CMOS Imaging Detectors as X-ray Detectors for Synchrotron
Radiation Experiments
Naoto Yagi, Masaki Yamamoto*, Kentaro Uesugi and Katsuaki
Inoue
SPring-8/JASRI, Mikazuki, Sayo, Hyogo, 679-5198, Japan.
*SPring-8/RIKEN, Mikazuki, Sayo, Hyogo, 679-5198, Japan.
Abstract. CMOS imagers are matrix-addressed photodiode arrays,
which have been utilized in devices such as commercially available
digital cameras. The pixel size of CMOS imagers is usually larger
than that of CCD and smaller than that of TFT, giving them a unique
position. Although CMOS x-ray imaging devices have already become
commercially available, they have not been used as an x-ray area
detector in synchrotron radiation experiments. We tested
performance of a CMOS detector from Rad-icon (Shad-o-Box1024) in
medical imaging, small-angle scattering, and protein
crystallography experiments. It has pixels of 0.048 mm square,
read-out time of 0.45 sec, 12-bit ADC, and requires a frame grabber
for image acquisition. The detection area is 5-cm square. It uses a
Kodak Min-R scintillator screen as a phosphor. The sensitivity to
x-rays with an energy less than 15 keV was low because of the thick
window materials. Since the readout noise is high, the dynamic
range is limited to 2000. The biggest advantages of this detector
are cost-effectiveness (about 10,000 US dollars) and compactness
(thickness < 3 cm, weight < 2 kg).
INTRODUCTION
Owing to the recent spectacular development in the digital
imaging technology, solid-state technology is getting more widely
utilized in x-ray detectors for synchrotron radiation. CCD
(charge-coupled device) imagers are already commonly used in
diffraction studies and high-resolution imaging experiments.
However, CCD has a limitation that the pixel size is small
(typically < 30 µm), easily damaged by x-rays, and the readout
is slow due to its charge-transporting method. Most utilized CCD
detectors in synchrotron radiation experiments are with a tapered
optical fiber for protein crystallography, or with indirect
lens-coupling for high-resolution imaging.
Another type of digital imaging device is an amorphous silicon
imager which is a photodiode array with an active TFT (thin-film
transistor) matrix readout. It can be very large (more than 20 cm),
and its sensitivity can be enhanced by the use of amorphous
selenium as a converting media of x-ray photons to electrons.
However, it has limitations in both resolution (typically > 100
µm) and high noise due to the property of the amorphous silicon
semiconductor. Although this type of detector has been
commercialized for medical imaging, it has not been used in
quantitative x-ray diffraction or imaging experiments.
CMOS (complementary metal-oxide semiconductor) flatpanel imagers
are also matrix-addressed photodiode arrays. Compared with the TFT
imagers, this type of detectors has an advantage that the pixel
size can be smaller (as small as in CCD). Since most of
applications in the synchrotron radiation experiments, especially
those at the third generation facilities, require high resolution,
CMOS imagers seem to be a promising new technology.
We have tested a CMOS flatpanel imager in various synchrotron
radiation experiments at SPring-8. Although the presently available
products have higher noise than the detectors that are currently
used for these experiments, the large area and low cost make the
CMOS imagers an attractive option.
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METHODS AND RESULTS
CMOS imager
The CMOS imaging detector we tested was purchased from Rad-icon
Imaging company (CA, USA, http://www.rad-icon.com/). It is called
“Shad-o-Box1024”, which is made of two 512×1024 CMOS devices
(“RadEye”). The nominal specifications quoted by Rad-icon Imaging
Corp. are:
Dark current (23ºC) : 8 ADU/sec (ADU means one unit of the
output of the analog-to-digital converter) Read noise (rms) : <
1 ADU Conversion gain : 500 e-/ADU Pixel size : 48 micron square
Readout period : 440 msec ADC : 12 bits Scintillator screen : Kodak
Min-R Medium (Green phosphor, Gd2O2S:Tb)
It was supplied with an Imagenation PXD1000 frame grabber board
and software (“ShadoCam”). In order to obtain accurate exposure
time, we developed a software to control an x-ray shutter and the
detector.
Example of images
Figure 1 (left) is an image of a head of a rat. It was
normalized with a direct beam without the specimen. The
specimen-to-detector distance was 7m to obtain an edge-enhance
effect due to refraction of x-rays. Details of the nasal bones and
whiskers can be observed with clarity. The dark vertical line is a
gap between the two segments.
Figure 1 (right) is a diffraction pattern from a single crystal
of lysozyme. The resolution is high enough to resolve diffraction
spots. A similar number of reflections were observed using ADSC
Quantum 4R, showing that the sensitivity is high enough for the
data collection. Vertical horizontal dark lines are defects in the
detector.
FIGURE 1. Left: A far field image of a head of a rat, recorded
at BL20B2 [1] with an x-ray energy of 20 keV. The exposure time was
200 msec with a flux of about 2×107 cps/mm2. The actual size was 28
mm × 18 mm. The upper 1/3 of the image had lower x-ray flux, which
caused higher background noise after normalization with the direct
beam. Right: An x-ray diffraction pattern from a lysozyme crystal,
recorded at BL38B1. The x-ray energy was 18 keV.
Specimen-to-detector distance was 75 mm. The exposure time was 5
sec with an oscillation angle of 0.5 degrees Dark current was
subtracted from the image. The entire image is shown.
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FIGURE 2. Left: An x-ray diffraction pattern from a dried tendon
of chicken recorded at BL40XU in SPring-8 [2]. The x-ray energy was
12.4 keV and the energy bandpass was 2 %. Specimen-to-detector
distance was 2.8 m. The exposure time was 2 sec with a flux of
about 2×1012 cps. Dark current was subtracted from the image.
Right: a one-pixel horizontal section in the central portion of the
pattern on the left.
An x-ray diffraction pattern from a dried tendon of chicken is
shown in Figure 2 (left). A series of reflections
from collagen, which can be indexed on the first four orders of
the 65-nm periodicity, can be observed. Figure 2 (right) shows a
one-pixel horizontal section of this diffraction pattern.
Background between reflections is not smooth because of the readout
noise in the detector.
Noise and dark current
Two 6700-msec blank exposures were made and the difference
between them was calculated pixel by pixel. In the whole area, the
average difference was 0.062 ADU with a standard deviation of 0.857
ADU. This corresponds to the practical noise in the detector that
remains after dark subtraction. This value is consistent with that
quoted in the specification (< 1 ADU). The intensity fluctuation
seen in an actual image (Figure 2b) is due to both the readout
noise and quantum variation in the number of x-ray photons.
Dark current was measured in blank exposures of various time
between 1 and 6700 msec at 25 ºC. The dark current was found to
increase by 6 ADU/sec. This is also close to the value quoted in
the specification (8 ADU/sec at 23 ºC).
Uniformity of sensitivity was measured by moving the detector
across an x-ray beam at a constant speed. The variation in the
response was about 1 %, which is within the range of quantum
fluctuation in the number of photons.
Spatial resolution and conversion gain
Figure 3 (left) shows a modulation transfer function MTF
measured using a strip chart of various widths, which was made of
0.05mm lead. For each width, several line-and-space patterns were
repeated. From the projectiong image of the pattern, MTF was
calculated as
MTF = (Ibright - Idark)/(Ibright + Idark) where Ibright is the
maximum pixel value in the area of slits and Idark is that between
slits. The results in Figure 3 agrees well with the reported result
[3].
Figure 3 (right) is the conversion gain measured at BL20B2. The
x-ray flux was measured by an ionization chamber (S1194B1, Oken,
Tokyo, Japan), which was filled by air, and the number of photons
was calculated using mass-energy attenuation coefficient. The
conversion gain is low at 15 keV, showing considerable loss due to
absorption by the window material (amorphous carbon) and the
envelope material for the scintillator.
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FIGURE 3. Left: Modulation transfer function measured at BL20B2
with an x-ray energy of 20 keV. Right: Conversion gain obtained at
BL20B2.
Radiation damage
A permanent increase in the dark current was found after an
exposure of a few Gy at 20 keV(2×107 cps/mm2 for about 10 min).
Thus, it is necessary to avoid excessive exposure to strong
x-rays.
CONCLUSIONS
The results in the present tests show that the CMOS flatpanel
detector is already a fairly mature technology that can be used in
synchrotron radiation experiments. In order to obtain a
quantitative image, it is necessary to correct an image for (1)
dark current, (2) defect pixels. These are common with CCD-based
detectors. Since the defect pixels are invariable with each
detector, correction can be made based on calibration data. As the
dark current may depend on the temperature, it is recommendable to
record a dark image before or after each exposure.
CMOS flatpanel detectors with an area larger than the one tested
here are already available from Rad-icon Corp. and Hamamatsu
Photonics K.K. The readout noise is lower in new products. Thus, it
is possible that CMOS detectors will have a detection area and
noise level similar to those in the CCD-based detectors in future.
The problem of radiation damage may not be significant with
low-energy x-rays that are mostly absorbed by the scintillator, but
should be addressed as a serious problem with high-energy
x-rays.
Currently, the biggest advantages of the CMOS imager are its
compactness and low cost. Since Shad-o-Box1024 weighs only less
than 2 kg, it can be easily mounted anywhere in an experimental
setup. For instance, it can be mounted on a goniometer arm. Also,
as it is only 3 cm in thickness, it can fit into a narrow space
where no other imaging detector can enter.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We thank Dr. Keiko Miura for help in the tests at BL38B1, which
were made with the approval of R&D Beamline Program Committee
of SPring-8.
REFERENCES
1. Goto, S., Takeshita, K., Suzuki, Y., Ohashi, H., Asano, Y.,
Kimura, H., Matsushita, T., Yagi, N., Isshiki, M., Yamazaki, H.,
Yoneda, Y., Umetani, K., and Ishikawa, T. Nucl. Instrum. and Meth.
A467-468, 682-685 (2001).
2. Inoue, K., Oka, T., Suzuki, T., Yagi, N., Takeshita, K.,
Goto, S., and Ishikawa, T. Nucl. Instrum. and Meth. A467-468,
674-677 (2001).
3. Graeve, T., and Weckler, G. P., SPIE Proceeding 4320
(2001).
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Welcome ScreenPrevious ProceedingsTitle
PageCopyrightPrefaceContentsCHAPTER 1: CONFERENCE
SUMMARYSynchrotron Light of the Third and Fourth Generation — How
to Fill the Generation Gap
CHAPTER 2: RADIATION SOURCESNegative Alpha-p Operation at
NewSUBARUThe Synchrotron Light Life Science Center Granted by the
MEXT 21st Century COE ProgramAnalysis of the Orbit Distortion by
the Use of the Wavelet TransformA New Synchrotron Radiation
Facility Project of the University of TokyoSub-Picosecond X-Rays
from CEBAF at Jefferson LabStatus of PF-ARThe Present Status of
Siam Photon LaboratorySource Size and Angular Divergence of Wiggler
RadiationSESAME, a 3rd Generation Synchrotron Light Source for the
Middle EastConstruction and Commissioning of UVSOR-IIRF
Synchronized Injection from SPring-8 Linac to NewSUBARU Storage
RingQuasi-Isochronus Operation at NewSUBARUStatus and Prospects of
User Applications of the UVSOR Storage Ring Free Electron
LaserElliptically Polarised Soft X-Rays Produced Using a Local Bump
in MAX II — Characterisation of the Degree of PolarisationDesign of
an Injector of Super SOR RingPETRA III: A New High Brilliance
Synchrotron Radiation Source at DESYStatus of the Synchrotron Light
Source DELTAThe DA(phi)NE-Light FacilityStatus Report on the
Brazilian Synchrotron Radiation LaboratoryPreliminary Design
Efforts of the X-Ray SASE at PALThe 4GLS Project: Update and
Technological ChallengesDesign of the Bending Arcs for
4GLSAccelerator Physical Issues of PETRA III — A New Low Emittance
Light SourceLattice Design of Super SORCurrent Status of the
Synchrotron Radiation CenterThe MIT X-Ray Laser ProjectX-Ray FEL
Project at SPring-8 JapanLUX — A Recirculating Linac-Based
Ultrafast X-Ray SourceKharkov X-Ray Generator Based on Compton
Scattering3D Magnetic Field Effects in an NSC KIPT Compact Intense
X-Ray GeneratorIntegrated Photon Source Project at Tohoku
UniversityCIRCE: A Ring-Based Source of Coherent Synchrotron
RadiationFundamentals of Coherent Synchrotron Radiation in Storage
RingsThe Advanced Light Source UpgradeFuture Storage Ring
Synchrotron SourcesConcepts and Applications of Energy Recovery
Linacs (ERLs)The Magnet Lattice of the MAX IV Storage RingsNew
Upgrade Project for the Photon Factory Storage Ring
CHAPTER 3 UNDULATORS AND WIGGLERSIntroduction of the High
Radiation Resistance of Undulator MagnetImprovement of Radiation
Resistance of NdFeB Magnets by Thermal TreatmentDevelopment of
In-Vacuum Revolver UndulatorOptimization of the Emitted Spectrum of
a Superconductive Undulator by Correction Coils and Preparation for
a Storage Ring Test in ANKAConstruction and Tests of the 49-Pole
3.5 Tesla Superconducting Wiggler for ELETTRA Storage RingLinear
Polarization Measurements of Soft X-Ray Emitted from a Figure-8
Undulator by Using MultilayersFast Helicity Switching of Circularly
Polarized Light Using Twin Helical UndulatorsDesign Concept of
Superconducting Multipole Wiggler with Variably Polarized
X-RayConstruction and Performance of a Superconducting Multipole
WigglerDevelopment of Multi-Polarization-Mode UndulatorNew Designs
of Polarized Electromagnetic Undulators at SOLEILDesign and
Construction of a New Multipole Wiggler (MPW#05) at the Photon
FactoryUndulators for the BESSY SASE-FEL ProjectThe MAX-Wiggler:
Design, Construction and Commissioning of a 3.5 T Superconducting
Wiggler with 47 polesSuperconductive Mini-Gap Undulators — A New
Way to High Energy Photons: Latest NewsDevelopment of the
Short-Period Undulator for the X-Ray FEL Project at
SPring-8Improvement of Crossed Undulator for Higher Degree of
PolarizationConstruction of Two New In-Vacuum Type Tapered
Undulators for the PF-ARPolarization Control by a New Arrangement
of Undulator MagnetsPolarization Property Measurement of the Long
Undulator Radiation Using Cr/C Multilayer Polarization ElementsBeam
Based Search for Linear Imperfection Fields in 11 m Long Undulator
at NewSUBARUDevelopment of 14 cm Period Wiggler at PLSDesign and
Performance of an X-Ray Undulator Beamline PF-AR-NW2In-Vacuum
Undulators in UVSOR Electron Storage RingA Compact Damping Wiggler
for the PETRA III Light SourcePolarization Measurements of Soft
X-Ray Emitted from the Figure-8 UndulatorThe NSLS X13 Mini-Gap
Undulator: Design and PerformanceVariable-Period Undulators — A
Potential Source for Storage Ring, ERL and FEL
ApplicationsConceptual Design for Superconducting Planar Helical
UndulatorRadiation Damages on Permanent Magnets: Challenges for the
Future Light SourcesA Four-Motor Insertion Device Control System at
the Advanced Photon SourceMeasurement of the Orbit Fluctuation
Caused by an Insertion Device with the Amplitude Modulation
MethodNbTi and Nb3Sn Superconducting Undulator Designs
CHAPTER 4 BEAMLINESDesign of the Extended X-Ray Absorption Fine
Structure (EXAFS) Beam-Line at INDUS-II Synchrotron SourceAn
Undulator-Wiggler Beamline for Spectromicroscopy at SRCThe
Russian-German Soft X-Ray Beamline at BESSY IILUCIA — A New 1–7 keV
mu-XAS BeamlinePerformance Measurements at the SLS Spectroscopy
BeamlineHigh Power Primary Slits for the ESRF BeamlinesPerformances
and First Experimental Results of BACH, the Beamline for Dichroism
and Scattering Experiments at ELETTRADevelopment of the Volumetric
Heating Mask for the Front End Attached to the Asymmetric Figure-8
Undulator at SPring-8Present Status of High-Heat-Load Components
for SPring-8 Front EndsPresent Status of BL40B2 and BL40XU at
SPring-8 (Beamlines for Small Angle X-Ray Scattering)Optical Design
and Performance of the Taiwan Inelastic X-Ray Scattering Beamline
(BL12XU) at SPring-8Construction and Commissioning of a 248 m-Long
Beamline with X-Ray Undulator Light SourceCommissioning of the
U49/2-PGM1 BeamlineTROIKA II (ID10B): A Versatile Beamline for
Studies of Liquid and Solid InterfacesNew Front-End Design for
Multiple In-line Undulators at the Advanced Photon SourceBeamline
Upgrade from PGM (SX700-Type) to Varied-Line-Space PGM at
CAMDInfrared Microspectroscopy Beamline at CAMDDesign and
Performance of Undulator Beamline (BL7U) for In-Situ Observation of
Synchrotron Radiation Stimulated Etching by STMThe Commissioning
Results of the First Beamline at the Siam Photon
LaboratoryConstruction and Commissioning of BL37XU at SPring-8On
the Design for a Versatile Imaging and Hard X-Ray Beamline at the
Australian Synchrotron: Implementation of In-Line Phase-Contrast
ImagingNew Beamlines for Protein Crystallography at the
EMBL-Outstation HamburgDedicated High-Resolution Powder Diffraction
Beamline at the Advanced Photon SourceHARWI-II, The New High-Energy
Beamline for Materials Science at HASYLAB / DESYThe Re-design of a
Soft X-Ray Beamline for Photoemission Spectroscopy at
NSRLCharacterization of Beryllium Windows Using Coherent X-Rays at
1-km BeamlinePerformance of the Taiwan Contract Beamline BL12B2 at
SPring-8Design of a High-Throughput Biological Crystallography
Beamline for Superconducting WigglerX-Ray Beamlines on a
Superconducing Wavelength ShifterNew Infrared and Terahertz Beam
Line BL6B at UVSORStatus of the Dortmund TGM3-BeamlineThe
PGM-Beamline at the Undulator U55 at DELTANew Developments at the
XMaS Beamline for Magnetic and High Resolution DiffractionAlignment
of Front End Components at SPring-8The ESRF BM5 Metrology Beamline:
Instrumentation and Performance UpgradeAn Extreme Flux Vacuum
Ultraviolet /Ultraviolet Beamline for the Measurement of Biological
Circular DichroismCalculated Performance of the
Variable-Polarization Undulator Upgrade to the Daresbury SRS Soft
X-Ray Undulator BeamlineCoherent Soft X-Ray Branchline at the
Advanced Light SourceThe BEAR Beamline at ElettraPerformance
Characteristics of Beamline 6.3.1 from 200 eV to 2000 eV at the
Advanced Light SourceNew Implementation of an SX700 Undulator
Beamline at the Advanced Light SourceWave Propagation Through the
Far Infrared Beamline at the CLSMechanical Design of a Front End
for Canted Undulators at the Advanced Photon SourceConceptual
Design for a Beamline for a Hard X-Ray Nanoprobe with 30 nm Spatial
ResolutionFront-End Combination Component of Fixed Mask and
AbsorberPerformance of an Infrared Beamline for High Spatial
Resolution FTIR MicroscopyA Simple High Performance Beamline for
Small Molecule Chemical CrystallographyXAFS and Protein
Crystallography Beamline BL38B1 at SPring-8The Status of NSRL
Beamline ConstructionThe First Group of CANDLE BeamlinesUpgrade of
BM29 and ID24 Optics. Two Complementary Beamlines for XAS
Measurements at ESRFSIBYLS — A SAXS and Protein Crystallography
Beamline at the ALSImproved High-Heat-Load Graphite Filter Design
at CHESS Wiggler BeamlinesVersatile USAXS (Bonse-Hart) Facility for
Advanced Materials ResearchThe X-Ray Diffraction and Scattering
Beamline and Results of the Performance Tests at NSRL
CHAPTER 5: DIAGNOSTICSDevelopment of a High-Speed X-Ray Beam
Position Monitor Using a Detector Head with Low Electrical
CapacitancePhoto Stimulated Desorption Phenomena at the NewSUBARU
Storage RingThe SLS Storage Ring Vertical Position Monitoring
SystemCrystal Monochromator Based Emittance Measurements at the
PETRA Undulator BeamlineA New Beamline Apparatus for Polarimetry
and Ellipsometry Using Soft X-Ray MultilayersNoise Reduction
Efforts for the ALS Infrared BeamlinesAn Electron-Beam Profile
Monitor Using Fresnel Zone PlatesA Real-Time Circular-Polarization
Monitor for Magnetic Compton-Scattering BeamlineAbsolute
Measurement of EUV Radiation from an UndulatorGas-Monitor Detector
for Intense and Pulsed VUV/EUV Free-Electron Laser RadiationPhoton
Energy Calibration and Measure of Spectral Resolving Power of the
Monochromator by the Use of N 1s NEXAFS from a Solid
SampleMeasurement of Absolute Intensity for High Energy SR Photons
Using CalorimeterAbsolute Measurement of Extremely High Intense
Photons Using Calorimetric MethodSpectrometer Based on a VLS
Grating for Diagnostics of a Vacuum-Ultraviolet Free Electron
LaserCharacterization of Light Radiated from 11 m Long
UndulatorHigh Flux X-Ray Beam Intensity Monitor Based Upon Rare Gas
ScintillationOperational Experience with the Photon Beam Position
Monitor for Undulator Beamlines at ElettraThe SASE FEL at DESY:
Photon Beam Diagnostics for the User FacilityHigh-Speed and
Simultaneous Photon Beam Diagnostic System Using Optical Cables at
SPring-8"Crystal Collimator" Measurement of CESR Particle-Beam
Source SizeBeam Stability: Raytracing Requirements and
ImplementationsFast Soft X-Ray Beam ShutterImproved Radiometry for
Extreme-Ultraviolet LithographySoftware Controls for Automated
Feedback TuningIn-Situ Precise Angle Monitoring on Synchrotron
Radiation Monochromator by Use of Pencil Beam Interferometer
CHAPTER 6: MONOCHROMATOR DEVELOPMENTPerformance Prediction of
Cryogenically Cooled Silicon Crystal MonochromatorDesign of Grazing
Incident Monochromator for Saga Synchrotron LightA Grazing
Incidence Monochromator for the Photon Energy Range 5 - 250 eVTrial
Construction of Continuously Variable Deviation Angle
MechanismPerformance Studies of Cryogenically Cooled Monochromator
Crystals for X-FELsFixed Exit Monochromator with Fixed Rotation
AxisBent Crystal Monochromator with Constant Crystal Center
Position and 2-Theta Arm for a Dispersive BeamlineDevelopment of a
Double Crystal MonochromatorA Novel Active Grating Monochromator —
Active Grating Spectrometer Beamline System for Inelastic Soft
X-Ray Scattering ExperimentsCryogenically Cooled Monochromator with
Multi-Crystal Switching System on BL11XU at SPring-8Double Crystal
Monochromator for X-Ray Undulator Beamline at the PF-ARPresent
Status of a High-Resolution Soft X-Ray Monochromator at BL27SU in
SPring-8Characterization of Cryogenically Cooled Dual Symmetric
Silicon Geometry, Si(111)/Si(311), for the Double-Crystal
Monochromator on BL11XU at SPring-8High-Energy Bragg and Laue
Monochromators for an APS Wiggler BeamlineExperience with a
Fluorescence-Based Beam Position Monitor at the APSA Focusing Laue
Monochromator Optimised for Diamond Anvil Cell Diffraction
ExperimentsHigh-Performance Asymmetric-Cut Curved Crystal
Monochromator Side-Branch X-Ray BeamlinesLay-Out of
Ultrahigh-Vacuum DC–Monochromator
CHAPTER 7: OPTICS DEVELOPMENTHigh-Resolution X-Ray
MultilayersStatus of the Diffractive X-Ray Optics Project at
BESSYFrom Flat Substrate to Elliptical KB Mirror by Profile
CoatingX-Ray Si-Based Integrated Lens System for Wide Range of Hard
Synchrotron RadiationSecondary Focusing for Micro-Diffraction Using
One-Bounce CapillariesPerformance of a Be Refractive
LensTwo-Dimensional X-Ray Focusing by Crystal Bender and
MirrorsX-Ray Interferometer Using Prism OpticsMetal Monocapillary
Optics Produced by Hydraulic PressingThickness Monitoring of nm
Period EUV Multilayer Fabrication by EllipsometrySpatial Coherence
Preservation by Synthetic Single Diamond CrystalsNanofocusing
Parabolic Refractive X-Ray LensesA Linear Single-Crystal
Bragg-Fresnel Lens with SiO2 Surface StructureBeryllium Parabolic
Refractive X-Ray LensesRefractive Lenses Fabricated by Deep SR
Lithography and LIGA Technology for X-Ray Energies from 1 keV to 1
MeVPerformance of Focusing Mirrors for a Soft X-Ray Photochemistry
Beamline BL27SU of SPring-8X-Ray Focusing Mirror Fabricated with
Bent-Polishing MethodDiffractive and Refractive X-Ray OpticsAn
X-Ray Focusing System Combining a Sagittally-Bent Crystal and a
Kirkpatrick-Baez SystemLarge Aperture Micro-Focus KB Mirrors for
Spectroscopy Experiments at the Advanced Light SourceA Ray-Tracing
Study of the Dependence of Focal Properties on Surface Figure Error
for a Kirkpatrick-Baez (K-B) Mirror SystemAn Imaging System for
Focusing Tests of Li Multiprism X-Ray Refractive LensesXOP 2.1 — A
New Version of the X-Ray Optics Software ToolkitCharacteristics of
Mechanically-Bent-Shaped Mirror: Experimental Study on Stability
Using LTP IIA Synchrotron-Based Fourier-Synthesis Custom-Coherence
IlluminatorUranium Oxide as a Highly Reflective Coating from
100-400 eVTheoretical Analysis of X-Ray Compound Refractive Lens
Optical PropertiesApplication of Microfocussing at a Nonspecific
BeamlineBent Diamond Crystals and Multilayer Based Optics at the
New 5-Station Protein Crystallography Beamline 'Cassiopeia' at
MAX-labModular Bimorph Mirrors: From an Established Hardware Design
to First Experimental Results Towards Wavefront Correction in the
X-Ray Domain
CHAPTER 8: OPTICS METROLOGYX-Ray Wavefront Hartmann SensorGroove
Density Measurements for the VLS Grating by Diffraction
MethodSetting the Twist of a Sagittally Bent Crystal Using a Beam
Position MonitorAccuracy Limitations in Long-Trace
ProfilometryImprovement of the Surface Profiler for Optical
ElementsNormal Incidence Reflectometry of Concave Multilayer
Mirrors Using Synchrotron Radiation To Evaluate the Period
Thickness DistributionDeflectrometric Measurements of
Synchrotron-Optics for PostprocessingThe Nanometer Optical
Component Measuring Machine: A New Sub-nm Topography Measuring
Device for X-Ray Optics at BESSYDevelopment of a Linear Stitching
Interferometeric System for Evaluation of Very Large X-Ray
Synchrotron Radiation Substrates and MirrorsAt-Wavelength
Interferometry of High-NA Diffraction-Limited EUV Optics
CHAPTER 9: DETECTORS, SPECTROMETERS, AND INTERFEROMETERSAbsolute
Responsivity of Silicon Photodiodes in the X-Ray RangeDesign of a
Conical Diffraction Type Plane Holographic Grating Monochromator
for Use in the Energy Region of 1-4 keVFabrication of High
Performance X-Ray Energy AnalyzersComIXS on BACH: A Compact Soft
X-Ray Spectrometer Operating at ElettraDesign of Emission
Spectrometers with Resolving Power of 10,000An Avalanche Diode
Electron Detector for Observing NEETCMOS Imaging Detectors as X-Ray
Detectors for Synchrotron Radiation ExperimentsFast X-Ray
Fluorescence Camera Combined with Wide Band Pass Monochromatic
Synchrotron BeamMulti-Element Analyzer for Inelastic X-Ray
ScatteringThe Image Acquisition and Analysis Program for PEEM
StationCauchois-Type Compton Spectrometer Using X-Ray Image
IntensifierSoft X-Ray Photoemission Electron Microscopy Station
with Polarized RadiationCurrent Response Characteristics of
Microchannel Plates for Detection Vacuum-Ultraviolet RadiationA
100% Duty-Ratio 3 x 6 Arrayed CCD X-Ray Detector for Rapid Data
Collection in Macromolecular CrystallographyMultielement Detectors
for High Energy SR X-Ray ExperimentsDesign of a Transmission
Grating Spectrometer and an Undulator Beamline for Soft X-Ray
Emission StudiesHigh Energy Photoemission: Development of a New
Electrostatic Lens for a Novel High Resolution SpectrometerThe
DELTA Synchrotron Light InterferometerNew Configuration of
Photoconductive-Type Diamond Detector Head for X-Ray Beam Position
MonitorsTEARES: Toroidal Energy- and Angle-Resolved Electron
Spectrometer: Results and Progress to DateA Flash Spectrograph for
XANES Measurements at SPPS/LCLSAn Ultra-High-Speed Detector for
Synchrotron Radiation ResearchStatus of the PHase Analyzer SYstem
ProjectThe BNL Silicon Multi-Element Detector System for Dilute
EXAFS ExperimentsDevelopment of Multilayer Analyzer Array Detectors
for X-Ray Fluorescence at the Third Generation Synchrotron
SourceApplication of an Avalanche Photodiode in Synchrotron-Based
Ultra-Fast X-RadiographyA Cadmium-Zinc-Telluride Strip Detector for
High-Energy Diffraction ApplicationsPerformance of a Dispersive
Analyzer for Anomalous Scattering Measurements of Amorphous
MaterialsScintillator Detectors for Scanning Transmission X-Ray
Microscopes at the Advanced Light SourceModelling Detector Deadtime
with the Pulse Overlap ModelA Novel Spectrometer System for Hard
X-Ray Interfacial Environmental ChemistrySuperconducting
High-Resolution X-Ray Spectrometers for Chemical State Analysis of
Dilute SamplesA New Camera for Powder Diffraction of Macromolecular
Crystallography at SPring-8The "Pile-Up Effect" in Photon
DetectionAn X-Ray Michelson Interferometer with Low Intrinsic Time
DispersionAn Improvement of (X, eX) Spectrometer for Coincident
Measurement of Compton Scattered Photon and Recoiled
ElectronTemperature and Polarization Performance of EUV Silicon
PhotodiodesPixel Detectors for Diffraction Experiments at the Swiss
Light SourceCross-Fertilization between Spallation Neutron Source
and Third Generation Synchrotron Radiation Detectors
CHAPTER 10: DEVELOPMENT OF EQUIPMENT AND TECHNIQUESX-Ray Pulse
Selector with 2 ns Lock-In Phase Setting and StabilityDynamical
Observations of Local Bio-Molecular Sites Using
NanocrystalsMicrobeam X-Ray Standing Wave and High Resolution
DiffractionRelationship Between Radiation Dose and Resolution in
AngiographyPhasing Protein Structures by Reference-Beam X-Ray
DiffractionA Diffraction System with an X-Ray Beam of a Band of
WavelengthsFast Modulation of Synchrotron X-Ray Beam Intensity by
Standing Acoustic WavesSimultaneous Multimode Measurement of XAFS
Spectra in the Soft X-Ray RegionA Measurement System for Circular
Dichroism in Soft X-Ray Absorption Using Helicity Switching by Twin
Helical UndulatorsA New Furnace for High-Temperature Synchrotron
X-Ray Powder Diffraction Experiments — Electron Density Analysis by
Powder X-Ray Diffraction at 1300° CInvestigation of the Role of
Hole Doping in Different High Temperature Superconducting Systems
Using XANES TechniqueNew Setup to Study Trapped Nano-Particles
Using Synchrotron RadiationResonant Soft-X-Ray Emission
Spectroscopy of LiquidsAn Aberration Corrected Photoemission
Electron Microscope at the Advanced Light SourceNondestructive
Strain Tensor Scanning within Samples of Cylindrical
Symmetry(pi)XAFS for Silicon Powder: Hard X-Ray Absorption
Spectroscopy for Light ElementsPhotoluminescence with Synchrotron
VUV ExcitationThe Nucleation and Growth of Cu Nanoclusters on
Silicon SurfacesX-Ray Interferometry with Intensity Correlation
Technique: Principle and Practical AspectsIn-Situ Synchrotron X-Ray
Microdiffraction Study of Lattice Rotation in Polycrystalline
Materials During Uniaxial DeformationsSynchrotron-Laser Two-Color
Experiments: Two-Photon Double-Resonant Excitation of Ar to
Autoionization States between the ²P3/2 and ²P1/2 Ionic
ThresholdsSpectromicroscopy Study of the Organic Molecules
Utilizing Polarized RadiationA Novel High-Resolution Mapping Method
of d-Spacing and Lattice Plane OrientationMagnetic Circular X-Ray
Dichroism Study of Paramagnetic and Anti-Ferromagnetic States in
SrFeO3 Using a 10-T Superconducting MagnetA Molecular Beam Source
for Electron Spectroscopy of ClustersNew Molecular Inner-Shell
Spectroscopy for Probing Multiple ExcitationsObservation of the
Ferroelectric Material with Instantaneous X-Ray Laser
SpecklesSimulation Study of Total-Electron-Yield X-Ray
Standing-Wave Spectra of Mo/SiC/Si/SiC and Mo/Si
MultilayersHigh-Energy Photoemission at HASYLABAn UHV Apparatus for
X-Ray Resonant Magnetic Reflectivity in the Hard X-Ray
RangeInstrumentation for Time-Dependent X-Ray Resonant Raman
ScatteringThe UHV Experimental Chamber for Optical Measurements
(Reflectivity and Absorption) and Angle Resolved Photoemission of
the BEAR Beamline at ELETTRADevelopment of an Ultra-High Vacuum
Oven for High Temperature X-Ray StudiesDevelopment of a Compact
System for In-Situ X-Ray Scattering Studies of Organic Thin Film
DepositionSynchrotron Radiation-Excited Etching of ZnTeA New
Cryogenic Sample Manipulator for SRC's Scienta 2002
SystemState-of-the-Art Experiments at the ESRF Magnetic Scattering
BeamlineSurface and Interface Studies at APS Endstation
5ID-COctupole Magnet for Soft X-Ray Magnetic Dichroism Experiments:
Design and PerformanceDynamical Observations of Membrane Proteins:
The Case of BacteriorhodopsinNuclear Fluorescence Using High-Energy
Synchrotron RadiationSurface Trace Element Characterization of
Synthetic Single Crystal Al2O3 at the SSRLA UHV Apparatus for Soft
X-Ray Spectroscopy with Symmetry Selection for Solids and
SurfacesInelastic Ultra-Violet Scattering as a Tool to Investigate
Collective Excitations in Condensed Matter Physics
CHAPTER 11: CRYSTALLOGRAPHY AND DIFFRACTOMETRY
SYSTEMSMicrosecond Time-Resolved Diffraction and Scattering
Measurements System Using Semi-Monochromatic X-Ray Pulse at
SPring-8 BL40XUDesign and Development of a Robot-Based Automation
System for Cryogenic Crystal Sample Mounting at the Advanced Photon
SourceAutomation of Protein Crystallography Facilities at the
SRSHigh Throughput Protein Crystallography at RIKEN Structural
Genomic BeamlinesIntegrated Controlling System and Unified Database
for High Throughput Protein Crystallography ExperimentsDevelopment
of High Pressure Single Crystal X-Ray Diffraction Study at ESRF ID
30 BeamlineDiffractometer-Control Software for Bragg-Rod
MeasurementsStructure Analysis of the Ag (001) Surface at 25 K by
Synchrotron X-Ray Crystal Truncation Rod ScatteringA Diffractometer
Control System with Automatic UB-Matrix RefinementAutomation of
High-Throughput Crystal Screening and Data Collection at SSRLThe
NIGMS X6A East Coast Structural Biology FacilityThe New
Macromolecular Crystallography Stations at MAX-lab: The MAD
Station
CHAPTER 12: IMAGINGA Novel and Simple X-Ray Dark Field
ImagingOne-Dimensional Grazing Incidence Zone Plate for Focusing
Soft X-RaysZernike-Type Phase Contrast X-Ray Microscopy at 4 keV
Photon Energy with 60 nm ResolutionDevelopment of Apparatus for
Phase Imaging Using X-Ray Interferometers at BL20XU of SPring-8A
New Apparatus for Hard X-Ray Micro-Imaging and Microdiffraction
Experiments at BL24XU of SPring-8Resolution-Tunable Angle-Resolved
X-Ray ImagingAre Atom-Sized X-Ray Experiments
Possible?High-Resolution X-Ray Microdiffraction System for
Characterization of Selectively Grown Layers Using a Zone Plate
Combined with a Narrow SlitComprehensive Electron-Optical
Characterization of an X-Ray Photoemission Electron MicroscopePhase
Tomography Using Diffraction-Enhanced ImagingDesign for an X-Ray
Nanoprobe Prototype with a Sub-10-nm Positioning RequirementImaging
Sub-ns Spin Dynamics in Magnetic Nanostructures with Magnetic
Transmission X-Ray MicroscopyInstrumentation for Diffraction
Enhanced Imaging Experiments at HASYLABLarge-Area Phase-Contrast
X-Ray Imaging System Using a Two-Crystal X-Ray
Interferometer—Development of an Interference-Pattern-Based
Feedback Positioning SystemPrinciples of Optical Design of the SM
Beamline at the CLSImages of Soft-Bodied Animals with External Hard
Shell: 3D Visualization of the Embedded Soft TissueInvestigation of
Material Flow in Friction Stir Welding Using Computed
MicrotomographyDirect Measurement of the Resolving Power of X-Ray
CT System in SPring-8Development of High-Speed Fluorescent X-Ray
Micro-Computed TomographyApplication of X-Ray Refraction-Contrast
to Medical Joint ImagingInterferometric Phase-Contrast X-Ray CT
Imaging of VX2 Rabbit Cancer at 35keV X-Ray EnergyImage Observation
of Diffraction Spots Using FZP and Coherent X-Ray BeamNovel
Edge-Enhanced X-Ray Imaging by MIRRORCLEHard X-Ray Fourier
Transform Holography with Zone PlatesThe Analyzer System for
Diffraction Enhanced Imaging at the ELETTRA Synchrotron
FacilityFast Differential Phase-Contrast Imaging and Total
Fluorescence Yield Mapping in a Hard X-Ray Fluorescence
MicroprobeCombined Imaging System for X-Ray Fluorescence and
Transmission X-Ray MicrotomographySoft X-Ray Scanning Transmission
Microscope Working in an Extended Energy Range at the Advanced
Light SourceTransmission Photoelectron Microscopy of Diatoms at the
Multilayer Monochromator Beamline U125-1/ML at BESSY IITransmission
Images and Evaluation of Tomographic Imaging Based Scattered
Radiation from Biological Materials Using 10, 15, 20 and 25 keV
Synchrotron X-Rays: An Analysis in Terms of Optimum EnergyStudy on
Dual-Energy X-Ray Computed Tomography Using Synchrotron
RadiationCoherent Diffractive Imaging with X-Rays and Electrons
CHAPTER 13: TIME RESOLVED TECHNIQUESTime-to-Space Converter for
Ultrashort Pulsed X-Ray ExperimentsSubnanosecond-Resolved X-Ray
Diffraction at the SPring-8 High Flux Beamline BL40XUTime Resolved
X-Ray Diffraction and Non-Thermal Inelastic X-Ray ScatteringP-Sec
Time-Resolved Microscopy of Magnetic Structures Using
X-PEEMSubpicosecond Coherent Manipulation of X-RaysHigh Efficiency
XAFS Data Collection with Sub-Nanosecond Time ResolutionGeneration
of Femtosecond Synchrotron Pulses: Performance and
CharacterizationALS Beamline 6.0 for Ultrafast X-RayAbsorption
SpectroscopyStatus and New Applications of Time-Resolved X-ray
Absorption Spectroscopy
Author IndexHelpSearchExitINTRODUCTIONMETHODS AND RESULTSCMOS
imagerExample of imagesNoise and dark currentSpatial resolution and
conversion gainRadiation damage
CONCLUSIONSACKNOWLEDGMENTSREFERENCES