

BeingaGoodPerson…………………………………………………………………………………………39

IdentifiableQualitiesofBeingaMan………………………………………………………………..41

CoachesInfluenceonAthletes………………………………………………………………………….46

AspirationalAttributes………………………………………………………………………………………51

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Discussion……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..56

QuestioningtheDefinitionofManliness……………………………………………………………57

BeingaGoodPerson………………………………………………………………………………………….58

IdentifiableQualitiesofBeingMan…………………………………………………………………….59

CoachesInfluenceonAthletes…………………………………………………………………………….61

AspirationalAttributes………………………………………………………………………………………..64

StrengthsandLimitations…………………………………………………………………………………………………68

AreasforFutureResearch…………………………………………………………………………………………………69

ImplicationsandConclusion………………………………………………………………………………………………71

References…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………74

Appendices……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….83

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Introduction

Recently,BaylorUniversity’sfootballteamwaspresentedbythemediatohavea

cultureofsexualviolenceamongstitsplayers.Reportedly,thisprominentChristianuniversity’s

footballteamhadacceptedandexcusedsexualviolenceasabondingexperienceforitsplayers.

Ithasbeenallegedthatatleast52sexualassaultsbyfootballteammembersoccurredbetween

2011and2014.Rookieswereapparentlyencouragedtobringfemalestudentstofootball

partiestoallowfortheviolentactstooccuramongsttheteammembers.Reportingofthe

incidentsresultedinharassmentofthefemalesurvivorsandtheirfamiliesandcreateda

climateoffearandintimidationforthefemalesoncampus(Bonesteel,2017).

Malesportshavegainedahero-worshipstatusincontemporarysociety(Smith,2016)

andasevidencedintheexampleabove,hero-worshiphasadarkerside.Therearemanyrecent

exampleswheremaleathleteshavetakenadvantageofthispowerandexertedtheirinfluence

overwomenandnon-traditionallymasculinemales.Canadiansarepassionateabouttheir

heroesintheNationalHockeyLeague(NHL)andtheCanadianWorldJuniorhockeyteam

(Blake,2010).Excessivemediacoverage,fundingofteamsandathletes,andhighstakes

scoutingofyoungathletesdemonstrateAmericans’apparentobsessionwithmalefootball

playersatthehighschool,college,andprofessionallevels(Crepeau,2014).Theelevatedstatus

ofmalesportsmaycreateacontextinwhichindividualathletesfeelentitledtousethat

privilegetodominateandabusewomenandnon-traditionallymasculinemaleswhilebeing

excusedfortheiractionsbysocietalmembers(Smith,2016).Inresponsetosexuallyviolent

transgressions,suchaswiththeBaylorUniversityfootballteam,therehavebeensomerecent

instances(Jaimeetal.,2015;Steinfeldt,Foltz,Mungro,Speight,Wong&Blumberg,2011)

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whereathleticprogramsonuniversitycampusesandprofessionalsportsleagueshavemoved

awayfromcondoningtraditionalmasculinity(violence,sexismandhomophobia)andare

insteadaimingtofostermorerespectfulandinclusivemodelsofmasculinity.Coachesareakey

componenttothesuccessofthesechangesgiventheirabilitytomentor,model,andinfluence

behavior,andcreateinterventionprogramsfortheirmaleathletes(Jamieetal.,2015;

Steinfedltetal.,2016).Examiningcoaches’perspectivesandpracticecontributesto

understandingthewaystheypromoteinclusiveandpositivemasculinitiesandwaystheymay

addressharmfulaspectsoftraditionalmasculinityamongtheirmaleathletes.

Ifsocialstatus,attitudes,andbehavioursdeemedacceptableformaleathletesmaybe

relatedtotheirriskofviolenceagainstwomenandothers,howmightthisbeaddressed?Inthis

study,IexaminedtheintendedbehaviouralinfluenceofmalevarsitycoachesontheUniversity

ofGuelphcampustopromotepositive/inclusivemasculinityandtodiminishidealsof

traditionalmasculinityintheirmaleathletes.

Thisliteraturereviewwillbeginwithoutliningthekeyaspectsoftraditional

masculinitiesandmalesportsincontemporaryNorthAmericansocietythatarehighlightedbya

criticalandfeministperspective.Thiswillbefollowedbyareviewofrelevantandrecent

researchontheelevatedstatusofmalesports,harmfulaspectsoftraditionalmasculinity,and

theroleofcoaches.Gapsinthecurrentresearchliteraturewillillustratetheneedforthis

research.Thissectionwillincludetheresearchquestionsthatguidedthestudyand

methodologyforthecollectionandanalysisofdata.

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LiteratureReview

Thefollowingsectionpresentstheconcepts,theory,andcurrentresearchrelatedto

maleathletesandtraditionalmasculinity.Useofacriticalfeministtheoreticalperspective

highlightsparticularaspectsoftraditionalmasculinityandmalesports,followedbyareviewof

currentresearch.

CriticalFeministPerspectiveonMaleSportsandTraditionalMasculinity

Useofacriticalfeministtheoreticalperspectivecanhighlightcertainaspectsofthe

studyofmaleathletesandtraditionalmasculinity.Thiswillbeoutlinedbelowincluding:the

historicalcontextofmaleathleticismandtraditionalmasculinity;thenegativeaspectsofmenin

sportsvisibleincriticalfeministperspective(privileges,hierarchiesandlanguagewithin

contemporarymalesports);andthenotableabsenceofintersectionalityinthediscourseof

sports.

InWestern(NorthAmerican)society,thesportsindustryfunctionstoidealizeathletes,

financialsuccess,andaccesstohigherlevelsofpower.Thoseinmalesportsmustconformtoa

beliefinindividualityandcompetitionorriskbeinglabelledasdeviantandreceivingabuseand

criticismfromthosewhofavourtraditionalmasculinevalues(Jamieson&Orr,2009).

Akeyconceptthathasbeenlinkedtomuchoftheresearchofmalesportsandmale

athletesishegemonicmasculinity.Hegemonicmasculinityisdefinedasreinforcementof

patriarchalrelationsintermsofunequalpower,controlandstatusoverwomenandnon-

traditionalmasculinemales(Bairner,2009;Connell&Messerschmidt,2005;Hoeber&Kerwin,

2013;Messerschmidt,2012).Thisconceptemergesintheunderliningresearchthroughmale

athletes’participation,abilityandprivilegesaffordedtothemthroughsportandthe

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legitimizationoftheirnaturalathleticabilityandstatusinsocietyassuperiortowomenand

non-traditionalmasculinemales(Heober&Kerwin,2013).

Acriticalfeministperspectiveconsidersthelinkbetweentraditionalmasculinityand

malesports,underlinesthesocialstatusgrantedtomaleorganizedsportsandmaleathletes,

howthisisinfluencedbysocialinstitutionssuchasthemediaandbigbusiness,andthe

implicationsforathletes’behaviourandprivilegeonandoffthefield(Messner,2007;Wellmer,

2014).Acriticalperspectivehighlightsthevariouscompetingintereststogainstatus,power,

andwealththroughorganizedsports(Daly,2007;Jamieson&Orr,2009).Feministtheorymore

specificallyexamineshowgenderisusedtoestablishsuperiority,power,andprivilegeformale

athletes,referringspecificallytopatriarchyormale’sauthorityandsuperiorityoverwomen

(Fuller,2010;McDowell&Schaffner,2011;Steinfeldt,Miller&David,2016).Intersectionality

regardingsocialidentityidentifieshowgenderintersectswithethnicityorracializedstatus,

sexualorientationoridentity,andsocialclassinestablishingahierarchyofpowerandprivilege

thatcontinuestobegrantedtoolderwhitemalesfrommoreestablishedorwealthyclasses

(Anderson&McCormack,2010;Fuller,2010).

Useofacriticalfeministperspectivehighlightsthehistoricalaspectsofmaleathletics

andtraditionalmasculinity.Historically,theprivilegegrantedtoorganizedmalesportsand

maleathleteslegitimizedtheirpowerandcontroloverthosewithlowerstatus(Smith,2016).

Societaldialoguesmaintainageneralacceptanceofideas,especiallythosethathelpdefine

genderandsexuality,andcreateandsupportsocialinequality(Hoeber,2008;Schirato,2013,

Steinfeldtetal.,2016).Malesportshavehistoricallyprovidedanavenuewheremalescould

escapetheperceivedfeminizationofsociety(femphobia)andmaintaintheirdominantrolein

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society(Adams,Anderson&McCormack,2010;Bandy,2016;McCormack&Anderson,2010;

Messner,2007;Steinfeldtetal.2016).Similarly,malesportswerepopularizedthroughthe

originalorhistoricalactivitiesthatemphasizedmaledominatedactivitiessuchaswarand

hunting(Young,2010).Sportssuchasfootballidealizewinning,violence,loyaltytoauthority,

teamallegiance,andcompetitionandfurtherconformstowarlikeandmilitaristicideals

(Beissel,Giardina&Newman,2014;Fuller,2010;Kidd,2013;King,2008McDowell&Schaffner,

2011).Popularmaleathletesreceiveddevotionandadmirationfromthecommunity,while

thosewhowerenotconsideredtobesufficientlyathleticweretypicallybullied(Jamieson&

Orr,2009).Forexample,Sonneborn(2012),anauthoronschoolbullyingarguesthatmale

athletestendtoholdaprivilegedpositioninschoolandreceivespecialattentionfromstudents

andteachers.Thosewhoarenotathletescouldpotentiallybesubjecttoverbalbullyingand

sexualharassmentbymaleathleteswithoutramificationsfromtheschooladministration

(Sonneborn,2012).Conversely,whentheelementsoftraditionalmasculinitybegantodiminish

inasociety(e.g.,unemploymentinindustrialareassuchasPennsylvania)menhaveusedsports

asanavenuetore-establishsocialstatusintermsofmasculinevalues(Beisseletal.,2014).

Acriticalfeministtheoreticalperspectivepointstosomeofthenegativeaspects

associatedwithcontemporarymalesports.Theseinclude:theprivilegegrantedtomalesports

andathletesbysocialinstitutions;physicalandsexualviolencebymaleathletes;negative

perspectivesonthefemalebody,derogatoryjudgementsoffemaleathletes;andthe

exclusionarylanguageofmasculinesports(Messner,2007;Steinfeldtetal.,2016).

Malesportsarestillgrantedprivilegethroughinstitutionalacceptanceinsociety,

therebyconcedingspecialintereststomaleathletes.Brandy(2016)contendsthatmalesports

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werecreatedtoservetheinterestsoftheeliteandpowerfulinsociety,groupsoftencomprised

ofmen.AsBrianPronger(2002)argues,sportisanoppressivepracticethatpromotesasense

offascismthatonlyfavoursparticularmuscularbodyframesoffitandpowerfulmen,and

excludesdominatedpopulationsthatdonotconformtoidealmachomales.Oldergenerations

socializeyoungergenerationstoseethatmalesports,throughexemplifiedattributesof

winning,competition,andstrength,playanimportantroleandcarryhighstatusinsociety

(Beisseletal.,2014;Hardin&Greer,2009;Schirato,2013).Idealizationofmalesportsis

confirmedviaapprovalbysocietalinstitutionssuchasgovernment,media,school,andreligion

(Anderson,2010;Wellmer,2014;Young,2010).Forexample,women’ssportshavebeenfound

tohaveverylimitedairtimeonpopularsportsstationssuchasESPNinAmerica(Messner&

Cooky,2010).Similarly,women’scollegesportsreceiverelativelylittleattentioninreferenceto

attendance,advertising,andviewershipontelevision(Fink,2015;Shiifflett,Murphy,Ghiasvan,

Carlton&Cuevas,2016).Incontrast,malesportsbringanationalisticpridetoanationandhelp

developasharedbeliefsystemamongstanation’smembers(Hawzen&Newman,2017;King,

2008).

Inthesportingenvironment,especiallyinviolentsports,maleathletescaninternalize

valuesassociatedwithtraditionalmasculinity.Alsointhesecontexts,maleathletesareexposed

toideasthatlegitimizeharmfulsocietalbehaviourssuchasviolenceandaggressiveorhigh-risk

sexualactions(Steinfeldtetal.,2016).Messner(2007),inhiscriticalanalysisofmalesports,

comparesmaleathletes’tendencyforaggressiontoKaufman’s(1987)triadofmaleviolence.

HeusesKaufman’stheorytosuggestthatmalesportsencouragetheuseofviolencetogain

controlinsociety.Kaufman(1987)outlinesatriadofmaleviolence,whichcanbecomparable

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tothebeliefsandactionsofmanytraditionallymasculinemaleathletes,arguingthatmaleswill

conformtoviolenceagainstthreedifferentgroupsofindividuals:women,othermales,and

againstthemselves(Kaufman,1987).Theacceptanceofviolenceaspartofsportandmasculine

normswithregardtoviolenceagainstotherscontributestoanormalizationofviolenceinthe

sportingcommunity(Messner,2007;Steinfeldt&Steinfeldt,2012).Malesportscancontribute

toaprotectedmisogynisticideaofmalesexualityanddominanceinreferencetosexual

violenceanddomesticabuse(Biesseletal.,2014).

CharleneWeaving(2010),afeministsportsscholarinCanadastates,“Realmenare

aggressiveinsex,realmenarecruelinsex,realmenusetheirpeniseslikeweaponsinsex,real

menleavebruises.”Sexuallyarrogantandsuperiormaleathletesimpresssocietalmembers

becausetheirabilitytobesexuallyaggressivereaffirmsdominance(Jamieson&Orr,2009).

Loyaltytoothermen,aggression,andrespectforauthorityareoutlinedasfeaturesof

traditionalmasculinity,especiallyinAmericanfootball(Adamsetal.,2010).Similarly,amongsta

maleteam,ateam’sleaderswhoapproveofsexuallyaggressivebehaviorcancreateateam

environmentthatfavoursriskysexualbehaviours(e.g.,rape)forallmembersoftheteam

(Jamieson&Orr,2009).Theirabilityto“score”withwomenisseenasanachievementand

sportonitsownthatisapplaudedbymanyinsociety(Weaving,2010).Itisanactionthatis

sometimesoverlookedbecauseitcancreateanenvironmentfavouringteambonding,for

exampletheexcusesmadefortheBaylorUniversityFootballteam’ssexualassaultcaseinthe

mediarecently.Arguably,sexisseenasagamefortheteamanditsmembers.Sexualassaultby

amaleathletemayoccurasaresultofsexualrejectionbyafemaleacquaintance.Sexual

rejectionmaybeperceivedasanassaultontheirego,whichhasbeensupportedbysocietal

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attitudesvaluingmalesportsandathleticprowess.Sexualaggressiontowardfemale

acquaintancecouldbeanacttomaintainamaleathlete’segoandtheirabilitytogainstatus

amongsttheirteammates(Jamieson&Orr,2009).

Withregardtosports,afeministlensprovidesameansforconsideringthebodyasa

politicaltooltoreinforcemasculinityanditsdominanceinsociety(Amy-Chinn,2012;Macroet

al.,2012).Femininityandmasculinityaredefinedbasedontheconceptsofpower,with

masculinitygrantedpoweroverfemininity(Pattman&Bhana,2010).Traditionalmasculine

meninmanycontemporarysocietiesareseenashavingpowerbecauseoftheirpowerfulbody

formwhilewomen,becauseoftheirgraceandperceivedweakerform,holdlesspower

(Reifsteck,2014).Whiletherehavebeenfemalegainsinsports,traditionalsocialinstitutions

playaroleinunderliningthatmostwomendonothavethecapabilitytoplaytraditional

masculinesportsandonlymenhavethephysicalabilitytocompetefullyinthesportingworld

(Young,2010).Forinstance,whiletherehasbeenpayequityreforminprofessionaltennisand

increasedpopularityinfemalehockey,therearestilllimitationsplacedonfemaleathletes’

participation.Womenplayfewersetsoftenniscomparedtomenandtherearebody-checking

limitsinfemalehockey(Yip,2016;Tuominenetal.,2016).Inaddition,threatstowomen’s

reproductivehealth,forexampletheabilitytogetpregnantsafely(Reifsteck,2014;WHO,

2017),maybeusedtojustifypaternalisticprotectionofwomen’sbodies,protectionthatinfact

furtheremphasizestheirperceivedweaknessandfrailty(McDowell&Schaffner,2011).

Supportersofmalesportswanttoseefeatsofstrength,agility,andperformanceandit

isfrequentlybelievedbytraditionalmalesthatwomencannotexertthatstrength(Adamsetal.,

2010).Forinstance,asfootballbecamemorepopularinAmericansociety,itsuseofextreme

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strengthandviolencewassomethingfromwhichwomenwerediscouraged,allowingforwider

separationbetweenmaleandfemaleathletes(Messner,2007).Also,womenarequestionedby

traditionalmalesontheirmentalcapacitytounderstandfootballwiththefrequentsuggestion

thatitmaybetoocomplexforthem(McDowell&Schaffner,2011).Forexample,recently,Cam

Newton,thequarterbackfortheCarolinaPanthersmockedafemalereporterforaskingabout

hisreceivers’routesandmentionedthatitwassurprisingthatthisquestioncamefroma

female(Hoffman,2017).Eventhoughtherearechangesinsocietywithfemalesplayingand

coachingtraditionallymasculinesportssuchasfootball,therearestillquestionssurrounding

theirparticipation.Ifwomenareabletoexertthepowerofaman,theyareoftenostracized

andnegativelylabelledasaman,asseenwiththeInternationalOlympicsCommittee’s(IOC)

requirementforsextestingoffemaleathleteswhoaredeemedtobetoomasculine(Amy-

Chinn,2012).Furthermore,thosewhoaretooathletichavetheirfemininityandsexual

orientationquestionedfrequentlyinthemediaandinsociety(Cookyetal.,2010).Womenwho

participateinhypermasculinesports(e.g.,amateurwrestling)areseenasdeviantintheir

challengingofthehegemonicmasculinityaffordedtothemeninthesesports(Macroetal,

2009).

Reifsteck(2014)arguesthatsportsareahumanrightthatshouldbeavailabletoall

personsandfromwhichwomenareoftenexcluded.Thisdeprivesthemofsocialfreedomand

opportunitiesthataregrantedtoothersinsociety,namelymaleathletes(Young,2010).Sports

areoftenperceivedtobetheoppositeoffemininityandsomefemaleathleteswhodoexcelare

deemedtobecheatersandtheirperformanceisnottakenseriously(Amy-Chinn,2017).While

societyacknowledgesmanyfemaleathleticaccomplishments,thereisstillcritiqueofthose

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deemedtoomasculineandmuscularsuchasthe800meterrunnerCasterSemenyaandtennis

playerSerenaWilliams(Karkazis,Jordan-Young,Davis&Camporesi,2012;Joseph,2017).

Instead,manyfemaleathletesaresexuallyobjectifiedandnotgrantedtheabilitytogrowand

changetheirstatusinthesportingworld.Thisminimizingandobjectificationservestogrant

morepoweranddominancetomen(Mcleod,2010).The2010SportsIllustratedSwimsuit

Editionservesasanexample,wherefemaleOlympicathletesweredisplayedinbikinisto

promotetheupcomingOlympicsinVancouver(Daniels&Wartena,2011).

Thelanguagefrequentlyusedinmalesportsfurtherdemeanswomen.Forexample,the

word“girl”isusedasalowerstatuscommenttothosemaleathleteswhoareperceivedas

weakornon-masculine.Commentssuchas“youthrowlikeagirl”areusedtodemeanan

individualpersonand,byextension,allwomenandnon-traditionallymasculinemales

(McDowell&Schaffner,2011).Withinmalesports,specificanddesiredbehavioursthat

exemplifymasculineidealsarerewarded,andthosethatdonotdosoarepunished(Cronn-

Mills,2017).

Sexualandhomophobicjokesaretraditionaldiscourseforyoungmaleathletesto

performtheirhypermasculinityinfrontoftheirfellowteammatesandclassmates(Pattman&

Bhana,2010).Maleathletesusetheirheterosexualidealstomarginalizetraditionalnon-

masculinemalesandthosewhodonotconformtodominantmasculineideals(Adamsetal.,

2010;Hardin&Greer2009;McCormack&Anderson,2010).Thosewhodonotconformare

calledderogatorynamessuchas“fags,”“sissies,”and“poofs”andmaleathletesusethis

languagetodemonizetheLGBTcommunityandtoreinforcehypermasculinityandpatriarchy

(Adamsetal.,2010;McCormack&Anderson,2010).Maleathletesmayusehomophobic

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discoursetodisparageothersevenifitisnotusedtodiscriminateagainstaparticularsexual

orientation(McCormack&Anderson,2010).Cronn-Mills(2017)arguesthatgayathletes,such

asAmericanfootballplayerMichaelSam,facemoreprejudiceinthelocker-roomandsociety,

andmay,asaresultofthisdiscriminationfeelthatthereismorepressuretoperform

successfullyonthefield.ProfessionalLGBTathletesalsoexpressthattheyfeeldiscriminated

againstbecauseoftheirperceiveddeviantsexualbehaviour,andasaresultarenotchosenfor

financiallylucrativeendorsementdeals(Cronn-Mills,2017).

Criticalfeministsareareincreasinglytakinganintersectionalapproachanditisbeing

usedasatheoreticalapproachtoexaminecontemporarysports.Intersectionalityrefersto

socialidentitiesasnotexclusive,withanindividual’smultiplesociallocationsgrantingcomplex

intersectionsofprivilegeandmarginalization.Identitiesofindividualsareopentothe

subjectiveinterpretationofthosewithrelativepowerandarerootedincontextual,relational

andhistoricalconditions(Choo&Ferree,2010;Few-Demo,2014).Womenfrommarginalized

groupsbasedonclass,ethnicity,genderidentityorsexualorientationaresubjecttofurther

discriminationandreducedpowerbecauseoftheirmultiplyingoppressions(Brandy,2016;

Choo&Ferree,2010;Cookyetal.,2010;Messner,2007).Maleprivilegemaynotbeaffordedto

menwhoaremembersofoppressedgroups.Thesocialinstitutionsofsportsareanexampleof

structuralintersectionality.Theconnectednessofsystemsandstructureswithinthe

organizationofsportscreatesasocietywhereindividualsandgroupsareaffecteddifferently

andhaveunequalaccesstopower(Few-Demo,2014).Sportsadministratorsmaydiscriminate

againstathleteswhoaremembersofminoritygroupsbecausetheydonotbringfinancial

successoraso-calledpositivepublicprofiletoprofessionalsportsteams(Cronn-Mills,2017).

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Cronn-Mills(2017)arguesthatLGBTathletes,especiallygaymales,areverylikelytokeepquiet

abouttheirsexualityinordertoremainmembersoftheirteamandtoensureafavourableview

fromtheircoachesandsportadministrators.

Insummary,acriticalandfeministlensonmalesportsandmasculinitieshighlightsthe

importanceofconsideringtheinfluenceofsocialinstitutions,normalizationofaggression,

physicalaspectsofhumanbodies,humanrights,language,intersectionality,andcorresponding

privilegegrantedtomaleathletes.Thefollowingsectionwillpresentresearchintheseareas.

ReviewoftheResearchLiterature

Mostoftherecentresearchinthisareaofmaleathletes,sports,andtraditional

masculinitycanbegroupedintothreecategories:theimportanceofmalesports,harmful

aspectsoftraditionalmasculinity,andtheinfluenceandroleofcoaches.Inthefollowing

section,currentexamplesofresearchconductedandrelevantresearchresultsarepresented

withattentiontogapsinthecurrentresearchleadingtothestudy’sresearchquestionsguiding

thisresearchstudy.

I.Importanceofmalesports

Researchinvestigatingmediapresentationofmalesports,especiallytelevision

coverage,exemplifiesthepowerandprivilegeaffordedtomaleathletes.Cooky,Messner,and

Musto(2015)updatedalongitudinalstudyofmediacoverageofsportsoverthepast25years.

Theyexaminedwomen’ssportscoveragecomparedtomen’ssportscoverageonAmerican

networktelevisionnewsandSportscenteronESPN.Cookyetal.(2015)foundthatthe

predominantcoverageofsportsonSportscenterwasmale.Thereweresomepeaksandvalleys

throughthe25yearstudywithfemalesportsgainingmorecoverage,butinthelast10years

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malesportsdominatedallthetelecastsoverall.Malesportsstilldominatethecoverageduring

theoffseasonofthesport,withinseasonfemalesportsgettingverylittleattention

comparatively.Thisstudyalsoshowedmalesportswerereportedwithmuchmoreenthusiasm

andexcitementthanwomen’ssports.Women’ssportswerereportedwithdullundertonesand

referencedwithmanyhumorousstatementsabouttheiractionsontheplayingfield(Cookyet

al.,2015).Shifflettetal(2016)foundsimilarresults,indicatingthatmaleathletesenjoyan

almost9:1likelihoodtheirsportswillbecoveredrelativetofemalesinthemedia.This

discrepancymaybeheightenedbythemutuallyreinforcingcycleofmalesportsinwhich

televisioncoverageisrelatedtoincreasedattendance,whichthenleadstogreatermedia

coverageandfurtherincreasesinattendance(Wallace,2016).

Supremacyofmalesportsisnotonlyexemplifiedthroughthemediabutalsothrough

societalinstitutions,suchaseducationalorganizations.EvenamongstCanadianuniversity

athletics,areportbyDonnelly,NormanandKidd(2013)arguedhatthereisstillamore

favourableviewofmalesportsoverfemalesportsinCanadianInteruniversitySports(CIS).

Throughquantitativeonlineandtelephonesurveysofathleticdepartmentadministratorsofall

theuniversitiesintheCISconference,theresearcherscompliednumericaldataoutlining

gendercomparisonsineachathleticdepartment.Donnellyetal.(2013)reportedtherewere

greateropportunitiesformaleathletesonuniversitycampusescomparedtofemaleathletes.

Evenwhenthelargersizeofthefootballrosterwasfactoredintothestatistics,thisinequity

wasmaintained.Furthermore,theresearchersreportedthatathleticfinancialawardswere

disproportionallyawardedtomen,withwomenonlyreceivingapproximately40%ofthe

scholarshipmoney.Lastly,eventhoughtherehasbeenanimprovementsince2011,women’s

14

positionsinleadershiprolesinuniversitysportswerelacking.Athleticdirectorandheadcoach

positionstypicallywereofferedtomen,withfemaleleadersbeingaverysmallpartofthe

athleticcommunity(Donnellyetal.,2013).Havingwomeninleadershiprolesisimportant

because,asBurton(2015)notes,amaledominatedmanagerialhierarchysupportsasporting

environmentthatfavoursmasculinity.Thisimportancegrantedtodominantmasculinity

throughtheimportanceofmalesports,throughthemediaandinstitutionslegitimizesthe

harmfulaspectsoftraditionalmasculinity.

Overall,theresearchindicatesthatthereisagrantedpowerandprivilegetomale

athletesandmalesports,asnotedwiththeresearchonmediaattentionfromCookyetal.

(2015)andDonnellyetal.(2013)examinationoffemalesportsinCanadianuniversities.

Throughthemedia’sandsocialinstitutions’overemphasisofmalesports,especiallyover

femalesports,thereisaprivilegegrantedtomaleathletesthatexcusestheirharmfulactions

towardwomenandtraditionalnon-masculinemales.Bydocumentingthenumberofwomenin

leadershippositionsinCanadianuniversityathleticdepartments,Donnellyetal.(2013)and

Burton(2015)developanargumentthatsocialinstitutionsfavourmasculinitywhichcan

eventuallyleadtoharmfulactsoftraditionalmasculinitybeinglegitimized.

II.Harmfulaspectsoftraditionalmasculinity

Pattman&Bhana(2010)arguethatmasculinityistraditionallydefinedasthesimilar

traitsthatallmenshare,makingmanytraditionalmenactinthesamewayinmostsituations.

Somemaleathletestendtoholdnarrowandtraditionalbeliefsongendernorms.Theyhold

essentialistviewsthattherearebinarygenderrolesthatnormalizetheideathatmenshouldbe

controllingoverwomenandthatmasculinesportsareresistanttochange(Hardin&Greer,

15

2009).Hardin&Greer(2009)surveyedasampleof340collegestudentswhorated14different

sportsasfeminine,masculine,orneutral.Theylabelledmostsportsasmasculineandtheir

responsesconformedtotheidealsoftraditionalgenderroles.Researchconductedwith

discourseanalysisoutlinedsimilarresultsthattraditionalmalestendtoconformtohegemonic

masculinityandthesubordinationofwomen(McDowell&Schaffner,2011;Messner,2007;

Steinfeldt&Steinfeldt,2012).Athleticismisseenastheultimateformofmasculinitybysocietal

membersthatfavourtraditionalmasculinityandmayencouragetheindividualtoalignwith

heteronormativityandhypermasculinity(Adamsetal.,2010;McCromack&Anderson,2010;

McDowell&Schaffner,2011;Messner,2007).

Fogel(2011)identifiesthesethemesoftraditionalmasculinityinthesportingcultureof

footballinhisanalysisofinterviewdatawith81Canadianplayersandadministrators,and20

publishedautobiographiesoffootballplayers.Oneofthemainthemesheidentifiedconcerned

howfootballservesto“separateoutthemen”(Fogel,2011,p.2)creatingamanandseparating

masculinityfromfemininity.Fogeldescribesthisseparationandhierarchyintermsoftheneed

topromoteultramasculinesportssuchasfootballandgiveitapowerfulpositioninsociety.As

mentendtoparticipatemoreinfootball,thispowerfulpositionisthengrantedtomento

furtherallowoppressionanddominanceoverwomen.Therewasalsoathemeseparating

masculinemalesandnon-traditionalmasculinemales.Similartotheprevioustheme,a

hierarchyiscreatedofmenwhoexcelversusthosewhodonotconformtotheidealformof

masculinity.Thosewhocanconformtotheidealformofmasculinityshoulddominatethose

whodonotconform.Interviewswithfootballplayersandthecommentsfoundinthe

autobiographiessupportedtheirneedtoexertasenseofsuperiorityonandoffthefieldin

16

areassuchasdrinkingandmultiplefemalesexualpartners.Playersoutlinedthegameof

footballasawar-likeactivitywithfootballimageryofweaponry,militaristicidealsand

woundingyouropponent.Folger(2011)maintainsthatitisunderstandablethroughthemes

suchasthesethatsexualanddomesticabusetowardswomenisnormalizedintheCanadian

andAmericanfootballculture.

AstudybySteinfeldt&Steinfeldt(2012)indicatedthattherewereconflictingideals

abouttraditionalmasculinityintheAmericanfootballplayerpopulation.Americancollege

footballplayers(N=523)wereaskedtoself-reportaspectsoftheirathleticidentityand

conformitytomasculinenormscalesusingLikertscales.Masculinenormscalesoutlined

attitudesaboutviolentbehaviour,sexualrisktaking,perceptionaboutcontroloverwomen,

andattitudesaboutsamesexsexualorientation.Athleticidentitywascorrelatedwithmost

masculinenormscales.However,playercharacteristicsvariedinthedegreetowhichtheywere

correlatedtomasculinenorms.Forexample,defensivelineplayers,wheremoreviolent

behaviourisencouragedontheplayingfield,tendedtoconformtotraditionalmasculinenorms

thatlegitimizedviolence(Steinfeldt&Steinfeldt,2012).

Harmfulaspectsoftraditionalmasculinityhavealsobeenexaminedinotherresearch.

Beisseletal.(2014)foundthatmaleathleteswhoarewitnessedpartakinginriskybehaviours

(e.g.,womanizingandheavydrinking)wereseenasrealmenbyeverydaymalesandwereseen

asrelatableindividuals.Similarly,Flood(2011)referencesanumberofstudieswhoseauthors

haveconductedmeta-analysesofmasculinityresearchinthelastthreedecadesandfoundthat

menwhoholdsexist,patriarchal,andsexuallyaggressiveattitudesaremorelikelytoengagein

behavioursofviolenceagainstwomen.Forexample,oneofthereferencedstudiesbyMurnen,

17

Wright&Kaluzny(2002)involvedameta-analysisofmeasuresofmasculineideologyand

comparedthemtolevelsofsexualaggressioninthemalerespondentsfromstudiesconducted

inthe1980’sand1990’s.Inalmostallindicatorsofmasculineideology,traditionalmasculinity

wasstillassociatedwithsexualaggressionagainstwomenaspreviouslyreportedinprevious

studies(Murnenetal.,2002).

However,maleteamleaderswhodonotfavouraggressivesexualbehaviortendtolead

teamsthatdonotconformtothesesexualaggressiveideals(Smith&Stewart,2003).Team

moralscanhaveagreatinfluenceonthebehaviourofindividualteammembers,especially

whensexualethicsareexemplifiedwithaparticularsetofvalues.Teammatescanexertalotof

pressureoneachotherandkeepaparticularsetofbehaviourslimited,especiallysexually

aggressivebehaviours,byhavingpositiveteamvaluesandmorals(Jamieson&Orr,2009).

Educationisakeycomponentincombatingharmfulformsoftraditionalmasculinityin

athletes(Moynihan,Banyard,Arnold,Eckstein&Stapleton,2010).Researchersconductedpre-

test,post-testand2monthfollowupwith53athletestakingpartinasexualandintimate

partnerviolencepreventionprogramand86athletesinacontrolgroupwithnointervention.

Resultsofthestudyrevealedthattheinterventionprogramwassuccessfulincombating

harmfulattitudesrelatingtosexualviolence(Moynihanetal.,2010).Thereweresignificant

differencesbetweentheinterventiongroupandcontrolgrouponmeasuresofrapemyth

acceptanceandwillingnesstohelpvictimsofsexualviolence(Moynihanetal.,2010).

Traditionalmasculinemaleathletesandcoachesmayuseharmfuldiscourseinvolving

homophobiclanguagetomotivateteammembersanddiscriminateagainstnon-traditional

masculinemales(McCormack&Anderson,2010).Toexaminerecenttrends,agroupof

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internationalresearchersexaminedattitudesandsportsparticipationofLGBTandstraightmen

andwomenengaginginorganizedteamsportsinCanada,Australia,Ireland,UnitedStates,New

Zealand,andUnitedKingdom(Denison&Kitchen,2015).TheyfoundthatLGBTparticipants

wereinvolvedinallorganizedteamsports,particularlythemostpopularteamsportsbasedon

nationality.Atthesametime,however,thisonlinesurveyresearchof7000LGBand2494

straightmenandwomendemonstratedthatLGBTathletesfeltunwelcomeinthesesporting

environmentsandthatyouthsportswereparticularlynotinclusive(Denison&Kitchen,2015).

Theresultsalsoestablishedthatmaleathleteswerethemostuncomfortablebeingopenlygay

inAmericaandAustralia,whileCanadianswerethemostopentohavingLGBTathletesas

teammates(Denison&Kitchen,2015).

Luisi,Luisi,&Geana(2016)conductedaqualitativetextualanalysisabouttheattitudes

ofmaleathletestowardspotentialgayteammatesintheNationalBasketballAssociation(NBA)

andtheNationalFootballLeague(NFL).Theresearchersexaminednewspaperarticles

referencingMichaelSamandJasonCollins’announcementsoftheirsexualorientation.Jason

CollinswasaNBAbasketballplayerwhoannouncedthathewasgaywhenstillplayinginthe

leaguein2013.Collinswasthefirstopenlygayplayertoplayinonethefourmajorprofessional

sportsleagues(NBA,NFL,NHL,MLB)inNorthAmerica.MichaelSamwasacollegefootball

playerwhoannouncedhewasgaybeforeheenteredtheNFLdraftin2014.Whenhewas

draftedsolateinthe2014NFLdrafttherewerequestionssurroundingpotentialhomophobia

intheNFLbecausehewasprojectedtobeamuchhigherdraftchoice.IntheNBA,most

newspaperarticlesmadecommentsthatwerepositivetowardsCollinsfromathletes,

administrators,andotherstakeholderstotheleague.Eventhoughthereweresomenegative

19

commentsaboutCollins’sexualorientation,theoverallpresentationoftheNBAinthe

newspapermediawasveryinclusivetowardstheLGBTcommunity.Conversely,theNFL

stakeholders’attitudetowardSamandtheLGBTcommunitywasmuchmorevariedcompared

toCollins.Therewasatremendousamountofnegativecommentarysurroundingthesexual

orientationofSam.AlthoughtherewassomesupportforSam,itappearedthattheNFLwas

notcomfortablewithagayplayeronthefieldandinthelockerroom(Luisietal,2016).

Thefindingsofotherstudieshavevariedwithregardtotheprevalenceofinclusive

environmentsforLGBTathletesandstaffmembers.ACampusPride2012LGBTQNational

CollegeReportindicatedthatLGBTathletesaremorelikelytoexperienceverbalabusein

personandonsocialmediaandarewidelypressuredtoremainquietabouttheirsexual

orientation(Cronn-Mills,2017).Cavalier(2011)reportedmixedresultsinthecultureofthe

lockerroom,withhalfofthegaystaffmembersreportinganegativeworkenvironmentin

referencetodiscriminationagainsttheLGBT.

Theresearchintermsofharmfulmasculinityexaminestheprivilegegrantedtomale

athletesandtheexcusesmadeforviolenceagainstwomenandnon-traditionalmen.Those

justificationsforviolenceareexemplifiedthroughtheattributesofmanymaleathletesholding

traditionalviewsofgenderandacceptancethatsportstypicallypromotemasculineidealsand

riskybehaviours.Atthesametime,researchdemonstratessomepositivesocietalchangesin

referencetoeducationsuccessfullyaddressingattitudesandbeliefsofmaleathletesand

potentialshiftsinhomophobiaintheteamsportsenvironment.

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III.Theinfluenceandroleofcoaches

Coachesofmaleathletesareimportantinthecontextofthisresearchbecausetheyhave

thepotentialtonegativelyandpositivelyinfluencetheirathletes(Adamsetal,2010;Steinfeldt

etal.,2016).Intherecentresearch,thereisevidenceofnegativeandpositiveimpactscoaches

haveonathletes.Coachescanhaveanegativeinfluencewiththeirathletesthroughvoicing

sexistandhomophobicstatementsthatpromoteviolenceandaggressiontowardsthemselves,

opposingteamsandsocietalmembers(Adamsetal.,2010).However,somecoachesare

progressivelychangingtheirapproachtoinfluencingtheirteam.Theyarebeingmoreopento

limitingsexistandhomophobicstatementsintheteamenvironmentandtopromotingamore

inclusiveteamsetting(Jamieetal.,2015).

Adamsetal.(2010)andSteinfeldtetal.(2016)outlinethatcoachescannegatively

influencetheirmaleathletesbywayoftheirpregameandpostgamespeecheswhichmay

idealizewar-liketendencies.Coachesuselanguagetofeminizetheiropponentsandtheirown

teamandusemisogynytomotivatetheirathletes(Adamsetal.,2010;Steinfeldtetal.,2016).

Throughparticipantobservationandinformalinterviewsof22playersonasemi-professional

soccerteaminasouthwestregionofEngland,researchersexaminedthediscourseofcoaches

totheirplayers.Adamsetal.(2010)reportedthatcoachescalledopponentsandtheirown

teamhomophobicnamestomotivateanddemonize.Steinfeldtetal.(2016)providedexamples

ofcoachesusingextremelanguageinAmericancollegeathleticsintheirconceptualanalysisof

masculinityinsports.Sometimesthesehomophobicexpressionshaveconsequences.Acoach

fromRutger’sbasketballprogramandacoachfromEasternMichigan’sfootballprogramwere

individuallydismissedforverbalabusethatcontainedhomophobicandmisogynisticovertones

21

(Steinfeldtetal.,2016).Coachessaythattheyusethisnegativemotivationtoteachplayers

howtobeamaninsociety(Adamsetal.,2010;McDowell&Schaffner,2011;Steinfeldtetal.,

2011;Steinfeldtetal.,2016).

McDowell&Schaffner(2011)reportedthatmalecoachestendtoholdtraditionalideals

inreferencetogenderrolesandsexuality.Usingacriticaldiscourseanalysis,McDowell&

Schaffner(2011)examinedarealityshowcalledTheGenderBowl,whichexhibitedafull-

contactfootballgamebetweenmenandwomen.Coacheswhowereanalyzedintheshow

maintainedabeliefthatmaleathletes’manhoodischallengedwhenwomencanplaythesport.

Coacheswhoaremorelikelytofavourtraditionalmasculinitywillprotectthegamefrom

womentoensuremaledominanceandtheprotectionofthegame(McDowell&Schaffner,

2011).Similarly,accordingtotheCampusPride2012LGBTQNationalCollegeReport,

traditionalcoachestendtobeamajorvoiceofverbalabusetowardsLGBTathletes(Cronn-

Mills,2017).

Conversely,thereisresearchdemonstratingthepositiveeffectmalecoachescanhave

ontheirathletes.Recentresearchhasconfirmedtheimportanceofmentorship,guidance,and

resourcesformaleathletesfromtheircoaches(Jamieson&Orr,2009;Laiosetal.,2003;

Mastreleoetal.,2012;Steinfeldtetal.,2011).Coacheswhohaveapositiveimpactontheir

athletes’behaviourhavespecificrulesandoutlinedpreferredbehaviourintheareasofrespect

towardsothersonandoffthefield.Theyrewardpositivebehaviourandhavetheabilityto

modifyactionsoftheirathletesthroughverbalandnon-verbalsignals(Jamieson&Orr,2009).

Athleteswhohadexcellentmentorswerefoundtohavemorecommittedrelationshipswith

22

others,weremorerespectfultoothersandwereabletoexpresstheiremotionsmoreopenly

(Bloom,Durand-Bush,Schinke&Salmela,1998).

Jamieetal.(2015)investigatedanadolescentrelationshipabusepreventionprogram

namedCoachingBoysintoMen(CBIM)withmalevarsitycoachestodeterminetheimpactthe

programhadonpotentiallyabusivebehaviourbytheirmaleathletes.Theresearchers

examined16highschoolprogramsinNorthernCaliforniainarandomizedtrialofthe

preventionprogram.Asampleof176coacheswererandomlyassignedtopresentthe60-

minuteCBIMpreventiontrainingprogramtotheinterventionortothecontrolgroupwiththeir

usualstandardcoachingactivities.Coachescompletedabaselinesurveypriortotheirsports

seasonandthencompletedafollow-upsurveyaftertheirsportsseason.Afterwards,coaches

fromtheinterventionprogramwereaskedtoparticipateinasemistructuredface-to-face

interviewabouttheirexperienceswithCBIMprogram.Thefinalresultsindicatedthat

interventioncoachesweremorelikelytohavewitnessedandrecognizedabusivebehaviours

amongtheirmaleathletescomparedtothecontrolgroup.Interventioncoachesreportedthat

theyweremorelikelytohaveconversationswiththeirathletesaboutsexualviolenceagainst

womenandphysicalabuseonandoffthefield.Coachesfromtheinterventionprogramfurther

mentoredtheirplayerstoimprovetheirbehaviouraroundtheirrespectforwomenintermsof

theirlanguageandactionstowardsthem(Jamieetal.,2015).

Flood(2011)examinedthepositivecontributionmencanmakeincreatingan

environmentfreeofviolenceagainstwomen.Inconsideringavarietyofsocialinitiatives,Flood

cametotheconclusionthatmenneedtoplayalargerroleinendingviolenceagainstwomen

andsuggeststhatthiscanbedonethroughavarietyofimportantsteps.Hestatedthatmany

23

socialinstitutionscancontributetostrengtheningtheknowledgeandskillsofmalesinsociety.

Forexample,coachescoulddevelopprogramsforat-riskmaleathleteswhohavebeen

aggressivetowardsotherathletes,whohavewitnessedfamilyviolenceintheirhouseholds,and

whomayholdviolence-supportingattitudes.Floodexplainedthatcommunityeducationisan

importantviolencepreventionstrategy,andthatmaleathleteswhohaveparticipatedin

violencepreventionprogramsatuniversitiesarelesslikelytosupportrapemyths,haveless

rapesupportiveattitudes,andhavemoreempathywithvictimsofsexualviolence.Programs

withthegreatestimpactareoneswherethereareface-to-faceinteractionswithmalestudents

andadministrators.Floodacknowledgesthatfortheseprogramstobesuccessful,

administrators(andcoaches)needtobeeducatedonviolencepreventionandlinksto

traditionalviewsofmasculinity.Itwouldbeverydifficulttohaveacoachpositivelyinfluence

thebehaviouroftheirmaleathleteswhentheydonotholdsimilarvaluesofendingviolence.

Lastly,Floodindicatesthatthereneedstobeinstitutionalchangethatfavourstheseprevention

strategies.Thismightbeexemplifiedbyprofessionalsportsleaguesandeducationalinstitutions

acceptingandadvocatingforchangeandimplementingtheseprogramsatthelevelofthe

wholeorganizationratherthanatthelevelofindividualcoaches,teams,andsports.

Conversely,athletesarebeginningtohavetheabilitytoquestiontheircoaches’

negativeinfluence.Anderson&McGuire(2010)examinedthegenderedpoliticsofmen’srugby

inEngland.Theirresearchindicatedthatathletesbegantoquestionthecoaches’homophobic

andtoxicmasculinelanguage.Theplayerswouldquestionthecoaches’languageandlabelitas

inappropriateastheyfeltthattheyshouldsupportamoreinclusiveenvironmentforallplayers.

24

Theplayerswouldsupportandencourageeachothertoignorethecoaches’languageandto

trycreateamoreinclusiveenvironment(Anderson&McGuire,2010).

Coachesofmaleathleteshaveauniquepositiontonegativelyorpositivelyinfluence

theirathletes’idealstowardsconsent,violence,andrelationshipswithothers.Coachescan

haveanegativeinfluenceontheirplayers’behavioursthroughvoicingsexistandhomophobic

speechestomotivate,usingmilitaristictermstoencourageandholdingtraditionalviewsof

gender.Conversely,theycanbeapositiveinfluencethroughtheirmentorshipandguidance,

theuseofanti-violenceinterventionprogramsandacknowledgingthatmalesneedtobe

contributorstoanti-rapeandanti-violencediscourseandprogramsinsociety.Researchhas

demonstratedthepositiveeffectsofpreventativeandchange-directedprogramsonthe

attitudesandbeliefsofbothathletesandparticipatingcoaches.However,littleisknownabout

theexperiencesofcoacheswithregardtoinfluencingtheirathletes’behaviourinreducing

attributesoftraditionalmasculinityandpromotinginclusivemasculinity.

RationalefortheResearch

Thereviewoftheresearchpresentedabovedemonstratesthepowerofmalesports,

theprivilegeaffordedtomaleathletes(Smith2016),theharmfulaspectsoftraditional

masculinity(Messner,2007),andtheroleofcoachesininfluencingbehaviour(Adamsetal.,

2016;Jamieetal.,2015).Aswell,theliteraturereviewpointstosomeareasthatrequire

furtherinvestigation.

Theliteratureontheimportanceofmalesportsexhibitsthattherehasbeenverylittle

changeoverthepast3decadesintheprivilegemaleathleteshavebeengrantedinsociety.The

literatureconfirmsthatthereisaresistancetochangeasnotedthroughCookyetal’s.(2015)

25

analysisofmalesportstelevisioncoverageandDonnellyetal’s(2013)reportingofmales’

greateraccesstouniversityresourcesinathleticdepartments.Thisliteraturespecifiedthe

positioningandprivilegeofmalesportsandathletes,howeverresearchhasnotbeenfocused

ontheimpactofthisprivilegedpositioningwithrespecttoitseffectonwomenandnon-

traditionalmasculinemales.Researchhasnotbeenconductedwhichexaminescoaches’

influenceonrectifyingthisprivilegewiththeirmaleathletesandproducingathletesthatare

morerespectfultowomenandnon-traditionalmasculinemales.

HarmfulaspectsoftraditionalmasculinityoutlinedintheliteraturebyFogel(2011)and

SteinfeldtandSteinfeldt(2012)pointtohowtraditionalmasculinityprovidesajustificationfor

violence,homophobia,andriskybehaviourinsomemaleathletes.Masculinityresearchfrom

scholarssuchasMessner(2007),Hardin&Greer(2009),andFogel(2011)illustratesthatthere

isaproblemwithattitudesandbehavioursofmaleathletes.Atthesametime,these

researchershavenotinvestigatedsolutionstotheseproblems.Muchoftheresearchreviewed

herehasexaminedtheproblemoftraditionalmasculinity,particularlythroughtheuseof

surveys,andnotexaminedwhatpossiblesolutionsmaybeavailabletosolvetheissues.

Therefore,thisstudywillutilizeinterviewsthatinvitecoachparticipantstoreflectonand

describehowtheyrespondorinterveneinordertoaddresstheproblemstheysee.

Adamsetal.(2010),Steinfeldtetal.,2016,andJamieetal.(2015)illustratesthat

coachesofmaleathletesareinthepositiontopositivelyornegativelyinfluenceathletes’

behaviours,attitudesandactions.Coacheshaveauniquepositiontoinfluencetheirathletes’

behaviourinreferencetoconsent,violenceandrelationships.However,thereisverylimited

researchonwhatcoachesaredoingspecificallytopromoteachangeintheattitudesand

26

behavioursoftheirathletes.Thisresearcheresearchproposedherewillcontributes

toidentifyingwhatcoachesareseeingandhowtheyarerespondingtotheirathletes’

behaviours,attitudes,andactionsintermsofviolence,homophobia,andriskybehaviour.

Thisresearchstudyisaimedatilluminatingthewayscoachesmaybeinterveningwith

respecttowhattheyconsidertobeharmfulandriskybehavioursoftheirmaleathletes.Semi-

structuredinterviewsexpandedonthelimitedresearchofinclusivemasculinityinmaleathletes

byaskingcoacheshowtheydeterminewhatisharmfulorrisky,whattheyintendtoinstillor

modelwithregardtoattitudesorbehaviours,andhowtheyjudgesuccessfuloutcomesrelated

toinclusiveandpositivemasculinities.

Thisstudycontributesknowledgebasedoncoaches’perspectiveandexperiencesin

attemptinginterventionsdirectedatpromotinginclusive/positivemasculinities.Analysisof

theseinterviewswithmalevarsitycoachesprovidesdirectiontootheruniversities’varsity

programsforestablishingculturesofinclusivityandthepromotionofpositiverelationships

withotherswithmaleathletes.

StatementofPositionality

Iconformtoacriticalperspectiveinwhichgenderandsexrolesareunderstoodtobe

givenpowerfulpositionsbysocialdiscourseandsocialinstitutions.Iamanindividualwhohas

frequentlychallengedthestatusquointermsofgenderandsex,andIthinkthatgenderand

sexrolesshouldbeexploredandcritiqued.Ifeelthattraditionalviewsofmasculinityareused

tocreateapowerimbalancebetweenmalesandfemalesandareanunhealthycomponentofa

familystructureandinoverallsociety.Asanex-varsityathletewhohasalwayschallenged

traditionalmasculinevalues,theresearchIhaveconductedhereengagesmeinpersonal

27

examinationofwaystopromoteinclusivemasculinity.Ihaveaparticularinsightonthe

UniversityofGuelphAthleticDepartmentthroughmyexperienceasanex-varsityathleteand

anemployeeoncampus.Mypersonalexperienceandconversationswithothersoncampus

leadmetobelievethattheUniversityofGuelphAthleticDepartmentisattemptingtochallenge

traditionalmasculinevaluesandaimingtoproduceathleteswhoconformtoamoreinclusive

idealofmasculinity.Throughthisstudy,Iwantedtohearwhatcoachesweredoingandwhat

practicesmaybecreatingpromisingknowledgegenerationaroundinclusivemasculinityand

maleathletes.

ResearchQuestions

Thisresearchendeavoredtoanswertworesearchquestions:

1) Whatstrategies,ifany,docoachesofmalesportsusetopromoteinclusiveandpositive

masculinitiesamongathletes?

a. Howdocoachesassesstheuseandoutcomeofthesestrategies?

2) Whatstrategies,ifany,docoachesofmalesportsusetoaddressharmfulaspectsof

traditionalmasculinity?

a. Howdocoachesassesstheuseandoutcomeofthesestrategies?

Methods

Inthisstudy,Iconductedaninductivethematicanalysis(Braun&Clarke,2013)of

interviewdatawith10malevarsitycoacheswhoworkwithmaleathletesontheUniversityof

Guelphcampus.Iusedsemi-structuredinterviewstoexplorethesecoaches’perspectiveson

theirathletes’behaviourandhowtheyperceivepositiveorinclusivemasculinity[seeappendixI

forinterviewguide].Iaskedabouttheirownsubjectivedefinitionsofwhatamanshouldbe

28

andmasculinity;theirsubjectiveexperienceoftheirroleinaddressingmasculinitywiththeir

maleathletes;andthestrategies,ifany,thattheyattempttouseinordertoaddresswhatthey

perceivetobetheharmfulaspectsoftraditionalmasculinity(Andrews,Mason,&Silk,2005).I

receivedResearchEthicsBoard(REB)approvalforthestudyinMarch2018[SeeAppendixIIfor

theREBcertificate].

RecruitmentandSample

Daly(2007)suggeststhatpartneringwithasocialorganizationthatwillassistin

recruitment,whichdeliversanidealnumberanddiversegroupofparticipantsforastudyisa

desirablegoalforaresearcher.Togainaccesstothesample,Iusedmyconnectionsoncampus

asanex-varsityathleteandcurrentuniversitystaffmember,aswellastherapportIhavebuilt

withtheathleticsdepartmentasamemberofcommitteesandpaneldiscussionswithsenior

athleticsstaff.Isentrecruitmentemailletters(seeappendixIIIforrecruitmentemail)tothe

currentcoaches(18intotal)andaskedtheAthleticDirectortobeanadvocatefortheresearch

tosupporttheseinvitationstoparticipate.Afterhavinglimitedresponsefromheadcoachesfor

participation,Istartedtosnowballrecruitfromsomeheadcoacheswhoadvisedthattheir

assistantcoachesmightbeinterestedinparticipation.IalsowentthroughtheUniversityof

GuelphAthleticswebpagedirectoryofassistantcoachesandemailedthoseassistantcoaches

whowerelistedtorecruitforparticipation.Inordertoparticipate,coacheswererequiredtobe

malevarsitycoachescurrentlyworkingwithmalesportsoncampus.Irecruitedfromdifferent

administrativelevels(e.g.,headandassistantcoaches),andacrossallsportsoncampus,from

themoreconventionallyconsideredcentralsports(e.g.,football,hockey,basketball)toless

centralsports(e.g.,golf,rowing).Ilabeledsportsoncentralitybasedonthefinancialsuccessof

29

NCAAsportsincollegesanduniversitiestheUnitedStatesandtheirrankingbytheDepartment

ofEducation(Gaines,2016).Ialsorecruitedfrommorephysicallyaggressivesports(e.g.,rugby,

football,wrestling)andlessphysicallyaggressivesports(e.g.,Nordicskiing,golf).

Iinterviewed10coachesfromacrossvariousUniversityofGuelphmalevarsitysports.

Thisincluded7headcoachesand3assistantcoaches,aswellas3ofthemorecentraland4of

lesscentralsports.Thissamplesizewasapproximatelytwothirdsthepopulationofheadmale

varsitycoachesintheathleticdepartmentwhoworkwithmaleathletes.Thisnumberisjust

belowthesamplesizerecommendedbyBraun&Clarke(2013)formedium-sizedresearch

projectsinvolvinganalysisofinterviews.TheinterviewswereconductedintheWintersemester

of2018andearlySummersemester2018.

EthicalConsideration

Therewerenounforeseenethicalissuesfortheinterviewsubjects.Theparticipants

werenotvulnerableandtherewasminimalpsychologicalrisktodescribingtheircoaching

actionsandperspectives.Theremayhavebeensomeapprehensionfromtheparticipantswith

regardtodivulgingpersonalinformationaboutthemselvesandhowtheyapproachtheirwork.

Itisimportanttherefore,toacknowledgethatintervieweesmightnothavebeencompletely

forthright.Iinvitedthemtodivulgeonlyasmuchastheyfeltcomfortablesharing,whilealso

encouragingthemtothinkabouttheirexperienceandperceptionaspotentiallyinstructiveand

helpfultoothersinsimilarpositions.Atthebeginningoftheinterview,coacheswereassured

thattherearenorightorwronganswersandthattheywerenotjudgedpersonallyor

professionallyfortheirresponses.Coacheswereinvitedtosharetheiruniqueanddiverse

perspectiveswiththeunderstandingthattheseenrichedthedata.Theinterviewdatacollected

30

fromthesamplewillremainedconfidential,thesubjectswerenotidentifiabledinthefinal

transcripts.Anypersonalinformationandtheinterviewdataitselfwerekeptonanencrypted

computerinasafeandsecurelocation.Istoredthenamesoftheparticipantsseparatelyfrom

thetranscribeddata.Transcriptswereidentifiedbynumericcodetoensureanonymityandall

storagewasconfidentialandsecure.

ConductingtheInterview

Participantswhoexpressedinterestthroughemailaboutbeinginterviewedwere

screenedtoensuretheywereaheadorassistantcoachofamalevarsitysportoncampus.

Throughemail,participantsandIarrangedmutuallysuitabletimesfortheinterviews.Priorto

theinterview,Iaskedtheparticipantstoreadthroughtheinformationandconsentform[see

informationandConsentFormAppendixIV].Atthebeginningofeachinterview,Iasked

participantsiftheyhadanyquestionsabouttheinformationandconsentformortheresearch

itselfandobtainedsignedconsentfromthemtorecordinterviewswithanencrypteddigital

recorder(Daly,2007).Eachparticipantcoachreceiveda$10giftcardtoUniversityofGuelph

HospitalityServicesasathankyoufortheirparticipation.Theinterviewstookplaceinaquiet

roomtoensureconfidentiality.Iaskedparticipantsiftheyhadaquietroomavailabletothem

intheirworkspace.Ifunavailable,IbookedaninterviewroomintheMacDonaldInstitute

buildingoncampus.

Priortoaskingtheinterviewquestions,Iensuredthattheparticipantsunderstoodthat

theycouldrefusetoansweranyquestionthatmadethemuncomfortable.IindicatedthatI

wouldsendthemacopyofthetranscriptionoftheinterviewforthemtoapprove,andthatI

wouldinvitethemtoeliminateanyportionofthetranscriptthattheyfeltneededtobe

31

removed(Daly,2007).Imentionedthattheinterviewwouldbesplitupintothreecomponents:

definitionofmanliness,coach’sinfluenceovertheirathletesandprogramming.Interviews

lastedbetween11minutes(minlength)and71minutes(maxlength),withameaninterview

timeof32minutes.

Interviewswereguidedbythetwomainresearchquestionsaboutstrategiescoachesof

malesportsuse,ifany,topromoteinclusiveandpositivemasculinityamongathletesand

strategiestoaddressharmfulaspectsoftraditionalmasculinity.Ibeganeachinterviewwitha

questionabouthowthecoachandtheirathletesdefinedwhatamanisandhowtheydefined

masculinity.IindicatedthatIwasinterestedinhow,asacoach,theyrespondtomaleathlete

attitudesandbeliefsabout“beingaman”and“howtobeaman”,aboutsexualandclose

intimaterelationshipsbetweenmaleathletesandwomen,andaboutinteractionsbetween

maleathletesandnon-traditionalmasculinemen.Ialsoindicatedthattheobjectiveofthe

interviewwastoseehowindividualcoaches,asmentors,couldpotentiallyinfluenceathletes’

behaviouronandoffthefield,andwhattheirviewswerewithregardtotheirimpacton

athletes’behaviour.Thesemi-structuredinterviewwasguidedbyaninterviewguidewithmain

questionsaboutaparticularareaandguidingquestionsformoredetailedinformation[See

InterviewguideinAppendixI].Inconductingtheinterviews,Iaskedparticipantstoelaborate

ontheirresponses(e.g.,invitingmoredescriptions,askingformoredetail,specificexamples,

anddefinitionsofterms)overthecourseoftheinterview(Andrewsetal.,2005;Daly,2007).

Followingeachinterview,Iwroteamemoinaresearchjournalaboutmyexperience

withtheinterviewparticipantsandinterestingcomponentsoftheconversation.Iusedthese

32

journalentriestoaugmentandsupportmyanalysisofthetranscribedinterviewdataand

descriptionoftheanalyticthemes.

DataAnalysis

ItranscribedinterviewrecordingsverbatimintheSummerandFallsemesterof2018.

Transcribedinterviewsweresenttocoachestocheckfortheaccuracyoftheirstatements

throughatechniquereferredtoasmemberchecking(Andrewsetal.,2005;Birt,Scott,Cavers,

Campbell,&Walter,2016).Eachtranscribedinterviewwastransferredtoapassword

protected,encryptedlaptop.Throughouttranscriptioneachinterviewwasgivenaparticipant

numbertohelpidentifycontentfordataanalysisandwhenincludingstatementsintheResults

section.

AsIconductedinductivethematicanalysisofthetranscribedinterviews,Ifollowed

Braun&Clarke’s(2006)sixphasesofthematicanalysis.Thesephasesinclude:familiarizing

myselfwithmyinterviewdata;creatinginitialcodesfromthedata;beginlookingforthemes;

reviewingthemesbasedonthecodes;operationalizingandlabellingthemes;andproducinga

finalanalysisthattellsanarrativeaboutthedata(Braun&Clarke,2006).

Asafirststepincodingtheinterviewdata,Ireadthroughthetranscriptstogetan

overallsenseoftheinterviewcontent,familiarizingmyselfwiththesubjectiveresponsesofthe

varsitycoachesandtakingnoteofinterestingorfrequentlyusedterms(Braun&Clarke,2013,

Daly,2007).Ireadthroughthemasecondtimetowritememosandnamepotentialcodesand

patterns.

Inthesecondstep,IusedNVIVO12dataanalysissoftwareasanaid.Iuploadedthe

transcribedinterviewsintotheprogramandhighlightedideasacrosstheentiredataset,

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focusingonrepeatedpatternsintheinterviewdata(Braun&Clarke,2006).Itransferredsome

ofmyresearchmemosintotheprogramandreadthroughtheinterviews,identifyingmore

themesinthecontent.AftergoingthroughallthetranscriptsinNVIVOandidentifyinginitial

codes,IwentthroughthetranscriptsasecondtimetoidentifyothercodesthatImayhave

missed.Iinitiallyidentifiedapproximately430itemsinthetranscriptstobecodedand

identified147codes.Ireadthroughtheidentifiedcodesandidentifiedsimilaritiesandbegan

groupingthecodestogethertocategorizethemintoinitialthemes.Idocumented7initial

themeswithcodesidentified.Imetwithmyadvisorafteridentifyinginitialcodes.Idescribed

thecodesandpresentedspecificexamplestoseeiftherewereanypotentialcodesImayhave

missedfromthedata.Thisstepwasimportant,asitverifiedandconfirmedthecodesthatI

presentedandhelpedincheckingmyownsubjectivitywiththedata.

Duringthethirdstep,Icreatedahanddrawnvisualthematicmaptoidentifyindividual

themes,andsubthemes,andthepotentialrelationshipsamongthem.Ialsobegantotitle

themesandsubthemesconciselyanddefinetheseinmorecomplexterms.Whilereviewingthe

themes,Ilookedforsimilaritiesanddifferencesintheresponsewitheachtheme,identifying

andgroupingthesubthemesbasedontheseconnections.Theinitialthemeswere:Coaches’

Influence,DefinitionofMale,PositiveBehaviour,NegativeBehaviour,Programs,Instancesof

BeahviourandIndicatorsitwasWorking.Imetwithmyadvisorycommitteewiththeseinitial

themesandtherewassomeinputtoidentifysomemorecomplexthemesfromthedata.Itwas

identifiedthatthequestioningofthedefinitionofbeingamanandtheaspirationalactions

coacheswantedfromtheirathleteswasamajorcomponentofthedata.Programsand

InstancesofBehaviourwereidentifiedasnon-majorthemesinthedata.PositiveandNegative

34

BeahviourandDefinitionofMalewereidentifiedascommonthemestobecategorized

together.Finally,duringabrainstormingsessionwiththeinputofthecommittee,myadvisor

andIexaminedthesesimilarthemesandsubthemes,andIdevelopedalistofthefivemajor

overarchingthemesdiscussedintheResultssectionthatfollows.

Inthefourthstep,Idevelopedanoutlineofthefiveoverarchingthemes,withthe

themesandsubthemesnamedanddefined,andquotesfromtheindividualparticipants

includedundereach(Braun&Clarke,2006).Isharedthisoutlineofanalysiswithmyadvisory

committee,incorporatingideasgeneratedduringthatdiscussioninthefinalanalysis.

Inthefifthstep,Iwrotethefinalanalysisdetailingtheimportantfindingsfromthe

codingoftheinterviewdataandusedthepreviouslywrittenoutlineasguidetowritean

analyticalnarrativeandstoryaboutthedatafromtheinterviewsThisanalysispresented

themesandsubthemeswithsupportingquotesfromtheparticipantsasevidenceofthe

narrativeIwastryingtotellaboutthedata(Andrewsetal.,2005;Braun&Clarke,2006).

Thefinalanalysisincludedthefollowingthemesandsubthemes:Questioningthe

DefinitionofManliness(challengingthequestion,notabilitytodefine),BeingaGoodPerson,

IdentifiableMaleQualities(success/wining,leadership,traditionalmasculinity),Coaches’

InfluenceonAthletes(reinforcepositivebehaviours,modellingbehavior,teach/mentor,ability

toquestioncoach),andAspirationalAttributes(improvementinownbehaviour,creategood

people,respect).ThesearediscussedindetailinthefollowingResultssection,withexcerpts

frominterviewsincludedasevidenceofthemes,andincludingadescriptionoftherelationships

betweenthesethemes.

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Results

InthissectionIoutlinetheresultsofthedataanalysisandanswerstotheresearch

questions:1)Whatstrategies,ifany,docoachesofmalessportsusetopromoteinclusiveand

positivemasculinityamongathletes?2)Whatstrategies,ifany,docoachesofmalesportsuse

toaddressharmfulaspectsoftraditionalmasculinity?Ifocusonfivethematicareasidentified

duringmyanalysis:questioningthedefinitionofmanliness,beingagoodperson,identifiable

malequalities,coaches’influenceonathletes,andaspirationalattributes.Eachsubsection

belowelaboratesontheabovethemesandcorrespondingsubthemes.

QuestioningtheDefinitionofManliness

Thisresearchwasdesignedtoexaminethecoach’sinfluenceonhowtheirmaleathletes

demonstratemasculinity,especiallyintermsofhow“beingaman”isdefined,includingpositive

andnegativeattributes.Theparticipants,however,providedasurprisingresponsetoinitial

questionsaboutthisandthoseresponseschallengedthecentralinterviewquestion.Atthe

beginningoftheinterviews,Iasked,“whatdoyouseeorhearfromyourmaleathleteswhoyou

workwithpertainingtotheirdefinitionofbeingaman?”Iwassurprisedwhensomeofthe

coacheschallengedthequestionitselfandsuggestedthatthisideologyof“manliness”doesnot

playoutinthetrainingoftheirathletes.Othercoachesexpressedthattheywereconfusedby

thequestion.Thesecoachesindicatedtheycouldnotinitiallyanswerthequestionbecausethey

didnotfeelthattheyhadananswer;“Idonotthinkthereisacleardefinitionorappropriate

definitionofbeingaman.”(Participant8)Someofthecoachesaskedforthequestiontobe

repeatedortotakesomeextratimetoreflectontheiranswer.Theywouldeventuallyhavean

36

answertothequestion,buttheirresponseswerenotalwaysclearorreflectiveoftheoriginal

question.Thethemeof“questioningthedefinitionofbeingaman”referstoparticipant

coachesnotknowinghowtodefinewhatmanlinessisinrelationtotheirmaleathletes;stating

thattheirathletesshouldnotbedefinedbygenderbutrathertheirpersonalqualities;and

challengingtheinitialquestionofthedefinitionofwhatisamanitself,suggestingthatthereis

alackofconversationwiththeirmaleathletesaboutso-calledmanliness.

Manyofthecoachessuggestedintheinterviewsthatbeingamanwassomething

neithertheynortheirathletesthoughtofinsuchterms.Participant8statedwhenreferringto

hisathletes,“Tobequitehonest,IamnotsureifIhearthatcommentedonatall.”Similarly,

Participant6saidthathedidnotbelievethathisathletesdeliberatelythinkaboutmanliness

andwhatitmeanstothem.“Idonotthinkthereisthisconsciousthoughtthatthesethings

makemeaman.”

Thecoachesalsostatedthattheyreallydidnotwanttotrytodefinewhatamanshould

beinsociety.Forexample,Participant9stated:

Idonotdifferentiatebetweengender,sorry,youareanathlete,Iamworking

withyou.Ifyouaresad,great,wecandebriefonthatlater,rightnowweareata

nationalchampionshipwheredecisionsgetmadequickly.

Participant9thenwentontoargue:

SoIdonotinterpretthatwayandIamnottryingtobechallengingtoyou.That

tomesupposesthatwehavecertain–wehavesortofthislineandthatonone

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sideofthelinethereismalenessandtheothersideofthelineisfemalenessand

thereisadifferencebetweenthem.Soontherootofit–itisaquestionthatIdo

notquiteknowhowtoanswertoyoubecausemybraindoesnotworkthatway.

Someofthecoachesarguedthatbeinganathleteshouldnotbetheonlyidentifiable

attributetobeingaman,ratheritwasbeinganindividualwhocompetesintheirparticular

sportandbecomesaproductivecitizen.Participant2arguedafterbeingaskedaboutpositive

attributesofbeingaman:

IntheformofbeingresponsibleandtakingaccountabilityforyouractionsandI

thinktherearetwohugethingsthatare-I’msorrythosearethetwobiggest

thingsthatisnotnecessarilyaboutbeingaman,butbeinganadultwhohas

theirstufftogetherandyouknowthatcanbeacontributingmemberofsocietyI

guess.

Somecoachesstatethattheywouldhaveconversationsthatreflectonsocietalissues

thatencompasssomeissuesofgender,butasParticipant7explains,thedirectmentionof

whatitistobeamandoesnotnecessarilycomeupintheconversation.

Wehavecertainlyhadthosetypesofconversationsfromasocialstandpoint,

ummbutspecificallywhatitistobeaman–Idonotknowifwehavereallyhad

thatdeepofadiscussionaboutthat.

Inresponsetothequestionaboutbeingaman,someofthecoachessuggestedthata

morerelevantquestionwouldbehowtobecomeabetterperson.Iheardtheparticipantsclaim

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thatbeingagoodpersonwasacorevaluethattheyfeeloursocietyshouldstrivetoobtain.For

example,Participant2stated:“Idonotthinkitisisolatedtobeingaman.”Further,Participant

6stated:

Iwouldsayformeitissimilartobeingaman,totrytonotputaspecific

definitiononit.Ijustthink,likeifyouarefulfilledorhappywithwhoyouareand

whatyouaredoingandwhatyourimpactisonyourenvironment.Ithinkthatit

isyourultimategoalforbeingahumanbeing.

Itappearsfromtheseresponsesthatadefinitionofmalenessisnotanattributethatthe

coaches,ortheirathletes,strivetoobtain.Someofthecoachesresistedthequestionabout

beingaman,butmostdideventuallyhaveadefinitionofmanliness.ForexampleParticipant6

statedwhenaskedifmanlinesswasanimportantfactorforhismaleathletes;“Nothing

particularcomestomind.Itisnotanovertdiscussionpointinourgroup.”However,laterin

thediscussionParticipant6didemphasizethatbeingamaleathletehasacorrelationwith

appearance.

Ohalotofitishiddenbehindthissortofselfimage–wearestrong,weare

powerful,welookgood–theyhavetolookgoodinthemirrorortheywould

havenotmadeittothislevelofthisspecificsportcontextthatIwork.

Therewassomethingaboutthequestionthatcreatedresistancebythecoaches

becausewhenaskedlessdirectlyandtheybegantobuilduponotherresponses,thecoaches

tendedtohaveananswerfortheoriginalquestiononthedefinitionofbeingman.Eventhough

theyeventuallyprovidedadefinitionformanliness,thecoachestendedtodirectrelated

39

discussionstoafocusonbeingagoodpersonratherthangenderstereotypes.Thiswasa

surprisingstartandimportantthemeinthatitsuggeststhatgenderwasnotanattributethat

coacheseventhoughtof,orwhichwasatleastsecondaryforthem,whencoachingtheir

athletes.

BeingaGoodPerson

Asstatedabove,thecoachesinitiallyresistedprovidingadirectdefinitionofmanliness.

Theydid,however,describedesirablequalitiesofbeingagoodpersonwithouttheemphasison

gender.AsParticipant5stated,“Itismoreaboutbeingagoodpersonasopposedtobeinga

man.”Thisthemeof“beingagoodperson”wascitedbyseveralparticipantsandreferredto

havingpositivepersonalbehaviouralqualitiesandbeinganadult:

Idonotthinkthereisacleardefinitionorappropriatedefinitionofbeingaman.

ButIthinkintermsofbeingagoodperson–likeifyoucheck–thosefourboxes

–honesty,integrity,responsibilityandaccountability–yeahthenIthinkyou

couldbeaprettygoodpersonorprettygoodman.(Participant8)

Beinganadultwasanotherqualityassociatedwithbeingagoodperson.Forexample,

Participant4stated,“makingrightdecisions,asbeinganadult–beingamanversuswoman

doesnotmattersomuch.”Similarly,Participant10saidthatdoingtherightthingisanideal

qualityofagoodperson.

Andwhateverthatrightthingis–wedoit!Sothatcouldbestayingoutof

difficultsituations,likebeingdowntowninabarfight,orsomethinglikethat–

40

walkingaway.Notcheatingontestsorexams,notlyingaboutgoingtothe

weightroomornotgivingyourwholeselftowhateveryoudo.“Doingtheright

thing!”isoneofourmantras.

Beingrespectfulandhonourabletowardotherswassimilarlyassociatedwithbeinga

goodpersonasopposedtobeingaman:

SoformemanlinessisanexpressionofrespectandagainitisthesameashowI

woulddefineagoodteammateordefineasbeingagoodperson……..Again,I

thinkthatthefirstthingsItalkedabout,thehealthybehaviours–beingan

honourableperson,showingrespecttoothers–whetheritbemaleorfemale.

(Participant5)

Participant6similarlymaintainedthatrespectwasimportantbystating,“Treatand

respecttheirteachers,treatandrespecttheircoachesandtheirfellowathletes.“

Comparativelyparticipant6referencedbeingagoodpersonandtakingcareofotherswhenhe

argued:

Ithinkforme,whenIassociatesomeonewhoisagoodmanoragoodpersonit

issomeonewhotakesgoodcareofthepeoplearoundthemandalsotakescare

ofthemselves.

Coachesappearedtoignoretheconceptofgenderandarguedthattheirathletesshould

encompassqualitiesofbeinganadult,honourable,respectfulandtakingcareofothers.

However,asthediscussionwentfurtherabouttheirathletes,manycoacheseventually

41

revealedthatthereweresomequalitiesassociatedwithbeingaman,includingsomequalities

thatwerepositiveattributesandothersthatwerenegative.

IdentifiableQualitiesofBeingaMan

Acrosstheinterviews,anddespitesomeinitialdiscomfortwiththedirectquestions

discussedearlierallcoachesdiddescribequalitiesthattheyassociatedwithbeingamale.

Successandwinningwasanattributeidentifiedasamasculinetrait:

Butparticularlyinasportingenvironmentitisondisplayandyoucannothide

fromthat.Youarelookingatwhatdefinesaman–anditistheonewhowinsor

theonesthataresuccessful.Thereissomethingrightandsomethingwrongin

that.(Participant6)

Participant6statedthatwinningandsuccesswasamajorconcernofthemenonhis

team.Hearguedthatmanyofmaleathletesheworkedwithorhadseenonthenationaland

internationalstagehadthementalitythat,“youareeitherthebestoryouarenotgood

enough.”Iquestionedback,“Likethefastestmanintheworld?”Whichhereplied“Yup!”“Who

knowswhoisthesecondfastest?”Iasked.“Wemightrememberthatforlikeamonth”

participant6joked.Hewentfurthertoidentifythisasanegativeattributeofthemasculinityin

hismaleathletes,astheywouldoveremphasizetheneedtowinratherthanimproveother

importantaspectsoftheirlife,suchasbeingsuccessfulinschoolandbeingagoodteammate.

Asparticipant6questionedamaleathlete’sabsoluteneedtobesuccessfulandalways

win,otherparticipantspointedoutthatsuccesscanbeapositiveattributeinamaleathlete’s

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life.Beingamanwouldreferencetheabilitytodoeverythingintheirlivesasbestastheycan

andbeassuccessfulaspossiblethroughtheirefforts.

Youcannotcompartmentalizethesuccessinyourlife–soifyoucannotbe

successfulinotherpartsofyourlife–thatwillleadtounsuccessfulness

somewhereelse.Thatmeanstryingtobethebestatwhatyouaredoing.

(Participant2)

Participant4statedthatusingsuccessasamotivatingtoolforhismaleathletesandthe

teamwasagoal:

Attheendofeverypractice,webringoutapositiveexample.Wewillpresent

someoneinfrontofthewholeteamandletthembreakawholeteamdown–

umm–whethertheyare(editedout)positionontheteamor(editedout)

positionontheteam,iftheydidsomethingpositive,eitheronthe(editedout)or

inthecommunity,wewillkindofgivethemthemomenttosayorreinforcethis

iswhatwearelookingforinapositiveway.

Alongwithwinningandsuccess,coachesemphasizedthatleadershipandhonourwere

traitsthatwereassociatedwithmanliness.Forexample,Participant3stated,“Leadership,a

littlebitofsomething,Yeah,leadershipaspectaswell.”Equallyparticipant5saidwhenasked

aboutmanlinessqualities,“Iwouldsayalotofithastodowithhonourandrespect.”

43

Similarly,coachestalkedaboutaccountability,responsibility,andreliabilityasamale

trait.Theseparticipantsrespondedtobeingaskedforadefinitionofbeingamaninthe

followingways:“accountablefortheiractions”(Participant2),andwithmoredetail,

Ithinkalotofitbeingamanisaroundself-efficacy.Beingabletobereliable,

responsible,theyareattheirword,andthatextendstoeverythinglikeshowing

upontime,livinguptotheiragreements.(Participant1)

Evenasmanycoachesstatedexplicitlythatthereisnodefinitionofmanliness,they

wouldhoweveradmitthatsomeoftheirathletesstillexemplifiedorcouldexemplifynotionsof

traditionalmasculinity–whichtheyemphasizedintheinterviewas“manliness”or“being

macho”.

Manlinessisperceivedastheultimateformofphysicaloutputthatislooking,

performingandbetterthaneveryoneandthushavingthissocialhierarchy

displayedthatcoincideswiththat.Youareeitherthebestoryouarenotgood

enough.(Participant6)

Referencestomanlinesswerenotnecessarilynegativeintheviewofthecoach:

Ithinktherewillbedifferentpersonalitiesamongstthemen’steamandthe

women’steamandIthinktherewillbethatoccasionaltimewherethey(men)

willbeattheirchestandIthinkthatitisokeveryonceandwhile.Iwillallowthat

onthatrareoccasionlikeinthatcasewheretheyneedtogetpumpedupand

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fullofadrenaline.Aslongastheyarenotmakingthataregularoccasion-Iam

okwiththat.Soiftheydogetalittlerowdy–keepthemincheck.(Participant5)

Theessenceofmaleaggressionwasreferencedasanoccasionalnecessityinorderto

performonthefield.Itwaslegitimizedashavingaroleintheirperformance.Coachesstated

thatitwaswhenthemaleathleteover-steppedthelinewiththataggressionthatthecoachfelt

thisbehaviourwouldbeinappropriateandcouldturnintonegativemachobehaviour.

Whilesomeofthecoachesstaedthattraditionalmanlinesswasstillapositivepartof

theirdefinitionofbeingaman,mostcoachesemphasizeditsnegativeattributes.Someofthem

wouldrefertoa“macho”attitude.Theywouldnotalwayslinkthenegativeattributesofbeing

amanspecificallytotermslike“toxicmasculinity.”However,theirdefinitionsofnegative

masculinitywerefrequentlysimilartotermsusedbywriterssuchasWong,RingoHo,Wang&

Miller(2016)whomaintainthattraditionalmasculinityencompasses:winning,emotional

control,risk-taking,violence,dominance,playboy,self-reliance,poweroverwomen,disdainfor

same-sexrelationshipsandpursuitofstatus.

Itwaswidelystatedbythecoachesthatnotbeinginclusivewasanegativeattributeofa

man.Butthis,thecoachesmeant“nothavinggoodrelationshipswithwomen”orwith

“individualsofadifferentsexualorientation,”or“notbeingopentoothercultures.”Participant

5talkedaboutbeingclosed-mindedasanegativeattribute–thatbeingdiscriminatorytowards

thosewhomaybedifferentthanthemintermsofsexualorientationordietaryneeds(e.g.

vegan).

45

Iwouldsayjustbeingclosedingeneral.Whetheritisclosedtodifferentpeople

fromdifferentwalksoflifeorclosedinthetermsofnotcommunicatingwith

peopleyouarenotcomfortablewith.(Participant5)

Sexismwasanattributewidelydiscussedthroughouttheinterviewsoftherespondents:

Ithinkitcanbeoften,itcanoftenbewiththerelationshipswithfemales.You

canhearthetalk.SometimesIthinkguysinthelockerroomsettinghaveto

performthemalebravado.(Participant7)

Participant7describedfurtheraboutmaleathletes’relationshipswithwomenbystatingthat:

Theywanttosoundcooltotheguysandwilltalknegativelyaboutgirlfriends,ex-

girlfriends–thosetypesofscenarios.Ihavecertainlyheardthatovertheyears

attimes.Ithinkthatcanbekindofanegativeobviously.

Beingselfishornotbeingateamplayerwasahighlyreportednegativeattributeof

beingamanasarguedbythecoaches.Inthecourseofdescribingnegativeaspectsofmale

athlete’sbehaviour,participant10notedthat,“Selfish!Guyscanbeprettyselfish!”Likewise

participant4arguedthat:

Anythingthatisnotputtingtheteamfirst,whichisthe(sporteditedout),the

university,theCityofGuelph,theirfamily,iftheyarefaithfulandnotconsidering

thosethingsaroundthemwhentheyaredoingit.

Althoughcoachesinitiallyquestionedthedefinitionofmanliness,throughoutthe

interviewtheybegantodefineattributesthatweremanly.Theystatedthatsomeelementsof

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manliness,suchaswinning,successandaggression,hadbothpositiveandnegativeattributes.

Participantsopenlystatedthattherewereexclusivelypositiveelementsofmanlinessin

referencetoleadership,accountability,responsibility,andreliability.However,theyalsoargued

thattherewereexclusivelynegativeattributesofmanlinessassociatedwithharmful

relationshipswithwomenandtheLGBTcommunity,sexism,andbeingselfish.Ascoaches

identifiedanddescribedpositiveandnegativeattributesofmasculinity,theyalsohighlighted

theirabilitytoinfluencetheirathletes’behaviourintermsofpromotinginclusiveandpositive

masculinity.

Coachesinfluenceonathletes

Severalofthecoachesindicatedthattheysawthemselvesashavingasignificant

amountofinfluenceontheirmaleathletes.Thiscanbedividedupintwodomains:1)the

personalqualitiesofathletes,and2)theinterpersonalbehavioursofathletesandthecoaches.

Manyofthecoacheswereenthusiasticwhentheydescribedhowandwhentheyexercised

influence.

Whentalkingabouttheimpacttheyhadonthepersonalqualitiesoftheirmaleathletes,

somecoachesstatedthattheywantedtoreinforcepositivebehavioursintheirathletes:

AndIlovetohearwhenpeoplesay,“yourguysarereallygoodandpoliteandhe

didthis.”AndIwillgobackandgivethemthisfeedbackandIwillsayhereis

somefeedbackfromthispersonatthisdeskandhowwellyouguysdid,and

thankyoufordoingthatandrepresentinguswell.(Participant10)

47

Othercoachestalkedaboutwantingtoinfluencethepersonalqualitiesoftheirathletes

bychoosingtomodelthebehaviourinfrontoftheirathletes:

ImeanIamtalkingaboutmywifeanddaughters–andiftheyseemeyellingat

mywife–thatisnotpositiveandiftheyseethatfrommethatisnotgoodorthe

wayIamwithkids.(Participant3)

Participant10evendefinedtheattributebystating:“Itrytomodelit”–Iusetheterm

“model–coach-require”,soImodelit,coachedthemtoit,andthenrequireitfrom

them.”

Severalofthecoacheswentontoargue,thatinordertoinfluencethepersonalqualities

oftheirathletes,beingateachertotheirathleteswasamajorcomponent:

Ithinkpartofitisbuildingarelationshipwiththem,butasaresultIstarttosee

themdoingthingswithoutmeaskingthem.Iseethewaystheystarttoabsorb

thethingsthatIhavebeenteachingthem.(Participant5)

Atthesametime,itisnotalwayssimpletobeateachertotheirmaleathletes:

Thefirstthingweneedtodoiseducateknowingfullwellthatitwillbeheardby

morebysomethanothers.Buteducateandthenagainhavetheconversationin

agroupsettingandhaveaconversationinasmallsetting.(Participant6)

Coachesspokeoftheirinfluenceontheinterpersonalbehavioursofathletesandhow

thisalsoinvolvedthecoaches’owninterpersonalbehaviours.Toinfluencetheinterpersonal

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behavioursofathletes,coacheswouldreportthattheypromoteteamvalues,asafespace,and

inclusivityontheirteam:

Thisistheteam,theteamsupportseachother.Andagainletsbedirectaboutit,

itdoesnotmeanthateverybodyneedstobepalsorbestfriendsoranythinglike

that,butweneedtorespectful,weneedtobeinclusive,andwewantittobe

safe.(Participant9)

Participant3wentfurtherbyusinghisownpersonalqualitiesasawaytopromotethesevalues.

Hestated:

Iamsettingamaleexamplewiththem,youknowthemaleexamplechangedIn

thepastfewyears,somaybewehadthatyourgrandparentsviewofbeinga

malewas40to50yearsagoandthinknow,itisabitmoreinclusive,itisabit

moreopenmindedorjustmore2018.

Thecoachesemphasizedthat,inordertopromoteinterpersonalbehavioursoftheir

athletes,coachesneedtobeamentortotheirathlete(s).Participant4statedthat“wementor

them,wecoachthem,weshapedthem,whotheyare,notonlyasathletesbutasyoungmen.”

SimilarlyParticipant3usedhimselfasanexamplebystating:

Ithinkasacoachthatissomethingthatyouwanttoreflect–beingyourself–I

thinkthatiswhatIambutthatiswhatyouwishtoreflecttothekidssotheyare

betterequippedIguessforlife.

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Participant6similarlyarguedthathehopedhisabilitytomentorwouldleadto

aninfluenceformanyyearsintothefuture:

Ithinkthatiswhatwewanttodoashumans,wewanttoleavebehind–

whetheritisandnottobringittotheultimatepoint–whatwewanttodo

beforewedie.Mostpeoplesaythattheywanttoleaveanimpactingimpact,

maybeachildorchildren,butitalsomaybesomethingyouhavedonetoany

realmofyourlifethathasleftanimpact.

Coachesdescribedhowtheywereabletoinfluenceinterpersonalbehaviourbyforming

aparentalrolewiththeirathlete(s)andalsowereabletoinfluencebyusingtheirown

experienceasaparent:

Oragainthelensofthecoachtheyknowthattheytrustthemandyoubecomea

fatherfigureinthatrealmorabitofaparentalfigurebutmorepotentatthat

agethanaparent.(Participant6)

Usinghisownlifeasanexample,participant7statedthat“evenformyselfbeingaparent

certainlychangesmyview.”Beingaparentallowedforadifferentviewofthewayanathlete

shouldbehaveonthefieldandinpublic.Usingtheirownpersonalexperienceasaparent,

coachessaidtheytriedtoinfluencebehaviouroftheirathletespositively.

Inanumberoftheinterviews,coachesarguedthattheirpastbehaviourinfluencedhow

theyinteractedandinfluencedtheirathlete(s):

50

IguessIwasnobetterwhenIwasakid,youknow.Thatistheadvantageof

beingolder,youhaveseenstuff,youhavebeenindifferentsituationsinyourlife

andyouhaveseenbothsidesofthe(inaudible)andifyoudonotstopit–then

youdonotknowwhatcouldhappennext.(Participant3)

Youknowthatisjustanexample.Therehavebeenmanypeoplewithdifferent

culturesandsexualorientationsonourteamandyearsagoImayhavefelt

uncomfortable.Andnowitisjustpartoftheculture.AndIthinkthathas

certainlybenefitedme.(Participant5)

Ascoachessharedtheirownbehaviourfromthepast,afewcoachestalkedabouttheir

presentbehaviour.Afewcoachesreportedthattheybuiltgoodrelationshipswiththeir

athletesbyallowingtheathletestoquestionthecoachwhentheythoughthewasoutofline.

Anexamplebyparticipant8waspresentedas:

Buteventheway–justtalkingtotheguysyouknow,earlyoninmycoaching

career–likenowIwouldmakeajokeorsomethingandtheguyswouldsay,

“Comeon(nameeditedout)!Itis2017!Or2016!”justtogivemeahardtime

aboutit.Littlethingslikethat–thatwaslanguagethatIusedwhenIwasa

playerandthingslikethat.

Participant9statedanexampleofthisbysaying:

Wehavehadourasskicked.IhavehadmyasskickedbypeopleIcareaboutand

bypeoplewhoare18andhaveenoughballstosay(knockingsound),“Ithinkwe

51

screwedup.Ithinkyouareanidiot!”Ohboy,yougohomethesedaysandthe

firstquestionis–aretheyright?”Istheretruthtowhattheyaresaying?Itis

usuallyagreyscaleandnuanced.

Ascoachestalkedaboutperceivedattributesoftheirmaleathletespresently,manyof

thecoachesemphasizedthattheyhopedtheirinfluencewouldcreatepositiveattributesfor

theirmaleathletesinthefuture.

AspirationalAttributes

Thecoachesdescribedthroughouttheinterviewsaspirationalattributes:thosetraits

thattheysaidtheywantedtoseefromtheirathletesandfromthemselvesasopposedtothe

directactionsdescribedabove.Statingthatitwasinordertobemoreinfluentialandtohave

moreimpactontheirathletes’behaviour,manyofthecoachesoutlinedtheneedfor

improvementintheirownbehaviour.Forexample,onecoachstatedthattheywantedtolearn

correctlanguagearoundtransgenderidentitytocreateasaferandmoreinclusiveenvironment

onhisteam.Hesaidthatheinitiallywantedtoreachouttotheresearcherofthisstudyfor

assistance,becauseoftheresearcher’sroleoncampus,tohelpdevelopinclusivitytrainingfor

histeamandteamsacrosstheprovince.

ThatistherootwhyIreachedouttoyouinthefallwasaboutlanguageImaynot

beawareof.Itwillnotbealackoftrying,butmylanguagemightbeoldschoolin

termsofhowyouunderstandgenderidentityorImightmisssomethings.

(Participant9)

52

Participant8alsostated:

Soadaptingthelanguagetothegroupofpeoplewehavehasbeenthebiggest

changeformeandcontinuallyadaptingthelanguageeveryyeartotryto

connecttotheplayersandhowtheyspeaktooneanother.

Thecoachesstatedthattheywantedtocreategoodpeopleforfuturesociety,

sometimesitwasemphasizedasgoodmen,butmostlyasgoodpeople.

Wewanttohaveeverykidthatgoesthroughthisprogramtogopro,butIalso

wantthemtoonedaybeagreatfatherandthatisanimportantthingforthem

aswell.So,forwhateveritisthatisimportanttothem–whetheritisa

businessmanorbeagreatfatherorbeagreathusbandtosomebody.

(Participant4)

Resiliencywasamajorattributethatparticipant6emphasizedforanaspirational

attributeforhismaleathletes.Hearguedthat,“Forme,youhavetobemoreresilienttobe

successfulinthisworld.”Hefurtherrevealedthathehopedhisinfluencewouldbringabout

morerelianceinhisathletes,pastandpresent.

Ihaveleftanimpressiononthisworldnomatterhowsmallitis.IthinkIknow

thatIhavedoneagoodjobwhenIseethatavastmajorityofpeoplehaveleft

myprogramandIfeelthatIamconfidentinthatIhavemadesignificantchanges

overtimethattheywerehere.Theyarehappier,moreskillsetandmore

resilient.

53

Acoupleofthecoachesstatedthattheywouldliketoseetheirathletesactasactive

bystanderswhointerveneinthefuturewhentheyseeviolenceorheardiscriminatorylanguage

towardsminoritygroups,suchaswomenorLGBTcommunity.Participant4statedthathe

wantedtoemphasizetheneedforhisathletestostandupagainstviolenceagainstwomen.He

talkedaboutcampusprogramsinvolvinghisteamthatemphasizedanti-violenceinitiatives.He

statedthathehopedthatteammemberscouldlearnfromthisprogramandactasactive

bystanderswhointerveneandserveasalliesforwomen.Similarly,participant9arguedthata

person,notaspecificallyamanshouldhavethesepositivequalities,“Butitisyourabilityto

speakupwhenyouthinksomethingiswrongandnotbecomplacentaboutyoursilence.”

Afewofthecoachesemphasizedthedesiretosupportthedevelopmentofempathyin

theirmaleathletes.Whentalkingaboutasexualviolenceprogramthattheirathleteshadto

participateinpriortotheseason,participant7arguedthatthemaingoaloftheprogramwasto

developempathyfromtheirathletesandhavediscussionsaroundsexualviolencethatcouldbe

occurring.“Ithinkitwasawareness–sensitivitytoempathy,warningsigns,thingsthatinitiate

conversation.”Similarly,participant10emphasizedempathywhenmentioningwhathewould

liketoseeasresultofhisinfluenceasacoach.Hewentfurthertoarguethatbeingempathetic

andresponsiblewasapositiveattributebecausetheyarerepresentingthemselves,their

familiesandtheUniversityofGuelphbybeingprivilegedtobeamaleathleteoncampus.He

stated,“SoIalwaystrytotellthemtodotherightthing–beresponsible,beempathetic,tryto

bethebestversionofyourselfthatyoucanbe.”

54

Theresponsesoftheparticipantsprovideddatathatdirectlyansweredthetwomain

researchquestionsofhowcoachesdeterminewhatareharmfulorriskybehavioursandhow

theyintendtoinstillormodelpositiveorinclusivebehaviourintheirmaleathletes.Someof

thecoachesstatedthatwinningandbeingsuccessfulwasamajorattributeofbeingamale,

whilesomesaidthatthiswasanegativeattribute.Similarly,coachessaidthataggressionand

selfishnesswereusuallynegativeattributesduetothenegativeimpactonthecohesivenessof

theteam.Coachesalsonotedthatnotbeingopen,orbeingsexistordiscriminatorytotheLGBT

communitywereharmfulattributesofamaleathletebecauseitwentagainsttheidealsofan

inclusiveteamandreflectednegativelyontheteamoncampusandinthecommunity.

Toinstillpositivebehaviourtheparticipantstalkedopenlyaboutbeingmentors,

teachers,andprovidingaparentalroletotheirmaleathletes.Similarly,thecoachesprovided

educationalopportunitiesaboutanti-violenceinitiativesinordertoencourageempathy

towardswomenandtoprovideideasthatwouldchallengerapemythsandothertraditional

ideasthattheirathletesmaystillbelieve.

However,thesub-questionsregardinghowcoachesjudgesuccessfuloutcomesrelated

toinclusiveandpositivemasculinitieswerenotaddressedwellintheinterviewsThe

participantsappeardtohaveadifficulttimeansweringthisquestionbecausemostcoaches

statedthattheywerestilllookingforpositiveattributesfromtheirathletesandhavenotreally

seenthesebehavioursfullydevelopedpresently.Thelimitedresponsesthatwerereceived

centredaroundwhattheysawdirectlyfromtheirathletesandwordofmouthfromothers.

Participant1statedwhenaskedaboutmeasurableoutcomes,“Justhowtheyshowup!”He

55

talkedbrieflyonwhatheseesfromtheirbehaviourinmeetingsandattheirevents.Similarly,

participant3arguedthatoutcomescouldbemeasuredthroughtheirobservationofthelocker

roomandthebehaviourthatisoccurringamongsttheathletes.

Acoupleoftheparticipantstalkedaboutfeedbacktheyreceivefromothersontheteam

andfromthecampuscommunity.Participant2statedthathereceivesinformationfrom

athleteleadersinthelockerroomaboutthebehaviouroftheirfellowathletes.Participant10

gaugedoutcomesthroughtheconversationshehaswithfellowmembersoftheAthletic

Departmentandcampuscommunity.Bothparticipantscommentedonhowtheywillreceive

positiveandnegativeinformationabouttheirathletesandthendecideiffutureactionsare

requiredtointiatemorechangestothebehaviouroftheirathletes.

EachthemedetailedintheResultssectionhighlightstheinfluencecoacheshavewith

theirmaleathletes’behaviourintermsofidentifyingandactingtoeliminatenegativemacho

behaviourandpromotingmoreopenandacceptingbehaviourtowardothers.Theseinclude:

questioningthedefinitionofmanliness,describingthevaluebeingagoodperson,identifying

qualitiesofbeingaman,beingintentionalabouttheircoaches’influenceonathletes,and

workingtowardsaspirationalattributes.

Throughthefivethemesidentified,withtheresearchquestionsinmind,thediscussion

sectionwillexaminehowtheresultsconfirm,extend,andarecontrarytopastresearchinthe

fieldofmaleathletesandtraditionalmasculinity.

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Discussion

Theobjectiveofthisstudywastoexaminetherolemalevarsitycoachesplayin

promotingthedevelopmentofinclusivemasculinityintheirathletes.Thisobjectivewas

highlightedthroughtwomainresearchquestions:(1)whatstrategies,ifany,docoachesof

malesportsusetopromoteinclusiveandpositivemasculinitiesamongathletes?(2)What

strategies,ifany,docoachesofmalesportsusetoaddressharmfulaspectsoftraditional

masculinity?Eventhoughthereisresearchthatdemonstratescoachesareinthepositionto

positivelyornegativelyinfluenceathletes’behaviour(Adamsetal.,2010;Jamieetal.,2015;

Steinfeldtetal.,2016),thereislimitedresearchonwhatcoachesaredoingspecificallyto

encouragechangedattitudesandbehaviouroftheirmaleathletesaroundissuesoftoxic

masculinity,specificallyviolence,homophobia,andriskybehaviour.Theresultsofthisstudy

specifiednewunderstandingsofthedefinitionofamaleathleteandtherolecoachesplayin

influencingmaleathletes’attitudesandbehaviourinthisdirection.

Thisdiscussionhighlightsthenewresearch,thesimilaritiesanddifferencesbetweenthe

resultsofthisstudyandrelatedresearchpublishedtodate.Thefindingsthathighlightthe

conceptofdevelopingagoodpersonandthecoachesdesiretoinfluenceinclusivebehaviourin

theirmaleathletesisnewresearchcomparedtotheexistingliterature.Findingsfromthis

researcharesimilartotheliteratureinaccordancetomaleattributesrelatingtowinningand

success,theimportanceofdevelopingempathyinmaleathletes,thebenefitsofmentorshipof

coachesandtheabilityofathletestoquestionacoachwhentheyarenotinclusive(Anderson&

McGuire,2012;Beisseletal.,2014;Flood2011;Jamieson&Orr,2009;Laiosetal.,2012;

57

Mastreleoetal.,2012).Thefindingsconveyeddifferentconceptscomparedtotheliteraturein

relationtocoaches’inabilitytodefinemanliness,sportbeingforbothgenders,thelackof

internalizationofviolentqualitiesbymaleathletesandcoachesbeingmoreproactivetostop

violence.TheDiscussionfollowsthefivethematicthemesdescribedintheresultssection

above,namely:questioningthedefinitionofmanliness,beingagoodperson,identifiable

qualitiesofbeingaman,coaches’influenceonathletes,andaspirationalattributes.

Questionthedefinitionofmanliness.Wheretheresearchoutlinedthatmanycoaches

usesporttodefinewhatamanshouldencompassinsociety,thecurrentfindingsrevealthat

thesecoachparticipantswereuncomfortabledefiningwhatamanshouldbe.Contravening

whatMcDowell&Schaffner(2011)reported,thatmalecoachestendtoholdtraditionalideals

aroundgenderrolesandsexuality,theparticipantsofthisstudywereuncomfortable

conformingtoatraditionaldefinitionofmanliness.ThesefindingsalsocontradictPattman&

Bhana’s(2010)researchwithathletesthatconcludedmasculinityisanideathatallmenshare,

thattheyshouldallactthesamewayinallsituations,andthatsomeathletesholdnarrow,

essentialistviewsofgender.Itissurprisingtonotethatmostcoachesinthisstudydescribethat

theirmaleathleteseventhoughtaboutgenderasanissue.Conformingtoamaleideal,suchas

traditionalgenderroles,heteronormativity,hypermasculinityandsubordinationofwomen

(Adamsetal.,2010;McCormack&Anderson,2010;McDowell&Schaffner,2011;Messner,

2007;Steinfeldt&Steinfeldt,2012)wasnotanideathatmostofthesecoachesthoughttheir

athletesprioritizedintheirathleticcareer.

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Thecoachesdidnotmentionthatmaleathletesshouldavoidthefeminizationof

society,orthattheyshoulddifferentiatethemselvesfromfemininequalitiesasstatedbyothers

(Adams,Anderson&McCormack,2010,Bandy,2016;McCormack&Anderson,2010,Messner,

2007&Steinfedltetal.,2016).Beingclassifiedasamale,asarguedbythecoaches,wasnota

characteristicthatprovidesunequalopportunitiesthatfavourmen.Someofthecoaches

arguedthatifanindividualcancompeteintheirsportsuccessfully,itdoesnotmatterthe

genderoftheathlete.Thisisantitheticaltotheconclusionthatmalesareencouragedto

participateinsportsinordertoescapethefemininecharacteristicsofsocietyandtoafford

themtheunequalaccessofpowerinsociety(Hoeber,2008,Schirato,2013,Steinfeldtetal.,

2016).Similarly,thiswascontrarytoPronger’s(2002)statementoffascismwithinsports,that

grantsmalesoverwhelmingaccesstosportsoverfemalesandnon-powerfulmen.Thecoaches

inthisstudy,especiallythosewhocoachedco-edsports,didnotemphasizethatsportswere

exclusivelyformales.Accordingtotheparticipants,genderwasnotacontributingfactorfor

theirathletes;rathertheirabilitytoperformintheirsportingcontextwastheimportantfactor

forthecoachandathlete.Sportwasconsideredasanopportunitytocompeteandtoprepare

themselvesforthefuture,ratherthananactiontoescapethefeminizationofsocietyor

becomemoremanly.

Beingagoodperson.Theliteraturearoundmaleathletestendstobeverynegative

abouttheirmasculinebehaviourandtherewaslimitedresearchonthecoachesdesireto

influencetheirathletestobegoodcitizensoncampusandthecommunity.Thelimitedresearch

thatisavailablearguesthattoproducepositivebehaviourinmaleathletes,mentorshipand

guidanceisimportant(Jamisom&Orr,2009;Laiosetal.,2003;Mastreleoetal.,2012;

59

Steinfeldtetal.,2011).Similarly,datedresearchbyBloometal(1998)statedthatcoacheswho

hadcommittedrelationshipswiththeirathleteshadtheabilitytoinfluencemaleathletesto

havecommittedrelationshipswithothers,bemorerespectfultoothersandhavetheabilityto

beopenemotionally.Thecurrentfindingsrelatedtocoaches’initiativetosupportthe

developmentof“goodpersons”isconsistentwiththisliterature.

Thefindingsrelatedtowhatthesecoacheshadtosaysuggestedthattheywantedto

producegoodpeoplethroughtheirinfluenceregardlessofgenderorperformance.This

elementofgoodpeopleissimilartothebehavioursdescribedintheaboveresearch.For

instance,coachesarguedthattheywantedtheirathletestoberespectfultoothersandmore

openemotionally.Similarly,oneoftheirprimarygoalsintheirprogramswastodevelop

positivebehavioursintheirathletes.Whenaskedaboutthedefinitionofmalenessintheir

athletesandtheirabilitytoinfluencethis,manyofthecoachesproudlystatedthattheywanted

toproducegoodpeopleratherthancoachingforonlysuccessontheplayingfieldortobea

goodman.

Identifiablequalitiesofbeingaman.Whenthecoachesidentifiedqualitiesthatwere

typicallymale,someoftherespondentspointtosomeattributessimilarlyidentifiedbyWong

etal.(2016).Beingsuccessfulandwinning,wasoneattributethatcoachesidentifiedthatwas

similartoattributesidentifiedbyWongetal.(2016).Inthisstudy,coachesascribedboth

positiveandnegativeconsequencesrelatedtothismalequality.Asonecoachnoted,toomuch

emphasisonsuccessandwinningcoulddeteranathletefrombeingsuccessfulinother

elementsofhislife,suchasschoolandbeingagoodteammate.However,othercoaches

60

encouragedsuccessandwinning.Thesecoachesdescribedtherdesiretoeitherpromotebeing

successfulinallelementsoftheirathletes’livesandbeingthebestthattheycanbeat

everythingtheyendure,aswellasbeingarolemodeltoothersontheteamandthecommunity

throughtheirsuccessandwinningattitude.

Previousresearchhasdemonstratedthatmaleathletescaninternalizevaluesassociated

withtraditionalmasculinitysuchasviolence,aggression,andhigh-risksexualaction(Kaufman,

1987;Messner,2007;Steinfeldt,2016;Weaving,2010).Inthecurrentstudy,onlyasmall

numberofparticipantstalkedaboutaggressionbeingpresentintheirmaleathletes.Asthe

literaturetendstonote,aggressionisanegativeattribute,butsomeoftheparticipantsargued

thataggressionisimportantinthesportingcontexttoacertainpoint.Aggressionwasviewed

bythesecoachesasbeneficialtohypeupathletesbeforeapracticeoracompetition.However,

theydidnotethatthisneededtobelimitedtoapointshortofshowingoffinfrontof

teammatesandotherteams.Aggressionwasviewedbythesecoachesasbeingpositiveonlyto

thedegreethatithelpedtheperformanceoftheathlete.Beyondthis,thetraitwasseenbythe

participantsinthisstudyassomethingtobeeliminatedinordertoensureitdoesnotaffectthe

athletes’relationshipsandappearancetoothersontheteam,campus,orinthecommunity.

Whenreferencingsexualviolenceintheirinterview,coachesdidstatethatantiviolence

initiativeswereimportanttothetrainingoftheathletesearlyintheseason.Thistrainingwas

inreferencetothesexualviolencecoursesthatalmostallcoachesandUniversityofGuelph

Athleticshavemademandatoryforalltheirathletes.Someparticipantsstatedthattheathletes

tookthecoursesveryseriouslyandwereveryattentivewhenpresentedwiththematerial.This

61

isconsistentwithresearch(Adamsetal.,2010;Jamieson&Orr,2009)regardingteams’loyalty

totheirleaders.Jamieson&Orr(2009)concludedthatloyaltytoateamleader,suchasa

captainwhofavouredsexualviolence,wasoftencorrelatedtohigh-risksexualbehaviour(e.g.

rape)amongstothermembersoftheteam.Theresultsofthisstudysuggestthatwhencoaches

explicitlyindicatethattheytakesexualviolenceseriouslybymakingtrainingmandatory,for

example,theycanbesimilarlyinfluentialinsupportingamorepositivelockerroomculture.

Whencoachestalkedabouttheirathletesbeingpotentiallyviolenttowardothers,

especiallywomenandothermenoncampusorinthecommunity,thecoachesarguedthatthis

wasnotcommonamongsttheirathletes.Thecoachestakeamoreproactiveapproachto

preventviolenceandinfluencetheattitudearoundviolencewiththeirmaleathletes.For

instance,afewofthecoachesdescribedtheirownresponsestotheirathletesbytalking

negativelyaboutfightsthatmighthappenatthedowntownbarsoratapartywiththeir

athletesafterpracticeorinone-to-onemeetings.Theywentfurther,bystatingthattheytryto

persuadetheirathletestoleavethesituationoractasactivebystanderswhointervenetotryto

stoptheviolence.Theiractions,togetherwiththeirteam,includedamorepublicandproactive

approacharoundanti-violenceagainstwomeninsomecases.Accordingtoonecoach,this

teamactionhadbeeninpracticeforacoupleyears,withcoachesandathletesinvolvement

withanti-violenceinitiativesoncampus.

Coaches’influenceonathletes.Mostcoachesinthisstudyrevealedthatsexualviolence

trainingwasmandatoryfortheirathletestobeproactiveinpreventingsexualviolenceand

createempathyforthosewhomaybevictimizedbytheaction.Someofthecoachesargued

62

thatthemaleathletestakethetrainingveryseriouslyandareveryopenaboutlearninghowto

beanadvocateforthecause.Similarly,coachesthroughtheseprogramsandguidancewanted

tochangetheattitudeoftheirathletestowardswomen,throughtheeliminationofsexist

commentsontheplayingfield,oncampusorsocialmedia.Whenconsideringtheeducationof

athletes,itappearsthatthecoaches’approachisverysimilartotheresearchofJamieetal

(2015)andMoynihan(2010).Theresultsofbothstudiesdiscoveredthattheintervention

programsweresuccessfulineliminatingharmfulattitudestowardsexualviolenceandmore

respecttowardswomenintermsoftheirlanguageandactions(Jamieetal.,2015&Moynihan

etal,2010).

SimilartotheresearchofJamieetal.(2015),mostoftheparticipantsstatedthatthey

chosetopromoteamoreinclusiveenvironmentwhentalkingtotheirathletesandtalking

aboutopposingteams.Byinclusive,theywerereferringtonotusinglanguagethatinsults

womenormembersoftheLGBTcommunity.Thecoachesarguedthatusingsexistand

homophobiclanguagewasnotbeneficialtoimproveperformanceoftheirmaleathletesand

didnotallowthemtomodelacceptablebehaviourandactasamentorinfrontoftheir

athletes.ThisseemscontrarytotheanalysisofAdamsetal.(2010),Cron-Mills(2017)and

McDowell&Schaffner(2011)demonstratingthatsexistandhomophobiclanguagewasaway

topromoteviolenceandaggressiontowardstheirteammatesandopposingteams.Thefindings

ofthisresearchsuggestthatcoachessawthistypeoflanguageascounterproductivewith

respecttoathleteperformanceandbehavingwithinclusivityinmindoncampusandinthe

localcommunity.Tobebetterperformersinthesportingcontextandtoactasidealcitizens,

63

thecoachesstatedthattheychosetopromoteinclusivelanguageforthemselvesandtheir

athletes.

Thepositiveeffectofcoachesthroughmentorship,guidanceandrewardingpositive

behaviourdemonstratedinthisstudysupportsexistingresearch.Jamieson&Orr(2009),Laios

etal.(2003),Mastreleoetal.(2012)andSteinfeldtetal.(2011)allarguedintheirresearch,the

benefitsofcoaches’mentorshipandguidancetowardstheirathletesandtheirabilitytoteach

themaboutpreferredbehaviouralattributesandrespecttowardsothersonandoffthefield.

Thecoachesstatedthatmodellingpreferredbehaviourthemselvesininteractionwiththeir

athletes(e.g.notyellingsexistandhomophobiclanguageanddisplayingrespectfullanguage

towardswomen)wasakeywaytoshowthismentorshipandguidance.Somecoachesalso

statedthattheyrewardpositivebehaviouroftheirmaleathletesbypromotingexamplesofthis

behaviourinfrontoftheteamatpractice.Theysaidthattheywantedtousethispromotionof

behaviouraswaytomotivateotherathletesontheteamtobecomepositivecontributorson

campusandthecommunity.

Accordingtothecoachesparticipatinginthisstudy,boththeyandtheinstitutionwere

proactiveinmandatingviolencepreventionprogramstomodifythebehaviouroftheirmale

athletes.Thecoachesdescribedtheirhopethattheoutcomesoftheprogramswouldbe

consistentwiththefindingsofFlood(2011),inreferencetohavingmaleathleteswhoareless

likelytosupportrapemyths,havelessrapesupportiveattitudesandmoreempathytoward

femalevictimsofviolence.Flood(2011)demonstratedthatmenneedtoplayarolein

preventionofviolenceagainstwomen.Hestatesthatusinginterventionprograms,coachingto

64

modifybehavior,andinstitutionalchangescaneffectchangeinindividualathletes(Flood,

2011).Flood(2011)argues,forthesepreventionprogramstobesuccessful,thatcoachesneed

tohaveattitudesthatcomplywithanti-violencebehaviours.Thethemeofinfluencingathletes

identifiedinthisstudydemonstratesthesecoaches’awarenessthattheirathletesare

influentialinthisarea.

Thesefindingsextendthelimitedresearchofathletes’abilitytoinfluencetheircoach’s

behaviour.SimilartowhatAnderson&McGuire(2010)foundintheirstudyofmalerugby

players,thecoachesinterviewedinthisstudystatedthattheirathleteswereactivein

questioningthehomophobicandtoxicmasculinelanguageofthecoachtoensureamore

inclusiveenvironmentfortheplayers.Acoachadmittedthatbeinginclusivewasnotan

attributethathewasaccustomedtoduringhistimeasaplayerinthepast.Similartothe

research,thecoach’sbehaviourwasdeemedtobeoutofdatewiththeplayerstakingamore

inclusiveapproachtodevelopingtheirownsenseofmasculinitythatincludedcompassion

towardothersandfreefromdiscriminatorylanguage.

Aspirationalattributes.

ThrougheducationbytheUniversityofGuelphandoutsidesourcesaboutsexual

violenceandtheguidancebythecoach,coacheshopethattheirathleteswillbecomecitizens

whoadvocateagainstriskybehavioursuchasviolenceandnotviewsuchbehaviourasanactof

arealman.Thecoachesinthisstudyaspiredtocreateactivebystanderswhointervene.This

addressestheresearchbyBeisseletal.,(2014)whichdemonstratedthatthosewhowere

witnessedpartakinginriskybehaviourssuchasbeingsexuallydominantwithwomenandheavy

65

drinkingwereseenasrealandrelatablemen.Whilemaleathletesmayseethisbehaviouras

admirablewhentheywitnessateammateorfriendpartaking,someofthecoachesinthisstudy

statedtheirintentiontoinfluencetheirathletestointervenewhentheyarearoundotherswho

areengaginginthistypeofriskybehaviour.Similarly,thecoachesinthisstudyalsoaspiredto

supportthedevelopmentofempathyintheirmaleathletes,particularlyinresponsetothose

whomaysufferfromviolence.Asdescribedearlier,theyemphasizedthatpreventionprograms

andcoaches’mentorshipwereimportanttosupportingthisdevelopment.

Theappealforcoachestoimprovetheirownbehaviourtobemoreinclusiveseemsto

beneglectedintheliterature.Muchoftheexaminedcoachingbehaviourtendstofocustheuse

ofnegativelanguageandbehaviourtomotivatemaleathletes(Adamsetal.,2010;McDowell&

Schaffner,2013;Steinfeldtetal.,2011).However,inthisstudycoacheswantedtoimprove

theirownbehaviourinthefuturetocreateamoreinclusiveandopenenvironmentforalltheir

athletes.Coachessoughttoaccomplishthisthroughongoingeducationaboutthechanging

languageandsocietalnormsofaprogressivesociety.

Thefindingsofthisstudydonotdirectlyreferencehegemonicmasculinityasbeinga

contributingfactorinathletes’andcoaches’behaviour.Therewasnodirectreportofhowmale

partriarchy,thatbeingmaledominanceoverwomenandnon-masculinemales,wasaaccepted

normforcoachesorathletes.Mostcoachesrespondedbysayingthattheywantedtheir

athletestohavepositiverelationshipswithwomenandLGBTindividuals,andalsodictatedthat

theywantedthesetypeofrelationshipsforthemselvesascoaches.

66

Intersectionalitywasnothighlyreferencedintheinterviewsforthisstudy.References

tomarginalizedgroupswereusuallyinthecontextofsingularidentities.Thiswasarelatively

homogenousgroupofcoachesworkingwithmaleathletesprimarly.Thecampusand

surroundingcommunityisnotparticularlydiverseintermsofracializedstatesandclasscanbe

abarriertouniversityattendanceandparticipatinginvarsitysports.Theintersectionofthese

variousidentitiesandrelatedinfluencesofdiscriminationormarginalizationwerenotfocused

ontoanylargedegreeinthequestionorinterviewresponses.Thiswouldbeanimportant

extensionofthecurrentresearchinfutureinvestigations.

Theresultsofthisstudyareinmanywayscontradictorytopastresearch.Thismay

reflectseveralinfluences.Participant7arguedthatweliveinCanada,whichisveryacceptingof

diversity.MuchofthepreviousresearchhasbeenconductedintheUnitedStates,whichmay

haveasocietymorepronetochallengingdiversity.Forexample,theresearchofDenison&

Kitchen(2015)notedthatLGBTathleteswereveryuncomfortablecomingoutintheUnited

StatesandmostcomfortablecomingoutinCanada.Thiscurrentresearchstudywasalso

conductedattimewherethepoliticalclimateiscentredaroundthesensitivityofgender-

relatedissues,amuchdifferentclimatefromthecontextofpreviousresearch.The#MeToo

movementandthechallengingofgenderbinariesisveryevidentin2019NorthAmerican

society,andespeciallytheworkplace,sothiscouldhaveaffectedtheresponsesofthecoaches,

inthattheyrespondedinwhattheydeemedtobepoliticallyappropriateterms.Similarly,the

participantsmayberespondingwithsomebias,intendingtopleasetheinterviewerwhoisa

memberofUniversityofGuelphcampuscommunity.Theremayalsobeaperiodeffectinthe

participants’responsescomparedtothepreviousresearch.Someoftheparticipantswerefrom

67

acohortthathavemaybemoreeducatedingender-relatedissues,especiallyaroundthe

challengetogenderbinariesandmaybemorepronetoanswerinfavourofmoreinclusive

masculinity.Pastresearchwasconductedduringatimewhengenderwasnotbeingchallenged

inthesamewaysatasocietallevel,andwhencoachesweremorelikelytobefromacohort

withstrongeracceptanceoftraditionalmasculinity.TheUniversityofGuelphmayprovidea

moreinclusivecampusenvironmentandathleticcommunitythantheschoolswherepast

researchhasbeenconducted.Forexample,theuniversityhasstartedacampaigncalledShe’s

GotGamewhichisraisingmoneyforwomen’ssportsspecifically.Theyhaveacknowledgedthat

femalescholarshipsaremuchlessthanmalesportsbecauseofalumnimembersbeingmore

pronetodonatetomalesports.TheuniversityalsohasacampaigncampuswidecalledIama

Gryphon.Thiscampaignhasbeendesignedtoencouragerespect,engagementandcaringon

campusarounddiversityandmakingapositivecontributiononcampusandthecommunity.

Thefindingsofthisstudymakesomeuniquecontributionscomparedtoprevious

research.Itwassurprisingtolearnthatcoachestendedtochoosetocoachtheirathletestobe

goodpeople,ratherthandefinethembygenderormeasurethembyperformance.The

coachesdescribedtheneedtoinfluencetheirmaleathletesandthemselvestobemore

inclusiveintheirbehaviourinordertocreateasafeenvironmentontheteam.Thisisdistinctive

frompreviousliterature.Similarly,thetendencyforcoachestotalknegativelyaboutviolent

situationsthatanathletemayfindthemselvesinandtoserveasactivebystandersthat

intervenewasauniquefindingofthisstudy.

68

StrengthsandLimitations

Thisstudy’sstrengthscanbestatedasprovidingin-depthdatainanareacharacterized

bylimitedresearch.Thestudyexpandsonthescantresearchoninclusivemasculinityand

coaches’influenceonthebehaviourofmaleathletestoaddressharmfulaspectsoftraditional

masculinity.Thesemi-structuredinterviewsencouragedopenandsubjectiveconversationwith

theparticipants.Theparticipants’levelofcomfortallowedthem,inafewinstances,to

challengethequestions,andthiscontributestoakeyfindingrelatedtothecentralityof

definingmanliness.

Thelimitationsofthisstudyincludeitssmallsamplesizeandpotentialparticipantbias.

RecruitmenteffortsbenefittedfromthesupportoftheAthleticDepartment,butthesmall

samplereflectstherelativelysmallnumberofcoachingstaffattheUniversityofGuelph.

Originally18headcoacheswereapproachedbutonly7responded;recruitmentexpandedto

assistantcoaches,andtheresulting10participantsrepresentsarelativelyrobustsamplingof

thecoachesofmalevarsitysportsatthisuniversity.Thesampleofparticipantswasnotdiverse.

Allparticipantsweremale,Caucasianandpotentiallyfromsportsthatfavourinclusive

masculinityovertraditionalmasculinity.Whilereflectiveofthecurrentcoachingstaffforelite

maleathletesonthiscampus,futurestudiesthatincludeafemaleperspectiveandamore

diversegroupofcoacheswouldcontributetothediversityoftheresearchandbetter

understandingofadifferentperspectiveonmasculinity.Thecoachesthatdidparticipatemay

havebeenfromsportsthatalreadyacceptedidealsofamoreinclusiveteamthatsupported

samesexorientationandanti-violenceintiatives.Theseprogramsmaybemoreinclusive

69

becauseoftheirinvolvementwithinclusiveprogramsoncampus(e.g.anti-violenceagainst

womeninitiatives)orgamenightsthatpromoteprogressiveprograms(e.g.PrideNight).The

coachesthatmayhavenotacceptedthistypeofmasculinitymayhavebeendeterredtoaccept

participationinthestudy.

Therewaspotentialbiasintheresponseoftheparticipants.Thechallengethe

participantshadinansweringthedefinitionofmanlinessmayhavebeenresultoftryingto

configuretheirresponsesinasociallyapprovedmannertoreflectthemoralsofcampusand

society.TheUniversityofGuelphisknowntobeaveryinclusivecampussurroundingissuesof

genderandsexuality,andthereforecoachesmayhavebeenreluctanttoreporttheirtrue

opinionsaboutmasculinitytotheresearcherforfearofrepercussionsfromthedepartment.

Similarly,thecurrentpoliticalenvironmentinCanadaisveryfocusedoneliminating

toxic/traditionalmasculinityfromsocietaldiscourseandsocialinstitutions,andthiscouldhave

ledtotheparticipantsansweringthequestionsinasociallyacceptablemanner.Theymayalso

havebeenreluctanttoanswertruthfullybecauseofmyroleoncampusasanemployeeand

volunteer,andtherelationshipIhavewithleadingadministratorsinmanydepartments.

AreasforFutureResearch

Futureresearchintheareaofinclusivemasculinityandcoaches’influenceonmale

athletescouldbeextendedinatleastthreeareas.Firstly,furtherexplorationandanalysiscould

bedoneofthepositivedirectactionsoftheathleteswhowereinfluencedbytheircoachesand

reflectonthebehaviourthatisoccurringpresently,andnotjustaspirationalbehaviour.This

couldbedonethroughmoresemi-structuredinterviewsofcoacheswhowitnesspositive

70

behavioursofmaleathletesintheirprograms.Questionsspecificallyaskingwhattheyare

specificallyseeingandhearingfromtheirathletesintermsoftheirbehaviourwouldbe

beneficialinaccomplishingthisintheinterview.Coachescouldelaborateontheresearchof

Flood(2011)anddetailtheobservedbehavioursoftheirmaleathletesbeingsupportiveand

empathetictowomenandnon-masculinemen.

Futureresearchers,aftermoreinclusiveandpositivebehavioursofmaleathletesare

seenbycoaches,couldbebetterpreparedtoaskcoacheshowtheyassesstheoutcomesof

theirstrategiestoinfluencebehaviour.Coachesinthisstudytendedtobereluctanttoanswer

whattheobservableoutcomesoftheirathletesbehaviourwerebecausetheyhadyettosee

anythingthatcouldbemeasurable.Futurestudieswithcoacheswhoaremoreinclusiveintheir

influencewiththeirathletes’beahaviourandhavemoreyearsofbeingproavctivewith

educationalprogramsaroundsexualviolencecouldexpandontheresearchofMoynihanetal.

(2010).Measuringathletes’responsestorapemythsandbeingsupportivetowomencouldbe

anevaluativeprocesstoexamineifacoach’sinfluenceisworkingtomodifythebehaviourof

theirmaleathletes.Similarly,questionssurroundingwhattheyseeorhearfromtheirathletes

pertainingtothecoaches’influencewouldassistintheevaluationonwhatstrategiesare

successful.

Futureresearchcouldelaborateonwhycoachesarebeingmoreinclusivearoundtheir

athletes.Thisstudydidnotelaborateonwhythereseemstobeacultureofinclusivenesson

thiscampusandtheathleticdepartment.Futureresearchcouldhavequestionsexpandingon

whethertherearesocialorinstitutionalpressurestobemoreinclusive.Similarly,expandingon

71

theideasfromthisstudythatcoacheshaveexaminedtheirownbehaviourtobebetter

mentorstotheirathletestopromotepositiveandinclusivebehaviourwouldbeanareathat

seemstohaveanopportunityfororiginalresearch.Researchansweringwhytheyhavechanged

theirownbehaviourandwhatcircumstanceshaveleduptothischangewouldbeanew

researchareaonmasculinity.

Lastly,morein-depthquestioningwithcoachesinasemi-structuredinterviewswould

allowfordeeperanalysisoncoaches’perspectiveontraditionalandinclusivemasculinity.This

wastheresearcher’sfirstoccurrenceinterviewingparticipantsandassuchhemayhavenot

beenin-depthinaskingprobingquestionsaboutthesubject.Asthenumberofinterviews

increased,theabilitytoprobeformorein-depthanswersfromtheparticipantswasachievedby

theresearcher.

ImplicationsandConclusion

Thisresearchwillcontributefindingstothegapintheresearchwithrespecttoideas

aboutinclusivemasculinityandaddressingharmfulaspectsoftraditionalmasculinitiesinsome

maleathletes.Thepreviousliteraturehasgenerallyfoundtheacceptanceoftraditional

masculinitybysocialinstitutions,coachesandathletes.Thefindingsofthisresearchexpanded

ontherecentliteratureininclusivemasculinitybyillustratingthatproactiveprogramsand

coaches’influencecanhelpmaleathletesdevelopempathyandbemoresupportivetowards

womenandnon-masculinemales.Thesefindingsprovidedirectionformaleathletesthrough

theircoaches’influence,tobegoodpeopleandbemoreopentoinclusiveenvironmentson

theirteambyprovidingasafespaceforthosewhomaynotbemasculinemales.

72

Thisstudy’scontributionsofknowledgeandappliedpracticeofcoachesbeingproactive

withanti-sexualviolenceinitiatives,beingmentorstotheirathletes,andevolvingtheirown

beliefsoninclusivityprovidessuggestedinterventionsand/orresponsestocoachesorthosein

mentoringpositionswithmaleathletesintheareaofpositiveandinclusivemasculinity.These

findingsexpandonexistingresearchtohighlightthatcoacheshaveamajorinfluenceontheir

athletes’behaviour.Asnotedinthisstudy,coachescancontributetothedevelopmentof

empathyandsupportforwomenandothers,bybeingproactiveincurbingviolentactionsand

creatinggoodcitizens.

Theresultsofthisresearchwillcontributetothedesignoffuturestudiesthatwill

expanduponthefindingsofthisstudy.Futureresearchonempatheticandsupportiveathletes,

thecreationofinclusiveandsafeenvironments,andthemajorinfluenceofmaleathlete

coachesfoundinthisstudyprovidesknowledgethatcanbeexpandedupontolearnwhat

messageinfluencesmaleathletestobehavepositivelyoncampusandinthecommunity.

Knowledgemobilizationfromthisresearchcouldbedirectedatsharinginformation

aboutthesefindingsofcoachesdescribinghowtheywantedtocreategoodpeoplethrough

theirinfluencetocreateempathy,supportiveattitudes,inclusivityandotherformsofpositive

behaviour.Knowledgemobilizationwillinvolvesharingtheresultsofthisthesiswithallthe

coachesattheUniversityofGuelphandotherathleticadministrationsinthearea,potentially

presentingatconferences,andpublishinganarticleinanacademicjournalrelatedtosportsor

gender.Thesefindingswillassistintheknowledgeofhowcoachescanreflectontheirown

behaviourandinfluence,andhowtocreateamoreinclusiveenvironmentontheirteamsas

73

notedinthisstudy.Suchinformation-sharingofsubjectiveexperienceandcoachingintentions

fromthisstudycouldencouragecurrentandfuturecoachestofosterpositiveattitudesand

behaviourswithmaleathletesinhighschooloruniversity,amateur,andprofessionalteam

settings.

74

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83

AppendixI

InterviewGuide

I’mgoingtobeginbyaskingaboutyourathletes….

1. Whatdoyouseeorhearfromthemaleathletesyouworkwithpertainingtotheirdefinitionof“beingaman”?

• Canyougivemeaspecificexampleofhowathletestellyouthat(toughness,forexample)ispartofbeingaman?Arethereotherwaystheytellyouthis?

• Canyougivemeanexampleofwhatyouseeathletesdothatshowsyouthat(toughness,forexample)ispartofbeingaman?Arethereotherwaystheyshowyouthis?

• Arethereotheraspectsof‘beingaman’thatathletestellyouorshowyoulessoften?

• (possible)doyouthink“beingaman”issomethingtheyeventhinkaboutorseeasimportant?

Now,I’mgoingtoaskaboutyouasacoach…

2. Asacoach,whatinfluencedoyouthinkyouhave,ifany,ininfluencingyourathletes’behaviourorattitudes?

• Canyougivemeaspecificexampleofhowyouhavethisinfluence?• Howdoyouknowthatyourwords/actionshaveaninfluence?(whatdoyousee,hearfromathletes,others?)

• Arethereotheraspectsofyourownlifethathaveshiftedyourviewsovertime(orwhatyoudo/say)?

3. Whatdoyouconsidertobehealthybehavioursorpositiveattitudesabout“beingaman”?(Yourownviews)

a) Howdoyoupromotehealthyandpositivebehavioursandattitudesasamalevarsitycoach?

• Canyougivemeaspecificexampleofhowyoudothis?Whatelsedoyoudo?4. Whatdoyouconsidertobenegativeattitudesandbehavioursformaleathletes?(Yourown

views)a) Howdoyouaddressnegativeattitudesandbehavioursofyourmaleathletes?

• Canyougivemeaspecificexampleofhowyoudothis?Whatelsedoyoudo?

Finally,Iwanttoaskyouaboutprogramming…

5. Aretherespecificprograms(e.g.,anti-sexualviolencetraining)thatyouorsomeoneelseonthecoachingstaffdeliverstoyourmaleathletestoinfluencetheirattitudesandbehaviours?

a) Ifyes…• whatarethese,wheredidyougetthem,howlonghaveyouusedthem?

84

• Deliveredbyyouorsomeoneelse–ifsomeoneelse,whoisthatandwhatistheirtraining?

• Whatistheprimaryintentormessageoftheprogram.b) Ifno,whatguidesyourcoachingpracticeintheareaofmasculinity(ifthisisanareayou

focuson)?• Intheabsenceofprogram,whatdoyoudo/say?• Whatisyourmessage?• When,howdoyoudeliverit?

c) Whatindicatorsdoyoulookfortoindicatewhetheryoureffortstoinfluencebehaviourareworking?

• Howdoyouknowwhatyou’redoingiseffective?Whatdoyoulookfor?• Intheabsenceofsomethingyoucanseeorhear,whatkeepsyoudoingwhatyou’redoing?

• If“hope,forexample”iswhatkeepsyoudoingwhatyou’redoing,canyoudescribewhatthat“hope”isbasedon?

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AppendixII

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AppendixIII

InterviewRecruitmentMessage

FamilyRelationsAppliedNutrition[FRAN]GraduateResearchThesis

Student’sProjectTitle:Coaches’Influence:Addressingmaleathletes’behaviourandattitudesabout“beingaman”

DearUniversityofGuelphMaleVarsityCoach,

MynameisCurtisHolmes,andIamagraduatestudentintheDepartmentofFamilyRelationsandAppliedNutrition[FRAN]attheUniversityofGuelph.YouareinvitedtotakepartinmyMasters’thesisresearchstudyingcoaches’perspectivesandexperiencesinattemptingtopromoteinclusive/positivemasculinitieswithmaleathletes.Dr.LyndaAshbourneismyadvisorandtheleadinvestigatorforthisMScthesisresearch.

Thepurposeofthismessageistoprovideyouwithinformationyourequiretomakeaninformeddecisiononparticipatinginthisresearch.

ThisstudywillbeconductedattheendoftheWinter2018andbeginningoftheSummer2018semester.IamlookingfortwelvetofifteenparticipantswhoaremalevarsitycoachesattheUniversityofGuelph.Participationwillinvolveapproximately1.5hours,duringwhichtimeIwillinterviewwillberecordedandtranscribed,andwillhaveanopportunitytoreviewthetranscriptfollowingtheinterview.Thedatacollectedfromthesesemi-structuredinterviewswillbeusedinmyanalysisformyFRANgraduatethesis.

Ifyouareinterestinparticipatinginthisresearch,pleaseemailme.IamplanningtocompletemyinterviewsbytheendofMay.Participationinthisresearchisvoluntary,andwillnotaffectmyabilitytograduateifyoudecidethatyoudonotwanttoparticipate,ordecidetowithdrawpartwaythroughthestudy.Shouldyouhaveanyquestionsregardingtheresearch,pleasecontactme.

Sincerely,

CurtisHolmes

[email protected]

StudentInvestigator:CurtisHolmes,MScCandidate,DepartmentofFamilyRelationAppliedNutritionUniversityofGuelph

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Shouldyouhaveconcernsregardingthisresearch,pleasecontact:

PrincipalInvestigator/FacultyInstructor/Supervisor:Dr.LyndaAshbourne,AssociateProfessor,DepartmentofFamilyRelationsAppliedNutrition,UniversityofGuelph,[email protected],519-824-4120ext.54237.

REB17-12-022

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AppendixIV

LetterofInformationandConsent

YouareinvitedtotakepartinaUniversityofGuelphmaster’sthesisprojectonmalevarsitycoaches’viewofmasculinityintheirathletes.

Thepurposeofthisletteristoprovideyou,asthesubject,theinformationneededtoallowyoutomakeaninformeddecisiononyourparticipationofthisresearchproject.

PurposeofResearch

Thepurposeofthisresearchistoprovidedataforamaster’sstudent’sthesisintheFamilyRelationsandHumanDevelopment(FRHD)program.Theresearchwillexaminemalevarsitycoaches’perspectivesandexperiencesinattemptinginterventionsdirectedatpromotinginclusive/positivemasculinitiesintheirmaleathletesattheUniversityofGuelph.Inaddition,thisstudywillexaminehowcoachesmaybeinterveningwithrespecttowhattheyconsidertobeharmfulandriskybehavioursoftheirmaleathletes

TheResearchers

PrincipalInvestigator:Dr.LyndaAshbourne,DepartmentofFamilyRelationsAppliedNutrition,UniversityofGuelph,[email protected],(519)824-4120extension54237

StudentInvestigator:CurtisHolmes,Master’sStudentintheDepartmentofFamilyRelationsAppliedNutrition,UniversityofGuelph,[email protected],(519)835-7257.

IamaMScMaster’sStudentintheDepartmentofFamilyRelationsAppliedNutritionandIwillbecollectingdataformymaster’sthesiswhichissupervisedbyDr.LyndaAshbourne.

Ifyouhaveanyquestionsorconcerns,pleasecontacttheprincipalinvestigator,Dr.LyndaAshbourne.

InclusionandExclusionCriteria

YouarereceivingthisinvitationduetoyourpositionattheUniversityofGuelphasamalevarsitysportcoach.Ifyouarebelowtheageof18and/ornotamalevarsitysportcoachattheUniversityofGuelphyouarenoteligibletoparticipateinthisstudy.

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Procedures

Ifyouagreetoparticipateinthisstudy,Iwillaskyoutodothefollowing:

WewillmeetontheUniversityofGuelphcampusinalocationofyourchoosingwherewewilldiscussyourviewsofhealthyandpositivebehavioursandattitudesaboutmasculinity(‘beingaman’)thataredemonstratedbyyourathletes.Wewilldiscusshowyoupromotethese.Wewillalsodiscussyourviewsofunhealthyandnegativebehavioursandattitudeslinkedtomasculinityandhowyouaddressthesewithyourathletes.Theinterviewwillbeapproximately1hourinlengthandwillbeaudiorecordedonanencryptedaudiodevice.

Theinterviewwillconsistofopen-endedquestionsandyouarefreetorefuseansweringanyquestionsofyourchoosing.

Aftertheinterviewandtranscriptionofthedatacollected,youwillbesentacopyofthetranscripttoensureyourcommentsfromtheinterviewareaccurate.

Aftercompletionofthedataanalysisandwritingofthesis,youwillbeprovidedwithasummaryoftheinterviewresultsfromalltheparticipantswithallidentifiersandnamesdeleted.

PotentialRisksandDiscomforts

Therewillbenomorethanminimalrisksfortheparticipationofthisstudy.Youcanchoosetonotansweranyquestionsduringtheinterview.However,answerstosomeoftheinterviewquestionsmaynegativelyaffectyourself-imageandreputationifnamesandidentifierswerereleased.Thepotentialofyouridentitybeingidentifiedwillbeminimalandeveryeffortwillbemadebytheresearcherstoensureyouridentityremainsprivateandconfidential.

Thisstudywillinvolvesomesensitive,butnon-incriminatingquestions.Therewillbenodeceptionorphysicallyinvasivecontactoftheparticipantsforthisstudy.

PotentialBenefitstoParticipantsand/orSociety

Therearenodirectbenefitstotheparticipants.

Thisresearchhaspotentialbenefitstothecoachingdisciplinethroughincreasedknowledgebasedontheexperienceofalloftheparticipants.Thiscanusedtodeveloptrainingopportunitiesforathleticdepartmentsinuniversitysettingstoimprovebehaviourandrelationshipsofmaleathletes.

Thisresearchhaspotentialbenefitstosocietybecauseitcouldleadtoearlyinterventionandpreventioninareasofpositiverelationshipswithwomen,theLGBTcommunityandtraditionallynon-masculinemales.Thisresearchcouldhelpinthepreventionofviolenceanddiscriminationinthecommunityandtheincreasedacceptanceofinclusivebehavioursinmales.

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PaymentforParticipation

Asathankyouforyourparticipationinthestudy,youwillbepresentedwitha$10UniversityofGuelphHospitalitygiftcard.

Confidentiality

Everyeffortwillbemadetoensureyouridentityandnamewillremainconfidentialfromtheinformationyouprovideinconnectiontothisstudy.

Yournamewillbereplacedwithanumericcodeinthedataandinmythesis.Listingofthenamesandnumericcodeswillremainseparatedinlockedcabinets.Interviewswillberecodedonanencryptedaudiodigitalrecorder.Thedigitalrecordingwillbetransferredtomyencrypted,passwordprotectedlaptopthatonlyIhaveaccesstoduringandafterthestudy.Individualtranscriptswillbeemailedtoyouwithnoidentifierspresentandwillbeemailedtoyouonlytoensureconfidentiality.Idointendtousedirectquotesfromtheinterviews,butallidentifiablematerialwillbeerased.Whentheresearchiscompleteandthethesisiswrittenandpresented,thedatawillbeprotectedinalockedcabinetoncampuswithaccessonlyavailabletotheprincipalinvestigatorandmeattheUniversityofGuelph.

Whiletheresearchteamwilltakecaretoremoveanyinformationwhichmightidentifyyou,beawarethatbecausethereareonlyafewmalecoachesattheUniversity,andbecauseyouknoweachother,othersmightfeeltheycanidentifyinformationyouprovided.

Theresultsofthestudywillbepublishedandpresentedwithoutyournameoranyidentifiersandyouridentitywillnotbedisclosedwithoutyourpermissiontodisclose.

ParticipationandWithdrawal

Participationinthisstudyisvoluntary.Youmayrefusetoparticipateinthestudy,declinetoansweranyquestionorwithdrawfromtheinterviewatanytimewithnoeffectonyourpositionattheUniversityofGuelphAthleticDepartment.Youhavetheopportunitytowithdrawyourinformationfromthestudyandcollectionofdatafor2weeksaftertheinterview.Afterthistimeperiod,itmaybechallengingtoremovetheinformationfromthedatacollectionbecausetheinformationwillbegintobedisseminated.Towithdrawfromthestudy,pleasecontactthestudentinvestigatortohaveyourdataremovedfromthecollectionofdata.

ResearchResults

Theresultsofthisstudywillbeincludedinmy,CurtisHolmes’,master’sthesisforgraduationintheFamilyRelationsAppliedNutritionDepartment.Thisstudywillbepublishedandwillbepresentedatmydefensein2018.Thisresearchmayalsobepresentedatacademicconferencesorpublishedinpeer-reviewedacademicjournalsinthefuture.

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EthicsClearance

ThisprojecthasbeenreviewedbytheethicsResearchethicsBoardsforcompliancewithfederalguidelinesforresearchforresearchinvolvinghumanparticipants.

Pleasenotethatconfidentialitycannotbeguaranteedwhiledataareintransit.

Youdonotwaiveanylegalrightsbyagreeingtotakepartinthisstudy

Ifyouhavequestionsregardingyourrightsandwelfareasaresearchparticipantinthisstudy(REB#17-12-022),pleasecontactDirector,ResearchEthics;UniversityofGuelph;[email protected];(519)824-4120(ext56606).

SignatureofResearchParticipant

Ihavereadtheinformationforthestudy“Coaches’Influence:AddressingMaleAthletes’BehaviourandAttitudesabout“BeingaMan”asdescribedabove.MyquestionshavebeenansweredtomysatisfactionandIagreetoparticipateinthisstudy.Ihavebeenacopyofthisletterofinformationandconsentform.

Iagreeofmyownfreewilltoparticipateinthestudy.

Participant’sname:__________________________

Participant’ssignature:_______________________ Date:___________________

Researcher’ssignature:_______________________ Date:____________________

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