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Figure 3 Example o CL panel cross-sections and direction o
fibers o the top layers
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Cross-laminated timber used or preabricated wall and floor panels
offers many advantages. Te cross-laminating process provides
improved dimensional stability to the product which allows or
preabrication o long, wide floor slabs, long single-story walls and
tall plate heights conditions as in clerestory walls or multi-story
balloon ramed
configurations. Additionally, cross-laminating provides relatively
high in-plane and out-o-plane strength and stiffness properties,
giving it two-way action capabilities similar to a reinorced
concrete slab. Te ‘reinorcement’ effect provided by the
cross-lamination in CL also considerably increases the splitting
resistance o CL or certain types o connection systems.
Figure 4 illustrates the primary difference between CL and glulam
products. Figure 5a shows a floor built with our individual CL
panels acting mostly in one direction, while Figure 5b illustrates
the same floor, this time built with one CL panel only, acting most
likely in two directions (i.e., two-way action).
Cross-Laminated Timber
4 KEY ADVANTAGES OF
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a
l
(b)
Figure 5 (a) Floor assembly made o our 3-ply CL panels acting
in one direction and (b) Floor assembly made o one 3-ply CL panel
acting in both directions. Distance “a” may reach 10 f. (3 m)
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PROCESS
A typical manuacturing process o CL includes the ollowing steps:
lumber selection, lumber grouping and planing, adhesive
application, panel lay-up and pressing, product cutting, surace
machining, marking and packaging. Te key to a successul CL
manuacturing process is consistency in the lumber quality and
control o
the parameters that impact the quality o the adhesive bond.
Stringent in-plant quality control tests are required to ensure
that the final CL products will fit or the intended
applications.
ypically, lumber must be kiln dried to a moisture content o 12% ±
3%. Proper moisture content prevents dimensional variations and
surace cracking. Lumber can be procured dried or urther drying may
be needed at the actory. rimming and finger jointing are used to
obtain the desired lengths and quality o lumber. Finger jointed CL
panels are also available in Europe, but are out o the scope o the
North American ANSI APA/PRG 320 CL product standard at this
time.
Panel dimensions vary by manuacturer. Te assembly process can take
rom 15 to 60 minutes depending on equipment and adhesive. Adhesive
is the second material input in CL. ypes o adhesives used in North
America must meet the same requirements as those used in glued
laminated timber manuacturing and include qualified
polyurethane, melamine and phenolic-based adhesives. Both ace
and edge gluing can be used. Once adhesive is applied, the assembly
is pressed using hydraulic (more common) or vacuum presses and
compressed air depending on panel thickness and adhesive used. Te
assembled panels are usually planed and/or sanded or a smooth
surace at the end o the process. Panels are cut to size and
openings are made or windows, doors and service channels,
connections and ducts using CNC (Computer Numerical Controlled)
routers which allow or high precision. For quality control
purposes, compliance with product requirements prescribed in the
product standard are typically checked at the actory (e.g., bending
strength, shear strength, delamination).
Chapter 2, entitled Cross-laminated timber manuacturing ,
provides general inormation about CL manuacturing targeted mainly
to engineers, designers, and specifiers. Te inormation contained in
this Chapter may also be useul to potential U.S. CL
manuacturers.
Figures 6 and 7 illustrate a typical CL wall and floor assembly,
respectively.
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U p t o 1 0 f t .
5 5 ~
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CL panels are typically used as load-carrying plate elements in
structural systems such as walls, floors and roos. For floor and
roo CL elements, key critical characteristics that must be taken
into account are the ollowing :
• In-plane and out-o-plane bending strength, shear strength, and
stiffness
• Short-term and long-term behavior:
• Vibration perormance o floors
• Compression perpendicular to grain issues (bearing)
• Fire perormance
• Durability.
For wall elements, the ollowings are key characteristics that must
be taken into account at the design stage:
• Load-bearing capacity (critical criterion)
• Fire perormance
• Durability.
Te ollowing sections provide a brie summary o the key design and
perormance attributes o CL panels and assemblies.
6 STRUCTURAL DESIGN
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6.1 Proposed Analytical Design Methods Various
different design methods have been adopted in Europe or the
determination o basic mechanical properties o CL. Some o
these methods are based on testing while others are more
analytical. For floor elements, a testing method o evaluation
involves determination o flexural properties by testing ull-size
panels or sections o panels with a specific span-to-depth ratio. Te
problem with the testing based approach is that every time the
lay-up, type o material, or any other manuacturing parameters
change, more testing is needed to evaluate the bending and shear
properties o such new product configurations.
Analytical approach, once verified with the test data, offers a
more general and less costly alternative. An analytical approach
generally predicts strength and stiffness properties o CL panels
based on the input material properties o the laminate boards that
make up the CL panel. Some o the proposed European methods are
described in detail in the Canadian edition o the CL Handbook
(FPInnovations, 2011). One o them, the shear analog y method, is
the method used by ANSI APA/PRG 320 or determining the bending and
shear stiffness o various lay-ups (ANSI, 2012).
Te proposed analytical procedures or determining basic mechanical
properties o CL panels or designers aregiven in Chapter 3 entitled
Structural design o cross-laminated timber elements.
6.2 Lateral Design o CL Buildings Based on both a literature
review o research work conducted around the world and the results o
a series o quasi- static tests conducted at FPInnovations on
regular and tall walls, CL wall panels can be used as an effective
lateral load resisting system (Ceccotti, 2008). Results rom small-
and large-scale shake table seismic tests on two CL buildings in
Japan by the rees and imber Research Institute o Italy (CNR-IVALSA)
in 2009 demonstrated that CL structures perorm quite well when
subjected to seismic orce (Figure 8).
FPInnovations’ shearwall and assembly tests to date have also shown
that the CL wall panels demonstrated
adequate seismic perormance when nails or slender screws are used
with steel L-brackets to connect the walls tothe floors below (this
ensures a ductile ailure in the connection instead o a brittle
ailure in the panel). Te use o hold-downs installed with nails on
each end o the walls tends to urther improve their seismic
perormance. Use o diagonally placed long screws to connect CL walls
to the floor below is not recommended in high seismic zones due to
lower ductility and brittle ailure mechanisms. Use o hal-lapped
joints in longer walls can be an effective solution not only to
reduce the wall stiffness and thus reduce the seismic input load,
but also to improve
wall ductility. imber rivets in smaller groups with custom
made brackets were ound to be effective connectors or CL wall
panels due to their potentially high ductility. Further research in
this field is needed to clariy the use o timber rivets in CL and to
veriy perormance o CL walls under seismic loading with alternative
types o connection systems (e.g., bearing types). A 2-story CL
assembly has also been tested at FPInnovations and the results
confirmed the shake table tests conducted by CNR-IVALSA (Figure
9).
While most CL buildings are platorm ramed, they are ar less
susceptible to develop sof story ailure
mechanisms than other platorm ramed structural systems. Since the
nonlinear behavior (and the potentialdamage) is localized in the
hold-down and L-bracket connection areas, the panels—that are also
the vertical load carrying elements—are virtually lef intact in
place and uncompromised, even afer ailure o the connections. In
addition, all CL walls on a single level contribute to the lateral
and gravity resistance, providing a degree o redundancy and a
system sharing effect. Vertical and lateral load sharing can also
take place between levels, creating a honeycomb effect.
Chapter 4 entitled Lateral design o cross-laminated timber
buildings provides general inormation about lateral design o
CL structures. Recommendations related to seismic modification
actors are also made.
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Figure 8 Seven-story CL building tested at
E-Deense Laboratory in Miki as a part o the SOFIE Project and CL
test assembly at FPInnovations
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6.3 Connections and Construction o CL Structures Connections
in timber construction, including those built with CL, play an
important role in maintaining the integrity o the timber structure
and in providing strength, stiffness, stability and ductility.
Consequently, they require thorough attention o the
designers.
raditional and innovative connection systems have been used in CL
assemblies in Europe and North America.
Common types o connections in CL assemblies include: panel-to-panel
(floors, walls and roos), wall-to- oundation, wall-to-wall
intersections and wall-to-floor/roo assemblies. Basic
panel-to-panel connection can be established through single or
double exterior splines made with engineered wood products, single
or double interior splines, or hal-lapped joints. Metal brackets,
hold-downs and plates are used to transer orces at the wall to
floor/roo interaces and in wall-to-wall intersections. Innovative
types o connection systems can also be used
which lead to enhanced perormance or quicker assembly.
Researchers in Europe have developed design procedures or
traditional connections in CL. Tese include dowels, wood
screws, and nails, which are commonly used in Europe or designing
CL assemblies. Empirically based equations were developed or the
calculation o characteristic embedment properties o each type o
astener (i.e., dowels, screws, nails), depending on the location
with respect to the plane o the panel (perpendicular to or on
edge). Tose equations were verified with testing and results seem
to correspond well with calculated
predictions (Uibel and Blass, 2006 and 2007). Yield mode
equations were adopted or the design using CL astener embedment
strength equations. Empirical equations have also been developed or
the calculation o the withdrawal resistance o the various types o
asteners in CL based on hundreds o tests. Based on limited
exploratory validation tests conducted at FPInnovations using
sel-tapping screws on European CL, the proposed embedment equations
seem to provide reasonable predictions o both the lateral and
withdrawal capacity based on the Canadian timber design provisions
(Muñoz et al., 2010). More work is needed, however, to validate
the
proposed equations using North American made CL and different
types o asteners.
Due to the reinorcing effect o cross-lamination in CL, it is
speculated that current minimum geometric requirements given in
the National design specification (NDS) or wood
Construction or dowels, screws and nails in solid timber or
glulam could be applicable to CL. However, designers need to be
cautious about this as urther
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verification is needed, considering the specific eatures o
individual panel types. Brittle ailure modes, which have not yet
been investigated, also need to be taken into account.
Chapter 5, entitled Connections in cross-laminated timber
assemblies, is mainly ocused on CL assemblies.
However, since all buildings are considered to be mixed
construction to a certain extent, the scope covers hybrid
construction, where traditional wood-based systems (e.g., light
rame, glulam, etc.) or materials such as concrete or steel are
mixed with CL to resist vertical and lateral loads.
6.4 Duration o Load and Creep Behavior Cross-laminated timber
products are used as load-carrying slabs and wall elements in
structural systems, thus load duration and creep behavior are
critical characteristics that must be addressed in structural
design. Given its lay-up configuration with orthogonal arrangement
o layers bonded with structural adhesive, CL is more prone to time-
dependent deormations under load (creep) than other engineered wood
products such as glued-laminated timber.
ime dependent behavior o structural wood products is addressed in
design standards by load duration actors
that adjust design properties. Since CL has been recently
introduced into the North American market, thecurrent design
standards and building codes do not speciy load duration and creep
adjustment actors or CL. Until this can be rectified, options are
proposed or those speciying CL systems in Chapter 6, entitled
Duration o load and creep actors or cross-laminated timber
panels. Tese include not only load duration and service actors, but
also an approach or accounting or creep in CL structural
elements.
Since cross-laminated timber is not yet covered by the NDS, the
intent is to recommend a suitable approach that accounts or the
duration o load and creep actors in the design o CL.
6.5 Vibration Perormance o Floors Studies at FPInnovations
ound that bare CL floor systems differ rom traditional lightweight
wood joisted
floors with typical mass around 4 lb./f. 2
(20 kg/m 2
) and undamental natural requency above 15 Hz, and heavyconcrete
slab floors with a mass above 40 lb./f.2 (200 kg/m2) and
undamental natural requency below 9 Hz. Based on FPInnovations’
test results, bare CL floors were ound to have mass varying rom
approximately 6 lb./f.2 (30 kg/m2) to 30 lb./f.2 (150
kg/m2), and a undamental natural requency above 9 Hz. Due to these
special properties, the standard vibration controlled design
methods or lightweight and heavy floors may not be applicable or CL
floors.
Some CL manuacturers have recommended that deflection under a
uniormly distribution load (UDL) be used to control floor vibration
problems. Using this approach, the success in avoiding excessive
vibrations in CL floors relies mostly on the designer’s judgment.
Besides, static deflection criteria can only be used as an indirect
control method because they ignore the influence o mass
characteristics o the floors. Tereore, a new design methodology is
needed to determine the vibration controlled spans or CL
floors.
A proposed design methodology or controlling vibrations o CL floors
under normal walking is g iven in Chapter 7 entitled Vibration
perormance o cross-laminated timber floors.
6.6 Fire Perormance o Cross-laminated imber Assemblies
Cross-laminated timber panels have great potential or providing
cost-effective building solutions or residential, commercial and
institutional buildings as well as large industrial acilities in
accordance with the International Building Code (IBC).
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Te intent o the IBC is to establish the minimum requirements or
public saety. Te code is addressing such things as structural
strength and stability, means o egress, lie saety and protection o
property rom fire as well as providing saety or firefighters and
emergency responders during emergency operations. As such, fire
saety issues such as providing adequate structural integrity,
limiting impact to people and property as well as limiting
fire spread through a building and/or to adjacent properties during
a fire are critical or every building design and structural
system.
Structural integrity and fire spread capability o building
assemblies can be assessed by conducting ull-scale fire- resistance
tests in accordance with ASM E119 standard test methods. Fire
resistance is defined as the ability o a material or their
assemblies to prevent or retard the passage o excessive heat, hot
gases or flames under conditions o fire. A fire-resistance rating
is defined as the period o time a building element, component or
assembly maintains the ability to confine a fire (separating
unction), and/or continues to perorm a given structural unction.
More specifically, a standard fire-resistance test entails three
ailure/acceptance criteria:
1. Mechanical resistance: the assembly must support the applied
load or the duration o the test;
2. Integrity: the assembly must prevent the passage o flame or
gases hot enough to ignite a cotton pad;
3. Insulation: the assembly must prevent the temperature rise on
the unexposed surace rom being greaterthan 325°F (180°C) at any
location, or an average o 250°F (140°C) measured at a number o
locations, above the initial temperature.
Te time at which the assembly can no longer satisy any one o these
three criteria defines its fire-resistance rating.
In order to acilitate uture Code acceptance or the design o CL
panels or fire resistance, a research project has recently been
completed at FPInnovations. Te main objective o the project was to
develop and validate a generic calculation procedure to calculate
the fire-resistance ratings o CL wall and floor assemblies. A
series o ull-scale fire-resistance experiments in accordance with
ASM E119 standard time-temperature curve were conducted to allow a
comparison between the fire resistance measured during a standard
fire-resistance test and that calculated using the proposed
procedure.
Results o the ull-scale fire tests show that CL panels have the
potential to provide excellent fire resistance ofen comparable to
typical heavy construction assemblies o non-combustible
construction. Due to the inherent nature o thick timber members to
slowly char at a predictable rate, CL panels can maintain
significant structural capacity or an extended duration o time when
exposed to fire.
In addition to the fire-resistance calculation method o CL
assemblies, Chapter 8, entitled Fire perormance o
cross-laminated timber assemblies, provides requirements related to
fire saety in buildings, namely in regards to the types o
construction prescribed in the IBC, fire-resistance requirements,
connection detailing, interior finishes, through-penetrations and
exterior walls.
6.7 Sound Insulation o Cross-laminated imber Buildings
Adequate levels o noise/sound control in multi-amily buildings are
mandatory requirements o most buildingcodes in the world. In many
jurisdictions, these requirements are as strictly enorced as those
or structural sufficiency and fire saety.
Chapter 9, entitled Sound insulation o cross-laminated timber
buildings, first attempts to answer simple questions related to the
definition o sound, its sources, quantification and methods o
measurement, acceptable levels o sound, differences between sound
and noise, etc. O course, when verbalizing such questions, some
obvious answers naturally emerge in the reader’s mind.
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Tis Chapter also introduces the International Building Code’s (IBC)
requirements or sound insulation. State o the art construction
details or CL walls and floor/ceiling assemblies generally meeting
IBC requirements are
provided based on the results o tests perormed in various
laboratories and fields. A step by step guide finally leads the
reader to assemblies that will meet the occupants’
satisaction.
6.8 Building Enclosure Design o Cross-laminated imber
Construction Building envelope design has important implications or
the energy perormance and durability o the structure as well as
indoor air quality. Te key perormance requirements o the envelope,
discussed in Chapter 10 entitled
Building enclosure design o cross-laminated timber
construction, are prevention o water intrusion and control o heat,
air, and moisture flow.
Te use o preabricated CL panels does not modiy the basic heat, air,
and moisture control design principles or an exterior wall or roo
assembly. However, the design o CL assemblies requires attention
due to the unique characteristics o this product. CL panels are
made rom massive, solid wood elements and thereore
provide some level o thermal insulation and thermal mass.
Although CL panels may have an inherent level o air tightness as a
panel product produced with high precision, an additional air
barrier is recommended, and it is critical that panel joints and
interaces as well as penetrations such as windows and doors be
properly air sealed. CL panels have a relatively high capacity to
store moisture, but relatively low vapor permeability. I exposed to
excessive wetting during construction, the panels may absorb a
large amount o moisture, which may result in slow drying.
Tis Chapter provides guidance on heat, a ir, and moisture control
in wall and roo assemblies that utilize CL panels in various
North American climate zones. Te overarching strategies are to
place insulation in such a way that the panels are kept warm and
dry, to prevent moisture rom being trapped or accumulating within
the panels, and to control airflow through the panels and at the
joints and interaces between them. In certain climates,
preservative treatment o CL is recommended to provide
additional protection against potential hazards such
as termites.
It is intended that these guidelines should assist practitioners in
adapting CL construction to North American conditions and ensuring
a long lie or their buildings. However, these guidelines are not
intended to substitute or the input o a proessional building
scientist.
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Te environmental ootprint o CL is requently discussed as
potentially beneficial when compared to unctionally equivalent
non-wood alternatives, particularly concrete systems.
In Chapter 11, entitled Enironmental perormance o
cross-laminated timber , the role o CL in sustainable design
is addressed. Te embodied environmental impacts o CL in a mid-rise
building are discussed, with preliminary results rom a
comprehensive lie cycle assessment (LCA) study.
Chapter 11 discusses other aspects o CL’s environmental profile,
including impact on the orest resource and impact on indoor air
quality rom CL emissions. Te ability o the North American orest to
sustainably support a CL industry is an important consideration and
is assessed rom several angles, including a companion discussion
regarding efficient use o material. Market projections and orest
growth-removal ratios are applied to reach a clear conclusion that
CL will not create a challenge to the sustainable orest practices
currently in place in North America and saeguarded through
legislation and/or third party certification programs.
Finally, to assess potential impact on indoor air quality, CL
products with different thicknesses and glue lines were
tested or their volatile organic compounds (VOCs) including
ormaldehyde and acetaldehyde emissions. CL was ound to be in
compliance with European labeling programs as well as the most
stringent CARB limits or ormaldehyde emissions. esting was done on
Canadian species, as there was no U.S. supplier o CL at the time o
this writing; because VOC emissions are affected by species, this
work should be repeated or products made rom different
species.
7 ENVIRONMENTAL
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Te preabricated nature o CL permits high precision and a
construction process characterized by aster completion, increased
saety, less demand or skilled workers on site, less disruption to
the surrounding community and less waste. Openings or windows,
doors, staircases and utilities are pre-cut using CNC
(Computer Numerical Controlled) machines at the actory. Buildings
are generally assembled on site but panels are preabricated and
transported to the site, where they are connected by means o
mechanical astening systems such as bolts, lag bolts, sel-tapping
screws, ringed annual shank nails, and so on.
CL as a building system is quite adaptable, perorming well in long
spans in floors, walls and roos, with the potential or a high
degree o exterior and interior finishes preinstalled off-site. Its
ability to be used as either a panelized or a modular system
makes it ideally suited or additions to existing buildings. It can
be used jointly with any other building material, such as
light wood rame, heavy timber, steel or concrete, and accepts a
range o finishes. CL panels can also be built compositely with
reinorced concrete to enable longer spans (i.e., longer than 30 eet
or 10 m). Good thermal insulation, good sound insulation and an
impressive perormance under fire conditions are added benefits
which result rom the massiveness o the wood structure.
8.1 Considerations or ransportation and Construction Site
Limitations Beore undertaking the design o a CL building, a plan
should be drawn up or transporting the preabricated CL elements and
storing them on site. ransporting CL panels can be costly and,
depending on the size o the element, may require specialized
transportation services. Te construction site itsel may have
restrictions due to size or to local regulations. It is best to
start by making sure that the route rom the plant to the
construction site
will allow movement o the truck, including its load, without
any obstacles. Tis is especially critical or oversize loads.
Considerations or transportation o CL elements are presented in
Chapter 12 entitled Lifing and handling o cross-laminated
timber elements.
8.2
Materials on the Construction Site Wood-based building
materials must be stored properly on the site i not used
immediately. Good planning is essential to ensure that CL
assemblies have the necessary handling space and proper material
flow during construction. Stacking o the panels on the construction
site must match the planned installation sequence to avoid
additional costs and to reduce the risk o accidents or
breaking.
When CL panels are stored on site, great care must be taken
to protect them against the elements and vandalism. I panels must
be placed temporarily on the ground prior to installation, they
should be put down on skids o sufficient number to protect the
panels rom standing water. Te panels must also be completely
protected rom the weather by appropriate wrapping or by other
measures.
8 CLT IN
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Figure 10 shows CL panel packs in the process o being unloaded rom
a truck or storage on site. In this example, the packs are
completely wrapped (six aces) and are placed on wood skids to
protect them rom standing
water. Although this packaging practice may be adequate, it
is crucial to also use high-quality tarpaulin and to ensure that
the packs remain sealed. I there are openings, water could
infiltrate and remain trapped.
Figure 10 Storage on construction site –
individually wrapped bundles stacked on lumber skids
Figure 11 shows truck platorms lef on construction site. Tey will
be recovered on the next trip. Tis can reduce costs by allowing
independent scheduling o transportation and unloading.
Figure 11 ruck platorms lef on construction site – will
be recovered on the next trip
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8.3 Lifing and Handling o CL Elements Te emerging CL
construction industry has developed a range o techniques or lifing
and handling CL
panels. Te complexity o the structure or its location ofen
dictates the techniques and systems to be used. Naturally, erecting
an 8-story building in a downtown area typically requires more
preparation and skill than a single-amily residence built in the
country. But i that country house is to be perched high in the
mountains, more efforts may be required (Figures 12).
Figure 12 Lifing and handling o CL elements by cableway
(courtesy o KLH)
Tere are several types o lifing equipment that can be used on
construction sites. Each has its own characteristics or lifing and
handling heavy loads such as CL panels. Tereore, it is essential to
choose the right lifing and handling system or each type o
component. Several lifing and handling systems and techniques are
presented in Chapter 12.
8.4 Construction Accessories and Materials Numerous
construction accessories and materials are required on a
construction site. In addition to the items and tools normally
required in conventional wood construction, suggestions are made in
Chapter 12 or products, tools, and accessories that may be useul or
essential on a construction project using CL panels.
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Tis assessment o market opportunity relies on the latest
construction statistics or the United States only. Tese statistics
(floor area by building type) were multiplied by use actors and
hence volumes or CL were estimated.
9.1 Methodology A 3-tier approach was ollowed:
1. Estimation o manuacturing costs;
2. Assessment o cost competitiveness o the building shell;
and
3. Use o different market penetration scenarios to estimate the
market opportunity.
Tese points are explained below. All costs are presented in U.S.
dollars.
9.1.1 CLT Assembly Costs
In-house simulation work established the average production cost o
CL at $19.20 per cubic oot1. wo panel thicknesses were used: 3-ply
4 ¼ in. (108 mm) or walls and 5-ply 7 in. (178 mm) or floors. Te
cost o the assembly per square oot was calculated as a unction o
thickness plus a 25% profit markup. Connectors and erection costs
were also included ($0.70 and $1.24 per sq. f., respectively).
Similarly, the cost o engineering and CAD work by the manuacturer
was added at $1.00/sq. f. Tis resulted in assembly costs o
approximately $12 and $19 per square oot or walls and floors,
respectively. Tese prices may increase i visual grade is desired or
i lumber prices go up with respect to the baseline o this
study
9.1.2 Construction Statistics
Market size was calculated using the McGraw-Hill 2011, with 1 to 10
stories as base. Te year 2011 was selected as a proxy or mid-term
demand (2015) based on available orecasts rom the same source2. Te
10+ story segment
was not included though it is easible to expect some uture
penetration in this height class (currently 10+ story
apartments represent 10% o the 1 to 10 stories apartment floor
area).
9.1.3 Sample Selection
9 ASSESSMENT
OF MARKETOPPORTUNITY
1 Delivered within a 300-mile radius. otal lumber costs,
including remanuacturing and post dry, amount to $400/MBF.
2 2011 values were multiplied by 1.79 to reflect expected
demand levels or 2015.
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9.1.4 Shell Unit Costs and Competitiveness
Shell unit costs ($/sq. f. o floor area) were obtained rom
simulations on conceptual buildings (average) perormed using
the square cost estimator eature o Costworks™, an appraisal tool
rom RSmeans. Normally, each situation included costing 4-6 material
choices, sometimes including light wood rame. A side-by-side
comparison o shell unit costs or CL vs. the incumbent materials
allowed the estimation o cost competitiveness (see Section 9.2.1 or
more details).
9.1.5 CLT Assembly Costs
Te square ootage o each assembly (e.g., total sq. f. o exterior
walls) was calculated rom Costworks™ using average parameters and
dimensions by building type. Tese square ootages were multiplied by
CL’s unit assembly costs (e.g., $/sq. f. o wall area) to calculate
the total cost by assembly and shell. Te CL assembly configuration
varied according to building type. Te deault exterior wall assembly
consisted o:
• 3-ply CL
• Vinyl siding
• 3 in. expanded polystyrene (EPS)
• Vapor retarder.
Industrial buildings considered metal siding (corrugated steel) and
interior fire-rated (or ype X) gypsum. Floors consisted o 5-ply CL
plus plywood underlayment. It is acknowledged that some situations
may call or thicker
panels, or instance a 7-ply CL panel.
Roo consisted o a gang-nailed wood truss assembly or all buildings
except industrial. Industrial buildings considered metal deck with
open web steel joists, beams, and hollow steel columns. All roo
assemblies considered roo coverings (built-up) and insulation (2
in. EPS + 1 in. perlite).
Partitions considered 3-ply CL plus 5/8 in. ype X gypsum board on
both sides. wenty percent o partitions were considered to be
load-bearing and using CL, the balance assuming metal studs. Non-CL
buildings considered drywall on metal studs.
Shafs assumed a 5-ply panel.
Parking garages considered 5-ply CL or all assemblies. Tey also
included glulam beams and columns (22 in. x 22 in.), including
connectors and installation costs. Epoxy coating was included
too.
Not included:
• ime savings (time savings estimated at 20% vs. concrete).
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9.2 Results 9.2.1 Shell Cost Competitiveness
Light wood rame is the most economical system in low-rise projects,
with CL becoming normally morecompetitive only at higher building
heights or sizes (Figure 13). Most industrial buildings and—to some
extent—parking garages showed similar or slightly higher shell
costs or CL and thereore may represent an attractive choice or CL
given their relatively regular ootprint and repetitive layout.
Besides mid-rise and industrial, retail (1-2 stories) and
educational (2-3 stories) buildings are also good bets or CL. It
must be noted that shell costs normally account or about 20-30% o
the total cost o a finished concrete/steel building and, thereore,
is expected that some o these differences in shell costs will be
less noticeable when considering total unit costs.
CLT Non-
0
10
20
30
S h e
l l C
o s t (
$ / s q
.
f t .
3 5 8
Figure 13 Unit shell cost by story class and rame
material apartments
9.2.2 Assessment of Demand
wo market penetration scenarios were considered: 5% and 15%. Based
on shell costs, a competitiveness actor was assigned to each
situation. Tis ‘c-actor’ acted as a multiplier on the floor area
per situation. Building code
limitations were considered too. For instance, only low-rise health
buildings are included in the assessment. For other building types,
it is assumed that code will allow CL in the uture. For a more
conservative demand estimate, the reader may choose considering
only the 1-4 story segment (94%).
In summary, the U.S. market opportunity or CL is estimated at 0.9
to 2.7 BBF (able 1) approximately 3. o provide a ramework or
these numbers, total consumption o sofwood lumber in the United
States in 2011
was estimated at 85.4 million m3. No reliable orecast or 2015
is available in order to estimate the equivalency or share o those
1.5-4.5 million m3 o potential opportunity. o put these
numbers in perspective, the assessment
3 CL buildings consume 0.1 to 1+ f3 o CL per sq. f. o
floor area, with an average around 0.6 f.3/sq. f.
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26
represents a potential increase o 2 to 7 percent in total U.S.
sofwood lumber demand over 2011 consumption. Tis demand is
equivalent to somewhere between two and six billion dollars o CL
shell value4. Demand is concentrated on the East Coast, the Great
Lakes States, exas, and Caliornia (Figure 14).
Table 1 Market opportunity (2015)
1,104,889368,296 1,069,591 35,298356,530
180,98360,328 180,835 14860,278
883,458294,486 864,449 19,010288,150
123,30841,103 123,270 3741,090
2,292,638764,213 2,238,145 54,493746,048
432,4061 44, 13 5 3 11 ,3 03 1 21 ,1 03103,768
432,4061 44, 13 5 3 11 ,3 03 1 21 ,1 03103,768
2,725,044908,348 2,549,448 175,595849,816Grand total
Total
N
o n
- r
e s
i d
e n
t
i a
l
R
e s
i d
e n
t
i a
l
Project Header
Com- mercial
Indus- trial
Institu- tional
Miscel- laneous
1BF=Board eet
Clearly, the 1-4 story segment represents the largest market
opportunity given its share o the market. Tis is especially true or
the non-residential market, notably commercial and institutional
buildings making up 87% o the non-residential opportunity.
Conversely, in the case o apartments, nearly 40% o the opportunity
comes rom the 5 to 10-story height class. However, recent trends
towards cheaper or rent wood-ramed apartment buildings might hinder
the inroad o CL into this segment.
Tis estimate does not include possible inroads into the high-end
single-amily market.
4 25% GC overhead and profit included.
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B y S t
a t e
B y M e
t r o A
r e a
A p a r t m e n t s
B y S t
a t e a
n d
U s e
P r o
j e c t
l i s
t
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28
Te purpose o this section is to introduce interesting examples o
buildings built around the world using CL elements.
10.1 Residential Buildings
10 BUILDING EXAMPLES
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Figure 16 Single-amily house in Klagenurt,
Austria (courtesy o KLH)
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Figure 18 Garlick Residence, Oroville, WA, United
States (courtesy o Structurlam Products Ltd.)
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Figure 19 Multi-amily building in Judenburg,
Austria (courtesy o KLH)
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Figure 20 Multi-amily building in Chibougamau,
uébec, Canada (courtesy o Nordic Engineered Wood)
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Figure 25 Montana Long Hall (photo courtesy o Darryl
Byle in connection with IS Smartwoods)
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Figure 26 Viken Skog BA, Høneoss, Norway
(courtesy o Moelven)
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Figure 27 Juwi head office, Wörrstadt,
Germany (courtesy o Binderholz)
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Figure 30 Parking garage in Innsbruck, Austria
(courtesy o KLH)
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