Clothing the Play

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Roswitha Spence

The Art and Craft of Stage Design

Roswitha Spence



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by Roswitha Spence




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Printed with support from the Waldorf Curriculum Fund

Published by:

Waldorf Publications at the

Research Institute for Waldorf Education

38 Main Street

Chatham, NY 12037

Title: Clothing the Play

The Art and Craft of Stage Design Author: Roswitha Spence

Editor: David Mitchell

Copyeditor, Proofreader, Layout: Ann Erwin

Manuscript Preparation: Sarah Kane

Illustrations, Designs and Costumes: Roswitha Spence

Photographs: Charlotte Fischer

© 2012 by AWSNA

ISBN # 978-1-936367-25-2

First Printing ChinaReprinted 2014



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Contents

Preface: Dawn Langman

Introduction: Roswitha Spence

Chapter I: An Approach to Design

Chapter II: Color

Chapter III: Textures

Chapter IV: Style & Form

Chapter V: Costume

Chapter VI: Makeup, Mask & Puppetry

Chapter VII: Scenery

Chapter VIII: Lighting

Chapter IX: Application & Examples

Chapter X: Pericl es, Princ e of Tyre

Chapter XI: Exercises

Chapter XII: Practical Issues

Index of Characters

Bibliography

Acknowledgements



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For ten years I was privileged to work beside Roswitha on the annual

production of a Shakespeare play. This took place at Emerson Col lege

in Sussex, England. Together we would attempt to penetrate the deeper

levels of each play. Then we would separate: she to her team of students

who would learn with her how to clothe the play and myself to the group

who would ul timately wear the costumes and inhabit those spaces that she

has written of in the following pages.

At var ious times during the weeks leading to the performances , both

groups would meet and share the results of their journeys. Invariably

Roswitha would inspire the entire group with the profound truths of

what her team was creating visually. It was always a wonder for me to

see that what I was striving for in the creation of the characters and the

interactions by the actors could be embodied in color and style. Again and

again I was astonished at Roswitha’s unique combination of practical and

professional expert ise infused with spiritual insight.

This penetration of the elements of color and style in clothing and setting

aroused an atmosphere of sacred wonder in the actors and a profound

respect for the role of those who worked behind the scenes. She showed

how these elements emerged out of the lawfulness which underlies the

whole evolving creation of both our human wor ld and the world of

nature.

I was granted a rare glimpse of something not experienced since. Very

often the various components of a production arise arbitrarily out of

each separate department. However, this has been a working together

which enabled all the aspects to serve the greater whole. This may be

Preface

expressed as the spiritual core of the play or the central intention within

the playwright’s inspiration.

Over the years I have witnessed Roswitha’s incredible range of talents,

of which only a few are represented in this book. In all she at tempts she

achieves a quality of excellence. There is a devotion to detail, not in a

pedant ic way but out of an understanding of how all the parts, even the tiniest, spring from the central creative vision that informs the whole.

Together with her willingness to master the di scipline that each medium

requires, she has achieved that capacity of the true artist: to render the

medium transparent so that it can reveal the deeper levels of reality

that lie behind surface appearances. She has achieved this mastery in a

number of realms, some of which are considered to be technical only. In

this she has demonstrated that a craft becomes an art when the technical

skills serve the creative impulse of the soul, and that a discipline is not

simply the practice of cold, empty form but devoted practice to master the

creative laws of the universe. Like all those who achieve mastery, she can play and nd creative solut ions even when working with the minimum

of resources.

This book is lled with practical treasures and is welcomed by all of us

who have for many years acknowledged the unique work Roswitha has

developed. It will be valued by everyone who longs to have guidance at a

practical level which is also insp ired by a deeper vision.

Dawn Langman

Melbourne, Australia



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Introduction

In the photograph a little girl is sitting in her cot beside a teddy bear

almost as large as herself. As she gazes intently at the camera, she sucks

the thread she is about to push through the eye of a needle: Three-year-

old Roswitha is making her rst costume, an elaborate Elizabethan affair

in deep red velvet with a gold trim, for her favorite doll. It is a gloriousmess, but she is thrilled with the result!

As a professional eurythmist or movement artist , my mother wore pure

silk costumes on stage in vibrant shades of many colors that often hung

around the walls of our at. I remember them as always being freshly

ironed. I would revel in diving in and out among them and letting the

fabrics slide through my ngers. Looking

back, i t is remarkable that my mother

never told me not to. My father taught

history of art and wood-carving and spentmany hours after school working on

some project or other that nearly always

included my brother Christopher and

me. I had the good fortune to have had

parents who taught me from an early age

that almost everything can be created

at home and made both beautiful and

practical. I a lso learned that compromise ,

either in practicality or in beauty, is not

an option.

When I started school , I discovered the joy of all arts and craft s, and

I would be rst in line to help with costumes for the many plays we

performed. So it was no surprise to my parents and teachers that , on

leaving school, I chose to t rain in designing and making theatre costumes.

Once I nished my training, for which I had gone to Stuttgart,Germany, I started work as a cutter at The English National Opera in

the production wardrobe, and later I spent a season working for The

Royal Shakespeare Company in Stratford-upon-Avon. In between I

was employed in a modern couture house, where I made an important

discovery about the difference between stage costume and street clothes:

Everyday wear, especially when custom-made, needs to be perfect on

the inside and even neater than on the

outside, so that the individual wearing

the garment feels comfortable and ‘at

home’ in it. This is not true of the stagecostume, the outside of which is more

important than the inside, and whilst both

outside and inside must be secure and

comfortable, neither needs to be as neatly

nished as streetwear.

Later, life took me to Emerson

College in Sussex, England, an adult

education and training center based

on the work of Rudolf Steiner and

“All the world’s a stage, And all the men and women merely players;…”

As You Like It, Act II, scene 7



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anthroposophy. Though not part of the

daily or weekly timetable, drama was

taken up enthusias tically and actively

by the students. In the winter there

were performances of Christmas plays

adapted from the English mediaeval

mystery cycles and in the summer

productions of Shakespeare ’s works.

The founder, Francis Edmunds, had a

great love of Shakespeare and awoke

in me a new understanding of his plays

that strengthened my own love of them,

as year after year we studied the plays

and rehearsed the productions that the

students then performed.

I found it immensely exciting to search

for depths of meaning within the images with in the text, only to discover

how anthroposophy could awaken quite new levels of understanding

of the plays. I learned rst how both earthly and spiritual truths can be

found in the texts, and then how the use of color can make these truths

accessible to the audience, how the textures of cloth and painted surfaces

can translate the color into movement

and how the style and shape of any piece

of scenery or garment objectively sets

the t imeframe for the story the play tells. When the designing process uses these

principles in this sequence , it creates

cohesion between the spoken word and

the visual appearance of the play.

During my years in professional theatre,

I worked with the sketches given by

the stage des igners. They were nearly

always exceptional works of art, drawn

and painted with skill. The costume style

was, in the main, true to his tory, and

attached to one corner of each sketch

were swatches or small samples of

the fabrics chosen for each part of the

garment. When the sketches entered our

workshop, they were accompanied by

the great bol ts of the fabr ics that had just

been bought for the costumes. In this

moment the designer’s creative process

was complete, except for the costume

ttings, while my own, the interpretation

and execution of the costumes, was just

beginning.

However, I found I could not use this

way of working when I began to teach

students, and so I started to developanother way that would incorporate all

three areas of theatre design. Set, l ighting and costume are conventionally

designed by three different people, and the three main ingredients—color,

texture and style—work di fferently in the three areas . But because I was

responsible for the overall design, I had the opportunity to incorporate

every aspect of the three ingredients into the three areas and to discover

how they relate to and affect each other.

A moment of intuit ion led me to start the

designing process with color. WheneverI started to live with the inner substance

of a play, in my mind’s eye I saw moving

swaths of varying color tones. It was

as if I was gathering these colors from

vast, unseen spaces, drawing the many

individual strands together and gradually

weaving them into a whole within myself .

I then added the texture to the colors and

formed them into a style. When I saw

on stage the results of this approach to

design, I was astonished to discover how

Top: School days Bottom: College days



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different the effect could be from what I had learned in training. When

the starting point of the process was the style or form, I sensed that the

colors were held or contained within each character, but when color was

the starting point, they seemed to move and ow between the characters

and enrich the wholeness of the production.

When I began to teach backstage art and craft, I started by using my

ready-made sketches, but my students were not prepared to work with

ideas on paper that they had not participated in developing. And so I

began to evolve exercises in which the students themselves researched

the elements that belong to the designing of a theatre production. Many

who jo ined the backstage team had not learned any arts or crafts when

growing up, so our productions led them to discover how creative their

minds and hearts and how skillful their hands could be. It also became

important to balance artistic work with the crafting activi ties that were

needed to dress or clothe both stage and actors. I witnessed with great pleasure how many of the students discovered the following: Without

artistry the craftsmanship is dull, just as without manual abiliti es the

artistic cannot shine.

The approach I have developed and that I have set out in this book can be

applied to any stage production. Wherever there are actors, in whatever

setting, whatever their appearance and in whatever light, the visual aspect

affects any audience. For the sake of clarity, however, I have chosen to

focus on Shakespeare’s plays, as those are the ones I have designed most

frequently.

Over the years, colleagues and students have asked me to write about this

approach, and now that this has become reality, perhaps the contents of

this book wi ll help those whose task it is to c lothe a play and who might

not know where to begin, or inspire those who wish to nd a new approach

to their profession of stage design. First and foremost, it intends not to give

answers, but to generate new questions, support and strengthen individual

initiative and, above all, encourage free creativity. In whatever the

circumstances individuals may nd themselves working with color, texture

and style in set, costume and lighting, I hope that the following chapters will prove useful to all with an interes t in Clothing the Play.

Roswitha Spence

Emerson College, 2012



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IAN APPROACH TO DESIGN

“… the play’s the thing,

Wherein I’ll catch the conscience of the king.”

Hamlet, Act II, scene 2

FIRST GOALS

There are three elements that a designer maywant to bear in mind when approaching thedesign of a play and searching for the specicfocus of the production: telling the story, engag-ing the audience and supporting the actors.

Telling the Story: Two points are worth remem-bering in relation to the story of a play: How-ever beautiful the visual aspect of a productionmay be, it frames and supports the story andtherefore should not compete for the audience’sattention, and it rests with the designer to cre-ate both images and practical solutions that dothis. At the same time the designer’s aim is toopen the audience’s eyes to a dimensionbeyond what is said in the script, that heightensthe audience’s understanding of the story and

enhances the writer’s and director’s intentions.So the designer needs to reect on how to bringout certain aspects of the story with visualtools, not only when rst imagining and sketch-ing it, but also when developing the design fur-ther during rehearsals, when the stage and theactors have become physical realities.

Engaging the Audience: Precisely because ithappens unconsciously, everything to do withthe visual side of a production inuences theaudience’s experience profoundly, and theoverall relationship between color, texture andstyle—and between costume, set and lighting—can either diminish or enhance it. So the set,costume and lighting design can give the audi-ence the impression that they are participatingin the action themselves or that they are entirelyoutside it. Therefore, another goal of the de-signer might be to create a design that allows

the audience to engage actively with what hap-pens on stage. It is also worth rememberingthat the production is complete only when theproduction has an audience, and the perform-ers can engage in an inner dialogue with thosewatching. This silent encounter may take bothactor and spectator beyond the worlds theyknow and lift the design, as part of the whole

production, into a dimension that is lled withlife.

Supporting the Actors: Thirdly, actors needcolors, textures and styles in set, costume andlighting that encourage them to enter their rolesand to engage the full scope of their talents.They also need to know that their surroundingsare safe and their costumes comfortable sothat they can move around with ease andcondence.

I once attended a performance of a production in which one scene was setin a kitchen. The overall setting was bland, with off-white wallpaper, win-dows with peeling, colorless paint, faded curtains and a oor covered indull, worn linoleum. At the center of the stage stood a battered table andchair. An elderly couple entered, the wife dressed in a shabby cover-allapron and the husband in baggy trousers held up with suspenders over a

collarless shirt. Their conversation was a habitual argument that had longlost its heat. During this dialogue the husband cautiously climbed onto therickety chair and then onto the table to change the naked light bulb. Takingwhat seemed like an eternity to do so, this old man, with bent back andarthritic knees, held the audience spellbound. This was the artistic geniusof Lawrence Olivier at work, giving deep signicance to the most mundaneof activities.



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DEVELOPINGTHE OVERALL VISION

In an ideal world the rst step for the designeris to meet the director and other members of

the creative team to work on an approach to orvision of the play. It is also helpful—this is par-ticularly valuable when designing for an ama-teur production—to get to know the company insome depth, and when the company of actorsand the backstage crew are included in thisexploration of the play from the start, a valuablecohesion can be established. The aim is toexplore what the play has to offer and to dis-cover how each individual can bring his or her

own insights to enrich the overall vision. If thecompany members have been encouraged tobecome co-creators from the outset, thedesigner can specically ask actors for theirinput regarding the colors and moods of theplay and its characters.

This exploration and discussion will allow thecreative team to discover the many choices thatit needs to make as quickly as possible. These

choices obviously present challenges, but theyare also opportunities: Which aspect of theplay’s story does the company want to tell?How deeply do those involved wish to penetratethe play? What ‘world’ do they choose toportray?

Then there are practicalities that strongly inu-ence the rst work of the designer: Will the pro-duction be realistic or stylized? Will the play beset indoors or outdoors or both? Is the space to

be used for the production a conventional stage

with a proscenium arch? Does the stage have athrust, or does it offer the opportunity to per-form in the round? Will the production performin one venue only or tour? What is the overallproduction budget?

Questions asking for early artistic resolutionshave in my experience of working on a Shake-speare play included the following: Twelfth Night

is usually considered to be pure comedy; can italso be tragic, if the laughter it raises is fre-quently cruel and isolates the victims? King

Lear is generally classied as a tragedy; is it atragedy if the main character goes mad but atthe end overcomes his madness and becomestruly wise? In Pericles the hero goes on an epic

voyage; is it an outer event, an inner journey orboth at the same time?

RESEARCHING

1. READING & IMAGINING

My starting point is to clear my mind of previ-ous designs and, with a ‘blank canvas’ in my

imagination as well as an attitude of waiting orlistening for images, to study the play. I read itrepeatedly, often twelve to fteen times, in dif -ferent ways and with different goals, for exam-ple, the whole play in one session, to acquire anoverview; one act slowly, each day, to deepenmy understanding of it; characters only, one ata time, to experience their individual qualities,their perspective and development. In this way Ican identify with the overall journey of the playfrom every angle. Out of these readings my rstimages arise.

2. OBSERVING

Such images have led me to observe andexplore particular places and to study relatedmaterial. For example, when preparing for aproduction of Pericles, a story of ocean voyages,

I went to the south English coast. Watching howthe water moved, I imagined Pericles spendingmany hours riding that movement on his ship. Inoticed that the random rolling of the pebblesagainst each other contrasted with the rhythmi-cal ebb and ow of the water, but was similar tothe seemingly random ways in which Periclesarrived at the various countries he visits. Then Isaw how the sun on the moving ripples createdpatches of intense light and shadow in ever-

changing shapes, and I saw them as a metaphorfor the joys and woes that Pericles experiences.The three different qualities of movement inwater, stone and light gave me the key to under-standing the varying situations and moods ofthe play as well as the tools for its design.

3. LIVING INTO THE SCRIPT

A script is like the street map of an unknowncity about to be explored; it needs to be closelystudied so that the designer can live within itcomfortably. A good place to start the explora-tion is with what the designer meets rst: thetitle. A Midsummer Night’s Dream, for example,describes the season and the time of day, aswell as the dreamy nature of the characters’awareness. In his rst lines Theseus, Duke ofAthens, species the season and time:



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“… four happy days bring in

Another moon; but O! methinks how slow

This old moon wanes; …”

and the words convey that the play opens onone of the darkest nights of high summer.Puck’s closing words then reconnect with the

nal word in the title and invite the audience toacknowledge that just as the characters havebeen dreaming so, too, have they:“…That you have but slumber’d here

While these visions did appear…”

When designing this play I used the title to cre-ate the main image and then gave the entire setthe visual quality of an archetypal dream. Itsedges were blurred, and at the center I placed

what I called a ‘window’ of focus. This trans-lated into ats at the borders of the spacepainted midnight-blue and basic costumes indark fabrics that were later covered with gar-ments lighter in tone and texture.

Shakespeare’s character names are oftenrevealing. Celia’s name in As You Like It con-tains within it the Latin word for heaven, coelus, and dressing her in a heavenly or celestial blue

can heighten this aspect of her character. Thename of her cousin, Rosalind, comes from theLatin word rosa, and although these owers canhave many colors, the classic one is red, anddressing Rosalind in red can emphasize whatShakespeare may have wanted to convey withher name. Then, blue and red are clearly con-trasting colors and can help the actors nd thecontrasts in their characters.

Developing this perspective further, these two

colors live side by side in mediaeval paintings of

Mary, the Madonna, by such artists as Raphael.The red of Mary’s dress expresses the warmthand love within her heart for her child; theheavenly blue of the cloak surrounds the dressand can be understood as the expression ofMary’s openness to the innite wisdom of God.

The tones of the red and blue chosen forRosalind and Celia can echo what is containedwithin this image.

Celia, As You Like It : “When I was helped intothis costume, I was concerned because theunderskirt is tremendously heavy and the waistand jacket snug. But a surprising thing hap-pened once I had it on: When I started runningaround and giggling with Lara, it ceased to be

uncomfortable and I forgot I was wearing a cos-tume. Despite its weight I remember feelingcompelled to move more than in any of theother costumes I had tried on.” – Brigitte*

Rosalind, As You Like It : “The heavy, layeredunderskirt made my movement feel grounded.The way the skirt pulled me in at the waist gave

me a helpless, feminine feeling that was in con-trast to the earthy skirting.” – Lara

There are of course countless secrets to befound in individual words and phrases. Thefollowing were ones that spoke to me when I

was preparing the design for a production ofThe Winter’s Tale. In the belief that his queen,Hermione, has been unfaithful with his closestfriend, Leontes, king of Sicilia, expresses hisinner turmoil in the following way:“I have tremor cordis on me.”

In experiencing her husband’s deep hurt andanger, Hermione senses the darkness of theexternal forces controlling him:“There’s some ill planet reigns.”

Although the play opens on a light, innocentnote, these lines herald the approaching calam-ity created by Leontes’ jealousy that will affectall the characters at the royal court. Bothaspects can become visible in set and costumecolors: Dark tapestries may hang from the setwalls; Hermione wear a soft, deep, sober tone

AS YOU LIKE IT: Sketch for Celia & Rosalind Costumes for Rosalind & Celia

AN APPROACH TO DESIGN : RESEARCHING



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in a single color over a youthful shift, to expressher inner serenity, and for Leontes a chaoticmixture of colored paints applied to the fabricof his costume to express his emotional confu-sion. Further words signicant to me were thoseuttered by the Delphic oracle when asked to

pronounce on the question of Hermione’s inno-cence or guilt:“… and the king shall live without an heir

If that which is lost be not found .”

They refer rst to the newborn child but alsoindicate the need of both Leontes and Hermioneto nd each other again in a new, consciousway, if both inner and outer order is to berestored.

It is also important to be aware of the turningpoint or climax of the play. The major turningpoint in The Winter’s Tale occurs when the scenechanges from the inside world of Sicilia to theopen spaces of Bohemia and the season fromwinter to summer. The dimensions of the trans-

formation these changes herald become appar-ent in the Old Shepherd’s words at the end ofAct III:“…thou met’st with things dying, I with things new

born.”

These words expressed for me the centraltheme, that of transformation of death into life,of resurrection. It recurs in Paulina’s words toLeontes when the statue of his supposedly

deceased wife returns to life:

“Bequeath to death your numbness, for from him

Dear life redeems you.”

To make visible the transformation of personalturmoil and pain into general joy and redemp-tion, I changed the previous somber colors and

textures into light and translucent ones in bothset and costumes, using pastel tones in softfabrics.

4. STUDYING

Other sources of inspiration have been books,essays and lectures. I might mention as exam-ples Charles and Mary Lamb’s synopses ofShakespeare’s stories and Cecil Harwood’s

study, Shakespeare’s Prophetic Mind. Rudolf Stein-

THE WINTER’S TALE: Sketches for Hermione Paulina Leontes



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AN APPROACH TO DESIGN : RESEARCHING

er’s insights have always opened doors to newunderstandings of Shakespeare’s plays, theircharacters and the motivation for their actions.

A particular source of inspiration to me hasbeen the fourteenth lecture in the Speech and

Drama Course, in which Rudolf Steinerdescribed the sequence of the colors of therainbow as expression of the human being’s

journey through different inner moods. Thesecolors and their inner qualities can also beunderstood as differing ways of perceiving theself and the world.

The cool tones begin the rainbow colorsequence and move towards the warm. A mood

of prayer can be experienced in the violet ofimmeasurable expanses; this transforms into ablue that expresses inner tranquility, and theninto the green of growing, blossoming nature,so that the eye journeys from distant and invisi-ble worlds to the here and now, with all that canbe experienced along the way. When it moveson to the yellow, a feeling of self conrmationcan arise that the orange warms, so that when

the nal color has been reached, the red awak-ens a love towards all humanity.

This way of looking at color has become thefoundation on which I have built my approachto design. With color as the starting point, I

have been led directly into the inner moods orouter atmospheres and then on into the life ofthe entire story. Color moves freely before it iscaptured into texture and form or style andspeaks to an audience with an immediacy thatneither texture nor style can improve on. Inever compromise on color even if I have occa-sionally had to do so in the other areas ofdesign, texture and style.

APPLICATION

1. FINDING COLORS

After arriving at an approach to and vision ofthe play, I am ready to begin to involve colors inthe design. With a blank sheet of paper and theessence of the characters living in color in my

imagination, I paint abstract forms in an attemptto capture the inner reality of each phase of thestory. By dipping my brush intuitively into thecolors and letting them lead the way, the devel-opment of each character becomes the overallcomposition of the play.

Then I stand back, to see if I can experience thestory of the play as what I now call a ‘color jour-ney.’ If I cannot, I keep working at the journey.When I can, I identify the specic colors andtones in the different parts of the painting thatcapture the core or essence of the charactersand write their names in each area. The nextstep is to test whether the character colors areeffective when placed beside each other in indi-

vidual scenes. For this I make what I call a ‘stripcartoon.’ This is a long ribbon of paper, four tosix inches high, and of indenite length. I readeach scene in sequence and immediately after-wards with colored pencils draw the essence ofeach character as movements and forms, not asrepresentational images. If what I have createdin any of these previous steps does not ‘speak’to me, I repeat the process until it does.

Color collage for THE MERCHANT OF VENICE Strip cartoon for CYMBELINE



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2. EXPLORING TEXTURES

After nding the characters’ colors through thisprocess, it is time to nd the textures thatenhance them in the way they feel, move andcatch the light. I have spent many hours in fab-

ric shops, allowing different cloths with varyingtextures to run through my ngers. I also drapeeach one over any available furniture to dis-cover which textures most effectively expressthe essence of the scene or character.

Then I consider the relationship between thecolor and the texture I have chosen: When thetexture speaks the same language as the colorof the set or character, both are simple and

direct. When texture and color are deliberatelyin contrast with each other, the situation orcharacter can be made to look complex, evenduplicitous. Soft, owing fabrics on elegant win-dows or young, fast-moving characters, forexample, give them their full potential. Thesame fabrics in a rough cabin or on an elderlypeasant look thin and express either poverty ormeanness, making an entirely different state-

ment. Likewise, a stiff and unyielding cloth onthose fast-moving characters prevents naturalmovement, and so they appear hard and evencruel.

3. RESEARCHING STYLES

Then it is time to investigate which styleenhances the colors and textures chosen so far:Should the play be set in a past or historicalperiod? Does the production need a contempo-rary look? Does it want to be set in a future orimaginary period? I not only use referencebooks but go to museums and art galleries, andto towns and cities, to assess the relationship ofstyles of clothing to architectural styles, when

designing set and costumes. I also look at howclothing styles relate to professions and life-styles for costume and character. When enter-ing a cathedral, I have imagined the buildersconstructing the arches and the craftsmen carv-ing the intricate decorations and seen the qual-ity of the spaces created for specic purposes.Then I have envisaged how they were dressed. Ihave also visited stately homes to study the

details of the period in the building and to visu-alize the ladies of the same era gliding along thecorridors in their elaborate and elegant dresses.Then I imagine how King Lear’s castle or thehalls, in which Beatrice and Benedick in Much

Ado about Nothing conduct their courtship bat-

tles, might look and how the spaces might belit.

4. SKETCHING

The most daunting moment has nally arrived.My aim now is to commit the results of theresearch, images and impressions to paper. Ithas long been my ideal to do this in such a waythat all company members can understand the

vision of the play and intention of the design. Tohelp achieve this when sketching, I empathizewith each character, giving special attention tothe hands. I imagine the individual way in whichthe character moves his or her hands, so thattheir positioning in the sketch gives an impres-sion of the personality. I also search for the spe-cic technique or techniques that belong to thevision: Do I draw an outline of the character

Nylon chiffon Satin Velvet



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AN APPROACH TO DESIGN : APPLICATION

rst and then ll in the colors? Do I paint aswath of colors and outline the gure on top?Do I cut out the gure in white paper or cloth,to paste onto colored paper? Do I paste thecolored gure onto a white background? Thepossibilities are endless, and whatever my imag-

ination gives me, I may well use not only for thecostumes of the character but also for aspectsof the set and lighting.

It can be worthwhile not completing the naldetails when coming to the end of designing.The unnished sketch allows the creative proc-ess to continue in the practical building of setand costumes and then even into the creationof the lighting design, the nal element in the

production to be realized. Each play has its ownartistic laws and each production has its partic-

ular social circumstances, and they both ask thedesigner to be open to them and integrate theminto the creative process, with all their practicalconsequences.

5. CONSIDERING THE AUDIENCE

It is a challenge to arrive at a design that satis-es people sitting in every area of the audito -rium, as the audience in the back rows and upin the very top of the theatre have a greateroverview but see fewer details, while for thosein the front rows, the reverse is true. Colors andshapes in set, costume and lighting need to beclear yet understated, and if the designerachieves this, each spectator will have the free-

dom to enter the world that the production cre-ates in his or her own individual way.

TO SUM UP:

The creative process starts in the inner life, inthe imagination of the designer, where colorslive most strongly. The colors then awaken the

urge to nd the textures. The colors and tex-tures together then ask to be given a style orform. How the designer relates inner imaginingsto the necessary objective research, and thentransforms fabric, wood, metal and other mate-rials into the clothing of the play, is the furthersubject of this book.

* Brigitte, Lara and Matt very kindly modell ed some

costumes for various chapters and wrote o f their experiences in wearing them.

MACBETH: Witches MEASURE FOR MEASURE: Lucio AS YOU LIKE IT: Touchstone



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IICOLOR

“Hail, many-color’d messenger…”

The Tempest, Act IV, scene 1

When running stage design workshops on color, I have frequently beenstruck by the way in which participants express their experiences of thedifferent color tones. On the one hand, subjective and often emotionalstatements emphasize personal likes and dislikes; on the other, there is agenuine recognition of an objective quality in each color that transcendspersonal opinion. As part of the workshop, I usually scatter over forty silk

squares on the oor in patterns relevant to the group and the subject andinvite the participants to walk between the squares without speaking. Theythen begin to explore their own relationship to the individual colors, pick-ing up a square in a color they like and another in one they dislike. Aftermoving and playing with the two for a while, they share comments on thefeelings that have arisen during the exploration.

In the nal step of the exercise, every partici-pant arranges the silks in a collage that

expresses a theme he or she has chosen. Whenthis is nished the whole group studies eachcollage, trying to sense what the themes mightbe. To general amazement, the participants’sense of the theme is almost always close to, ifnot identical with, what the creator had in mind.

The nal conversation highlights the differencesbetween the personal feelings that each associ-

ates with the colors and their objectivequalities.

What is color? From a scientic perspective thedifferent colors can be described as varyingwavelengths of light, but our interest here is in

the human and artistic experience that arisesout of an objective perception that then awak-

ens feelings. This is a world that a designer willwant to explore in depth if a design is to incor-porate colors in a way that allows them to bothenhance and serve the production.

p h o t o

b y

A l y s o

u n

B a r r e t t



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COLOR : THE EFFECTS OF COLOR

one of the neutral colors of varying shades ofgrey. There are also two other color wheels ofcolors in either paler or darker tones, the rstof pastel colors and the second of earth colors.

As mentioned earlier, one of my own sources of

inspiration has been the way in which RudolfSteiner described the sequence of colors in therainbow in the Speech and Drama lectures. Theevolving relationship that Steiner set outbetween the colors of the rainbow and theawakening and development of human con-sciousness has allowed me to nd a way of con-necting specic colors to the characters forwhom I was designing costumes; I could relateor link their inner development in the course of

the play to one or more of the stages in thatcolor sequence.

IN SET ANDCOSTUMES

One of the rst plays for which I began toexplore this relationship or correspondencebetween a color and a character in practice wasThe Tempest : I discovered that Caliban knows allthe rivers and plants on his island but very littleabout himself, and so I dressed him in a cos-tume that had an abundance of greens. I sensedthat Prospero’s daughter, Miranda, carriedwithin her a future that was full of hope, so Igave her a simple, owing costume in a mixtureof the colors of dawn, soft peach and rose. Forthe magus Prospero, who I understood to haveso deepened his knowledge of nature and ofhimself that he commands the natural elements,

I designed his magic cloak in all the colors of

can be immensely helpful to the designer whensearching for ways to convey the inner qualitiesof a play or a character. Another aspect of colorimportant for the designer to consider is that,even when the shades or hues are identical,colors can appear as different to the observer.

A number of aspects determine the way theyare perceived: the places in which the speciccolor is used, the other colors that are placedbeside it, the texture or textures combined withthe color, the exact hue and tone of the color.

THE RAINBOW

The designer who chooses to look more atten-

tively at the rainbow—a fragile and almostmiraculous natural phenomenon that comesinto being only in the dance of sunlight and rain—can nd both practical and contemplativeaspects in it to explore. What contributes to thebeauty of the rainbow is that it is a completecircle, though the ground usually hides thelower half. It is only occasionally possible to seeit in its entirety, for example, from an airplaneon the clouds below. This circle is perhaps theorigin of what are called the three color circlesor wheels available to the designer.

The rainbow color sequence is known in colortheory as an archetypal color wheel and con-sists of six colors, which are then paired. Thethree primary colors are red, yellow and blue,and their complementary colors are green, pur-ple and orange respectively. The latter arecalled complementary colors because whenmixed in the proper proportion with the primary

color with which they are paired, they produce

THE EFFECTS OF COLOR

Colors are obviously an integral part of nature,but we habitually take them for granted, so asimple imaginative exercise can help to bring us

closer to them and their effect. The sky is blueand the grass green, as we know, but whatwould our experience be of the world and ofourselves if these two colors were suddenlyreversed?

The main aspect of color relevant to the work ofa designer is that it has an objective reality onthe one hand, and on the other it profoundlyaffects our inner life, whether or not we are

conscious of it. The colors found in nature andthat arise in an individual’s inner life are of a dif-ferent quality, but they build at the same timean invisible bridge between every aspect of theworld around and the world of the human soul,and this bridge enables us to sense ourselves aspart of our surroundings. This means that amore conscious experience of color can en-hance our experience of both worlds. The maineffect of colors on our inner world is that theycreate and so become an immediate expressionof what we might call psychological or soulqualities, such as joy and pain.

Language reects this relationship: We speak ofbeing green with envy or in a blue mood. Some event may be to us as a red rag to a bull,and we see the world through rose-tintedspectacles. Consciously or unconsciously, weassociate the broad spectrum of colors with awide range of feelings or psychological quali-

ties, and knowing what these associations are



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nd peace of mind and solace of soul. In termsof traditional color theory, blue is the coolest ofthe rainbow colors. The strongest effect of blueon the human soul, in all its shades from pale tomidnight blue, is that it creates an impression ofloyalty and dependability, and when we nd

blues in the plant world, we perhaps experiencethem as having the qualities of modesty anddelicacy.

In clothing: Beside black, blue is perhaps themost popular color for clothes, as the blue jeansworn by both sexes of all ages all over theworld, without barriers of class or climate,exemplify.

In costume: Blue is the color for those charac-ters that are shy, quiet and retiring as well asloyal and seless; these characters serve oth-ers, even if this indicates a weakness. Otherpsychological qualities of blue are the wisdomof an older character or the innocence of a childor youth. It may give the impression of a char-acter’s inability to make decisions. The differen-tiations between the above are usuallyexpressed by varying the tones; the effect canbe heightened by using different fabrictextures.

In set: A blue curtain or at recedes into thebackground and makes any space larger. Blue inthe set can look either noble and uplifting orheavy and dull, depending on the color used inthe lighting.

In lighting: Blue is the main color used to cre-ate coolness on stage. Blue can appear mysteri-

ous and tends to expand the space, as its effect

COLOR IN LIGHTING

Finally, it is important to note that the principlesthat determine how color can be used in cos-tume and set do not necessarily apply to color

in lighting, because in lighting the three prima-ries and their complementary colors are differ-ent: red/cyan, blue/yellow and green/magenta.Their effects will be addressed in the chapterthat deals specically with lighting.

THE R AINBOW COLORS

1. BLUE

The blue of the sky overhead is our constantcompanion whenever we nd ourselves in thenatural world, even when the heavens arecloudy and their color cannot be seen. The blueinvites us into the innite distances of thoseheavens; they allow us to breathe out, relax, to

the rainbow as a symbol in color of his magicpowers.

After further exploration of the relation ofhuman psychology or consciousness to color, Ibegan to develop this approach, beginning with

colors for costumes and, as my rst way of dif-ferentiating between characters, used thecolors found in nature for those that do notknow themselves well, and for those with astrong and more conscious inner life, I chosecolors that expressed one or more inner aspectsof the character.

I also discovered that each color has the capac-ity to express both the positive and negative of

an inner quality in the human being, and whichof the two aspects is expressed is determinedby the way in which the colored dyes and paintsare applied. So I began to use individual colorsto express the following psychological qualitiesthat can be applied to both set and costumes,placing violet at the end of the sequence: blue:wisdom, humility, tenderness, insipidness;green: a love of nature, an out-going quality, lit-tle awareness of the self, jealousy; yellow: asense of self-awareness, youthfulness, a livelywit, cruelty; orange: cheekiness, spunk, energy,brashness, harshness; red: warmth, activity,devotion, anger; violet or purple: solemnity,reverence, frailty.

The conventional use of individual colors ineveryday clothing has been included in thischapter, primarily to indicate how the samecolors can be used either in a similar way or dif-ferently in costume and set.

COLOR : THE RAINBOW COLORS



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ingly. Green bleaches or washes out othercolors on stage.

3. YELLOW

Yellow is always associated with light. Children

draw the sun in yellow, and when we look at ayellow surface, we may sense that it has a shin-ing or radiating quality. Psychologically, there isa happy quality to yellow as well as alertness,and when the tone is cooler it hints at sharp-ness. Yellow bridges the cool and warm colorsand so is able to stand alone, as though makingvisible an individual’s self-awareness or intellec-tual capacities. As a color it wants to spreadout, so can be difcult to contain. When blend-

ed with other colors, yellow makes a strong anddistinct difference to a whole picture.

In clothing: Yellow can express a character’slightness, happiness, honesty or openness. Itcan also convey loneliness or separateness and,again, in its cooler tones, a hint of aggression.

and dark when the color begins to decay, andthis can create a quality of eeriness that awak-ens anxiety in the observer. At the other end ofits spectrum, as a pale and soft tone, green canmake us yearn for unknown and open spaces.

In clothing: Green seems to drain the humancomplexion of color; because of this it mayprove difcult to wear. In its pure tone greendominates and so is often found in a tone thatleans towards its neighboring color of blue oryellow.

In costume: Using green can illustrate howcharacters wearing it may be unaware of them-selves or of others, both as a strength or weak-

ness. The color may also convey that acharacter has submitted to outer inuences orpowers. Cleon, in Pericles, when under the evilinuence of his wife, is an example. When thegreen leans towards blue, it lends a quality ofnobility to a character. When the green movesinto yellow and into an acidic tone, it can con-vey a character’s envy or bitterness.

In set: Green conveys an impression of an out-door setting, perhaps the country or a parkland.A green space is not as wide or as cool as blue,nor is it as calm, noble or conscious. The colormakes a space earthy and familiar. Green canalso convey an impression of emptiness.

In lighting: Green lighting can create an impres-sion of a wide-open, cool space. It has a strangeway of making the space wider than blue, butnot as lofty. Exclusive or a dominant use of thecolor in lighting creates a bilious effect and in

its pure tones is most effective when used spar-

is in scenery. It is difcult to create dark shad -ows with blue lighting, unless the color comesfrom isolated lighting instruments. Blue light onblue surfaces of scenery or costume wipes outor nullies the color and creates a picture withfew or no contrasts.

2. GREEN

The color of the plant world and of nature sur-rounds us at least in some moments of the dayand is closer than the blue of the sky. It is thecolor that has the widest variety of tones andcan still be experienced as green, as the greatarray of greens in springtime and their changesthroughout the season demonstrate. Whatever

the shade of green, we are usually more awareof its world than of ourselves within it. Thegreen of nature can be calming, and walkingthrough the green tones present in eld andforest may refresh us. Where blue meets green,the watery element becomes apparent andcreates a cooling quality. Green can be heavy



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5. RED

Red is the color of the blood that coursesthrough the body and of the heart that is itscentral organ. The color of the love that owsfrom individual human beings to everything

they may hold dear is conventionally red, as isthat of the rose when it is the symbol of thatlove.

Red is also the color of Mars, the god of war,and the color that appears in our faces whenanger arises in us. It is an active and dynamiccolor: It comes forcefully towards the observerand actively draws attention towards itself. Thiscommon understanding has led red to be used

in trafc lights when safety demands that westop. Red has little subtlety or mystery, is directand makes its own rules. In lighter shades thatmove either towards pink or towards maroon, itsoon loses its directness. Psychologically, it canawaken positive or negative experiences in theobserver, depending on the quality of the tone,

usually has a joyous quality but can also beexperienced as hard or callous and selsh.

In clothing: Orange makes a strong and boldstatement, whether this is intended or not, andcan be difcult for an individual to wear without

being overwhelmed by it. Orange contributes agregarious quality to any circumstance.

In costume: Orange brings a dynamic quality toa character that can be either positive or nega-tive. The color brings clarity and differentiationto a collage of warm tones and can make acrowd scene alive and active.

In set: Orange creates an indoor atmosphere

and adds a companionable quality to a set. Thecolor enlivens a set, and whether used onpainted ats or for drapes, furniture or a fewscattered cushions, it creates focus.

In lighting: Orange lighting easily makes setand costumes look both hot and indistinct.

In costume: Yellow may be a good choice for acharacter that stands apart, such as a clown ormusician. A character that wishes to bridgeopposing sides or bring humor and wit to a situ-ation may wear yellow. Yellow can convey anunfeeling or cruel streak in a character. Used

carefully, yellow can be a powerful and effectivetool to highlight a particular moment in a char-acter’s development.

In set: Yellow does not create backgroundspaces and if used in larger quantities overwhelmsthe actors and their actions. A yellow drape orcurtain can lift a dark set. This uplifting effect canbe created when a yellow tablecloth or cushion isplaced on a table or chair, or when yellow is the

color of the owers in a vase on the table.

In lighting: Yellow light alone is almost impos-sible to see as a clean light. It makes most fabricsurfaces in both costumes and set appear dulland dirty and the complexion of the actorsunhealthy or ill.

4. ORANGE

As we now approach the warmer colors, weleave behind the innite distances encounteredin the natural world at the beginning of the jour-ney through the colors and perceive closeness,in orange in particular, as though the glow ofyellow has been ignited and created a vibrantand active re that is continually moving.Orange is a mixture of its neighbors yellow andred and contains the qualities of both radianceand warmth. Psychologically, there is an ele-ment of both cheekiness and spunk that orange

conveys, and this enlivens any surrounding. It




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In costume: Purple may emphasize the positionor status of kings, queens, priests and othermembers of the nobility. The color may age thecharacter.

In set: Purple looks dull or grey when applied to

the painted surface of a set. The effect of thecolor is stronger when used in fabrics. Purple isan effective alternative to black when creating adark atmosphere in a set.

In lighting: Purple brings a quality of solemn orserious beauty to lighting. When the color iscreated by mixing red and blue, the tone is bal-anced and allows the shadows to breathe.

THE PASTEL COLORS

Pastel colors are those that we see in the sky atdawn or at dusk, when the light and the darkare in continuous transition as day moves tonight or night turns to day. The more delicatetones of these colors create a new color wheelthat follows the same sequence as the circle ofrainbow colors. This is subtle and can be experi-enced as mysterious, and the sensations that

these colors awaken in the human soul are gen-tler. The pastel tones echo their brighter sistersin their psychological or inner qualities, butthey certainly do not take second place behindthe rainbow colors; rather, they have their owndistinct and unique role to play in the broaderworld of colors and their effects.

In costume: Taken in reverse sequence to theabove, the soft tones of lavender heighten the

romantic side of a character; they may also

sequence: purple. It takes us out into the innitedistances again. But the journey through theother colors has taken the observer into intenseand dramatic experiences and so has broughtchange. What was the wisdom that lived in bluecan be rediscovered in the color purple, but it

has been transformed, and as a psychologicalquality purple now conveys a reverence for allthat is noble and good. Purple can express theinner qualities of dignity and nobility; it alsoconveys a seriousness that allows an individualto look inward; this may include a tendencytowards contemplation or meditation. Purple isa balance between what are conventionallycalled the warm and cool colors and so canhave a quality of objectivity.

In clothing: Purple makes a strong statement,without overwhelming other colors. The color isoften used for ecclesiastical garments and roy-alty. Purple is generally reserved for eveningwear and for other special occasions.

but whatever its quality we are rarely in doubtas to its message.

In clothing: Red has a cheerful and happyappearance and is especially suitable for cloth-ing for young children full of bounce and

energy. When looking at a crowd, the reds inthe clothing can usually be picked out immedi-ately. To wear red an adult requires condence,and some individuals may go through life with-out ever wearing it.

In costume: Red expresses the strong qualitiesof energy, joy and also anger in a character. Thecolor reveals every aspect of love in a charac-ter, both the more and the less virtuous. Red is

a powerful tool if used sparingly and only forspecic characters in particular moments.

In set: Red always dominates a set. The colorcreates a more enclosed and intimate qualitythat may be used for indoor scenes. Red is eas-ier to use as fabric for curtains or drapes thanas paint on a at or on a oor cloth, even whenit is blended with other colors.

In lighting: Red in lighting is the most strongly

dramatic color in the rainbow. It either washesout all the other colors or makes everythingappear angry, usually both. It is effective on awhite backdrop or white cyclorama when creat-ing an atmosphere of battle. In lighting, redhelps to create sunrises or sunsets.

6. PURPLE

We have now reached the other end of the rain-

bow and the nal color that I have placed in the



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great practicality but also a possible dullness.When dressed in grey/blue or sage/olivegreen, a character can almost vanish while onstage and thus convey his or her modesty.These colors can also convey weakness orshiftiness in a character. Lime/green yellow

can make a sharp wit visible; it also expresses jealousy or spite. The warmer hues of yellowochre and rust/orange enhance a character’sliveliness and sense of fun. In reds and brownsthe liveliness can grow in strength and may beused for a domineering character.

In set: Earth colors create a strongly rustic feelin the space, with the cooler tones creating anoutdoor environment and the warmer ones the

space of a cabin or woodland cottage. Home-spun or roughly woven drapes and rugs mayenhance this atmosphere.

In lighting: Earth colors in lighting blend wellwith the pastel colors. They can be too dark forthe stage and distort the actors’ complexions.

BLACK

As the ultimate in darkness, black creates amysterious and somber mood that may feelthreatening to the observer. The color has asobering effect and can therefore create anatmosphere of objectivity and elegance. Whenused as part of the background, black throwslighter objects into sharp relief; the color canalso swallow the darker ones.

In clothing: Black is a color many wear as city

or ofce clothing. The clergy of many religions

In lighting: Pastel colors in lighting enablechanges in atmosphere or inner quality to be sub-tle and unobtrusive. They can change from anindoor to an outdoor setting or from warmth tocoolness, dullness to brightness or murkinessto clarity; any weather and any time of the day

can be created without the audience’s noticing.

THE EARTH COLORS

Just as the pastel colors are present in the skyand evoke seasonal and weather effects, theearth colors are present in the soil and vegeta-tion and also the man-made environment. Ineveryday life earth colors are suitable for the

working clothes of craftsmen and land workers.Artists love to paint with earth colors: Beingwithin their own color circle, they are subduedand blend easily in their subtle variations.

In costume: The earthiness of the color canexpress a character’s earthiness, suggesting

express a character’s sorrow or gentle melan-cholia. The warm tones of rose and peach allowcharacters to appear calm and full of love andgive them a quiet strength. Dressing charactersin any of these three pastel tones emphasizestheir youth; they can be effective colors for

fairy-tale characters that bring about change ina situation in which renewal is needed. Pale yel-low balances the warmer and cooler colors andseparates characters such as children and trou-badours from others. Greens and blues expressa quality of modesty; this can include thought-fulness and loyalty. Cooler colors usually lookdirty and grey under stage lighting; only the tex-tures of the costume fabrics can alter thiseffect.

In set: All pastel colors give an air of eleganceor antiquity to a set. If the paleness of thecolors is extreme, the set may appear dusty andneglected. Pastel colors are useful when thebolder rainbow or earth colors are too powerfulor strong.

COLOR : BLACK



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In clothing: White is the color most used forclothing worn closest to the skin, as the colorcreates a feeling of safety. Young girls wear thecolor for their conrmation and young womenin the Western world for their weddings.Nurses, chefs and many sportsmen and sports-

women wear white uniforms. In summer, holi-day crowds in white have a light and airyappearance.

In costume: White brings freshness to any cos-tume, whether it is a shirt, an underskirt or afrilled cuff or collar. When an entire over-garment is white, the color dominates. Whencombined with white, different fabrics and theirtextures have different effects: Silks shine or

may glare. Wool and velvet soften the intensityof the color.

In set: White scenery has a stark effect untilcolored lights add layers that give depth to thebase.

In lighting: Black can be used only for black-outs. Black light is another name for ultravioletor UV lighting, and when it is used to light ultra-violet paint in a blacked-out scene on stage, itcreates a phosphorescent effect.

WHITE

White is the ultimate in lightness; color seemsto have left it entirely, and yet it is still a color.The color’s sharpness and brightness can alsohave an unpleasant, perhaps blinding effect onthe observer. As its psychological qualities,white expresses simplicity, purity and an openhonesty, so that nothing remains hidden. In

contrast to black, white blends well with othercolors close by, as though striving for harmony.It absorbs their tones and can reect othercolors nearby.

and members of many religious communities,as well as police and re services, orchestrasand choirs all wear black. Black is convention-ally worn at funerals, perhaps because it givesmourners a feeling of security at a time ofuncertainty. The color gives an individual a

strong sense of self.

In costume: A black costume against a blackbackground can create an empty space on thestage. The color can heighten the seriousnessof a character. It can also express the darknessin a criminal’s evil intent.

In set: Black is usually most effective whenused in special situations. The color can make a

scene more serious than necessary becausecolored lighting cannot change the atmosphereblack creates. Even when painted under othercolors, black pigment shows up under the lightsand remains black.



27

In lighting: A set lit either strongly or subtly bycontrasting colors can create both strong andsubtle shadows, giving depth and variety to aspace. A set lit with one dominant color createsan evenness and harmony in a space, but mayalso create an atmosphere of monotony.

FINAL THOUGHTS

When a designer begins to work consciouslywith colors, he or she will soon discover thatthey offer unlimited possibilities, and thedesigner can be tempted to either work slowlyand carefully, experimenting freely and at lei-sure, or to splash out with them intuitively,working quickly and boldly. Since both can beessential elements in a creative design process,it is a matter of nding the colors and tones andcombinations that have the capacity to expresswhat the designer wishes to express of theinner and outer life of individual characters,scenes and acts and of the entire story of the play.

CONTRASTS IN COLOR

Each color has a strongly individual quality inwhichever color wheel it is at home, but withoutothers as contrasts any main color may become

too dominant, so the designer’s creativity startswhen bringing individual colors together. Inboth costume and scenery it is obvious thatmany colors are needed.

In costume: A costume can be either full ofcontrasts to emphasize the contradictions in acomplex character, or they can be softlyblended to express either a character’s innerharmony or the same character’s blandness orlack of inner color.

In set: A set that consists mainly of blendedcolors may allow the scenery to remain in thebackground. If the colors are bold and con-trasted, the set may dominate the stage.

In lighting: The shine of white lighting can cre-ate a quality of purity on the stage. The colorhas a coldness that can make the shadows dra-matic. Strong white lighting can glare and blindthe audience.

GREY

Grey is created when black and white, or darkand light, are mixed. When no other colors areadded to the mixture, the color created has aneutral and objective quality. Grey can also becreated by mixing complementary colors un-evenly; this method gives the tone a richer andmore subtle quality. One of the color’s charac-teristics is that it swallows light and so can lookdrab in any of the three elements of design, incostume, scenery and lighting.

In clothing: As a mixture of white and black,grey retains its neutral quality without succumb-ing to either the somber quality of black or thelightness of white. In costume: In costume the color can give acharacter a puritanical appearance that can be

heightened when combined with straight linesand simple forms. Soft, owing fabrics in greycan give an elegance to an elderly character.

In set: If the color is the main one used in a set,it creates an atmosphere of isolation or griefthat may create eeriness on stage.

In lighting: Grey in lighting dulls any space andimbues it with coolness, even heaviness.



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The most intriguing costume I have ever seen was in the wardrobe at theStuttgart Opera House, where I had been sent on placement during mytraining. One of my tasks was to hang away all the costumes no longer inuse up in an attic space that seemed to me the size of a football eld. Eachcostume had a ve- or six-digit number that I had to use to guide me to itshome, and while I was plowing my way through the racks one day, looking

for the right space for one particular costume, I came across a garment inElizabethan style that was made entirely of calico. It was painted with dyesand oils in a variety of techniques. Different shades of dye were used todistinguish the overdress from the underskirt, which also had brocade pat-terns painted on it. The cloak had been sprayed with sawdust that hadpreviously been soaked in glue so that it looked like velvet, and holes hadbeen cut in a particular pattern into a strip of the calico at the neck andwrists to create the impression that the garment had lace frills. When Iasked about the origin of this costume, I was told that during World War IIthe wardrobe had had nothing but calico out of which to make costumes,so the costume builders had had to use their ingenuity. This costume hasinspired me ever since because it taught me a level of inventiveness thathas been essential to my stage work and has stood by me through manyrestricted budgets and uncharted scenarios.

IIITEXTURES

“Costly thy habit as thy purse can buy,

But not express’d in fancy; rich, not gaudy;

For the apparel oft proclaims the man.”

Hamlet, Act I, scene 3

WOOD

Wood is a useful material for building sceneryas it is easy to cut to any shape and attach in

unlimited ways. Hard woods are more durableand soft woods easier to handle. However,wood is heavy, has weakness at the notchesand is inclined to warp. On view to the audienceits textural surface can be rough or smooth,depending on how it is nished. When rough itssplinters catch any passing costume cloth, butwhen lit it looks warm and almost velvety. Whenthe wood is smooth it can gain a shiny surface,even reect the light and be altogether more

elegant when painted.

as the outer expression of inner worlds isbetween those that are rough and uneven andthose that are smooth. However, textures in setand textures in costume work differently, for a

simple reason: Those of the scenery stay in oneplace, while those of the costumes move withthe actors and can help or hinder their actions.So it is essential to explore and then familiarizeoneself with the different properties of eachtexture. Their individual qualities and the inter-play between set and costumes can then beused most effectively. Any lighting textures,such as those created by gobos, can be addedat a later stage in the design process, once the

textures for set and costumes have been chosen.

MATERIALS

If the design process begins with color, the tex-

tures used for scenery and costume bridge thecolors that have already been chosen and thestyle still to be determined. Alongside thecolors, the surfaces of materials used on stage,such as wood, metal and fabric, all help to cre-ate and express the moods of the production sothat the inner life of the story and of the charac-ters becomes a sensory experience for theaudience. The textures contribute to this experi-ence by absorbing and then reecting the light

in different ways. The main contrast in textures



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heat more effectively than most fabrics. Theminute hooks on each hair give it a springinessand resilience and allow it to keep its shapewell, but when these are roughly treated, theyusually tangle and cause the fabric to shrink.This rough treatment is a technique intentionally

used to make felt; through this process itbecomes thicker and more hard-wearing.

In set: Woolen curtains, blankets, cushions andrugs lend a pleasant and warming indoor qualityto a set. In costume: As a fabric, wool generallylooks heavy and can give the wearer an older,dignied appearance, while tired or downtrod-den characters may appear melancholy orimpoverished when dressed in it. Wool used forcostumes in crowd scenes softens the overalleffect. On a practical note, woollen fabrics areparticularly warm when actors wear them understage lighting, so it is advisable to restrict theiruse. In lighting: The fabric surface absorbs thestage light, making it easier for the character toblend into the background.

SILK: This natural animal ber has almost theopposite properties to wool. The silkworm spins

ble to nd a texture that truly creates the desiredeffect. However, not all designers have enoughfabrics at their disposal in the textures andcolors needed, so the following are general indi-cations on the effects of the bers and weavesof fabrics in set and costumes and under lighting.

FABRIC FIBERS

There is a marked difference between naturaland man-made bers, and each fullls its ownparticular role on the stage. Natural bers arekinder to the wearer and softer to the eye butgenerally less hard-wearing than the man-madeones. Man-made bers are dense and tend tolook less alive under the lights, but are gener-ally less expensive. The ongoing developmentof new synthetic fabrics continues to diminishthe differences between the two.

1. NATURAL FIBERS

WOOL: This is a natural animal ber from thebacks of sheep, goats and camels and is well-known for its warmth because it regulates body

METAL

Metal is strong and heavy and used for hanginglighting units and supports for bulkier scenerythat has to carry heavy weights. Lighter metalssuch as aluminum can be used for structural

purpose and often comes with ready-madeholes for assembling. Cutting and re-joiningheavier metal involves welding tools. Whenused as scenery in view of the audience, thetextures are rough, even rusty or high glosswhen polished, catching the light with dazzle.

FABRIC

Two elements create the texture of a fabric: thefber and the weave. How the two elementscombine determines the way in which the fabricbehaves or moves, and particular combinationsof ber and weave can be strongly expressive inboth set and costumes. A light and lively char-acter, such as Ariel in The Tempest , may wear asoft, light and owing fabric, such as chiffon. Amore self-centered and therefore enclosedcharacter, such as Antiochus in Pericles, maywear a stiff, unyielding cloak, perhaps made oflinen or a rm synthetic or metallic ber, which

provides him with the means to close himselfoff from others when necessary.

To research textures most effectively, I suggestwhat may seem obvious: using the principle oftrial and error. When the designer takes the timeto experiment with different pieces of cloth indifferent ways—draped over a piece of static fur-niture or hung as a drape or pinned to the bodyof an actor moving in character—and then stud-

ies the effects under colored lights, it is possi-Wool Wool

TEXTURES : FABRIC FIBERS



30

wire to create rocks or other irregular struc-tures; this irregular linen sur face can be paintedin the same way as ats and other scenery. Incostume: Linen can be stubbornly rigid or owfreely, depending on the density of the weaveand the cut of the garment. The natural weight

of linen ensures that it hangs well but creaseseasily. The qualities it lends the wearer liebetween wool and silk and may work well fordown-to-earth characters. In lighting: Becauseit creases easily, the angular patterns of thecreases create sharp shadows under stage light-ing that can be used to create strong dramaticeffects.

COTTON: Cotton is another natural plant berthat grows in a pod around the seeds and has a

can therefore dazzle the audience, but fabricswoven from the rougher bers absorb the lightand appear dull.

LINEN: Sometimes known as ax, linen is anatural plant ber similar to its close relatives,

hemp and sisal. They all belong to the range offabrics used to make sails and sacks, forexample, because of their strength and weight.One of the attractions of linen is that its wovenstructure is clearly visible; this includes itsoccasional irregularities.

In set: Linen, hemp and sisal lend themselves torustic environments, such as woodland cabins,and to outdoor settings. They are also useful for‘scrunching’ over a base made of wood and

its cocoon in one long, ne thread, and thethread from the inner part of the cocoon makesa ne, strong and smooth fabric. When cloth iswoven with thread from the outer layers, thetexture of the silk fabric is rougher and hasirregularities. Silks dye well into radiant colors,

but these are difcult to x permanently.

In set: Silk hangings and furniture covers bringan air of elegance and femininity to a set. Incostume: Silk moves uidly around and overthe actor’s body, giving the wearer a feeling ofsuppleness and luxury. It also has a uniquesheen which makes the fabric appear delicateand pure. A quality of richness is added whenthe silk is woven into elaborate designs. Inlighting: Finer silk reects the stage lighting and

Top: Silk Bottom: Japanese silk LinenTop: Raw Silk Bottom: Jacquard silk



31

In set: Brocade cushions and curtains give aquality of luxury to any setting. In costume:Brocade pleats well and easily, so it can be usedfor skirts over crinolines. If the pleats are madeto hang from a yoke or collar, they make thecloak or coat full and expansive. In lighting:

When colored lighting plays on the colored silkthreads of brocade, its rich textures areenriched.

BROIDERY or BRODERIE ANGLAISE: As thename suggests, this fabric, usually available in alight weave, is embroidered in a wide variety ofmotifs in thread that has the same color as thecloth. Small holes are usually cut into the fabricand then embroidered, and these create a lace-like effect.

In set: Broidery or broderie anglaise is bestused for window dressing and delicate furnish-ings to create a setting with a feminine atmos-phere. In costume: Women’s light summerdresses, blouses, aprons and bonnets becomemore feminine when made of broidery anglaise,while for male characters, ruffs and cuffs made

cotton fabrics also make imposing period skir tsthat hold their shape well. In lighting: Theeffect of cotton fabric lies somewhere betweenwool and silk and varies according to its weave.As a principle, the rougher the surface, themore light it absorbs and the duller it appears.

2. SYNTHETIC OR MAN-MADE FIBERS

Acrylic, nylon, polyester and many other syn-thetic bers are made from mineral substancesand processed in specialized ways. They creaseless than natural bers but are difcult to dyeand paint. However, man-made fabrics drapewell and in the main hold their shape.

In set: Man-made furnishing fabrics have a sub-stantial weave and can be heavy to handle.They do not take paint as well as natural cloth,but are more hard-wearing. In costume: Syn-thetic bers tend to have greater denition andthus lend themselves to enhancing extremes.The glass-like fabric used in a costume made forLady Macbeth illustrates her cold nature. Theextreme lightness or heaviness of man-madebers can also convey the essence of Shake -speare’s supernatural worlds. In lighting: The

surfaces of many synthetic fabrics are hard andreect the light more than they absorb.

3. FABRIC WEAVES

BROCADE: Brocade is made from many coloredthreads of silk, cotton or synthetic bers inter-woven in intricate patterns. It has a rich andopulent texture, and there are few fabrics thatlook so luxurious. It is usually a heavy and un-

yielding fabric, which makes it bulky for draping.

soft and uffy appearance. It has countlessuses, depending on how it is woven. When usedon stage it has a neutral quality and is durableand resilient to all sorts of rough treatment, soit is popular for both set and costumes. Cottonis generally ner than linen, feels comfortable

against the skin and regulates body temperature.Like linen, it creases, and its lighter weight andslightly rough surface make it hard to drape.However, it is easy to dye and paint.

In set: Finer cotton makes good tablecloths andother interior decorations. It can also be usedfor painted or embroidered screens that need tobe semi-transparent. In costume: The thinner,looser and the interlock cotton weaves are idealfor shirts, blouses and undergarments. Heavy

Top: Cotton Bottom: Poplin Brocade




32

In set: When stretched across a wooden frame,the heavier calicoes make excellent ats andserve well as a base that can then be painted.On the other hand, the cloth can be difcult todrape for curtains, for example, because it cre-ates angles in its folds. In costume: Calico is a

good choice of fabric as backing for fragile clothwhen bodices need to be tight or jackets tohave a rm shape. Rustic clothing, petticoatsand crinolines with frills over the bottom hoopare usually made of calico. In lighting: The sur-face of the cloth is rough and under the lightslooks dull and colorless, but this gives it a rusticquality.

CHIFFON: This fabric is woven from either nesilk or synthetic bers. It is semi-transparent,light and owing and drapes easily, so that theforms it creates lend beauty and lightness to thewearer. When the silk version is dyed, thecolors are radiant. The cloth appears to shrinkwhen wet, but careful ironing returns it to its fullsize and makes it translucent. If made of puresilk, however, the weave of chiffon is sensitiveand snags and tears easily.

In set: Because of its delicacy chiffon is best

used as window dressing or light drapes to fur-niture. In costume: This fabric is an ideal choicefor costumes for fast and lightly moving charac-ters, such the fairies in A Midsummer Night’s

Dream, or elegant negligees. In lighting: Howchiffon responds under lighting depends onwhether it is made from silk or the harder andatter synthetic bers, the silk version appear-ing more alive and dynamic than the man-madeone.

on which to build hats, crowns, belts or anyother part of a costume requiring a rm back-ing. In lighting: The cloth that covers buckramappears at under lighting.

CALICO: Calico is made from unbleached

cotton and comes in a variety of weights. If leftunwashed, it retains some of the natural plantsap that is visible in the fabric as black specks,so that the cloth remains rm. When ironingseveral layers sewn together, the sap binds thecalico to a rm fabric useful as a less rmreplacement for buckram. Once washed itbecomes softer but does not lose its bodyentirely. No backstage workshop is completewithout a good supply of calico.

from it give the costume a rened touch. Inlighting: This fabric is semi-transparent andpartially lets through light, so it acquires a sub-tle glow under lighting.

BUCKRAM: This material is made from plain,

woven cotton or sisal and heavily stiffened withglue; the most rigid version comes in two ormore layers that have been glued together. It isnot conventionally seen on the surface of acostume or set because it is used as a stiffeneror backing.

In set: Buckram may be used to strengthen fab-rics that need to hold a particular form for anelement of set, such as a pelmet for windowdressing. In costume: Buckram creates a base

Broderie Anglaise Top: Buckram Bottom: Calico



33

fabric usually appears more mobile than thesynthetic.

JERSEY & OTHER KNITTED FABRICS: Thesefabrics, made of natural or man-made bers,have a unique structure, in which one thread

continually interlocks with itself in an extra-neknitted weave. This enables the fabrics to freelystretch and move in any direction. They drapewell but do not always retain their shape overtime. When being cut, jersey and other knittedfabrics need to be draped either on a dummy oron the actor, as when lying at the clothbehaves differently than when it hangsvertically.

In set: Jersey may be used for draped curtainsbut is less suitable for static parts of the set as itdoes not reliably hold its form unless soaked insizing or glue. In costume: Undergarments andT-shirts are traditionally made of cotton jersey.A heavier jersey is more suitable for costumeswith intricate gathers or deep folds, as thestructure enables the cloth to swing freely whenthe actor moves; ner jersey has a tendency tocling to itself. In lighting: How jersey and other

CREPE: Similar to chiffon but heavier, crepe ismade from ne silk or synthetic bers. It has anelastic quality created by the technique of over-spinning the yarn that gives it a languid ow,but it is difcult to hold still, so is difcult to cutand sew. Crepe is often manufactured with a

satin backing that gives it greater stability.

In set: The shiny side of the fabric offers a goodcontrast to the duller side and so makes it suit-able for patchwork designs that need to retainthe same base color. Large quantities make ele-gant window dressing, while in smaller quanti-ties crepe can be used for sets that have aninherently languid or seductive quality, such asa bedroom or a brothel. In costume: A lighterversion of the cloth, called crepe de Chine orChinese silk, was a fashionable dress fabric inthe 1920s. It was often cut on the bias so thatthe fabric clung to the body and the dress high-lighted the body’s curves. It is useful for elegantevening wear, as both her dress and his cloak.In lighting: As chiffon, crepe can be made fromsilk or synthetics, and so how it responds understage light depends on which ber has beenused to make the costume or set piece. The silk

CHINTZ: Chintz is a closely woven cotton fabricthat is usually printed with elaborate oraldesigns and then heavily glazed to create ashiny surface. It is hard-wearing and usedmainly for furnishings.

In set: Chintz can be an effective fabric for theset, but the oral prints make it advisable toselect carefully where and when it is used.However, it can be painted over to defuse thebasic design. In costume: When broken downwith dyes and paints, chintz can be useful inspecic period productions, for example, tolend seventeenth century dresses a note of ele-gance. In lighting: The surface sheen can makechintz harsh under stage lighting and createbright reections.

Top: Chiffon Bottom: Chintz Crepe de Chine Jersey




34

there are many layers of it. Any hole in a scrimwill show up as a black spot.

ORGANDY: Organdy is another ne, semi-transparent silk or cotton fabric. The bers arespun into a hard thread, and when woven it

behaves like paper and is therefore unsuitablefor draping. In addition, it crumples easily andthen goes limp, and so requires frequent ironing.

In set: Organdy can act as a scrim, but itsdenser weave makes the images behind itappear indistinct. It has a limited range of large-scale uses in a set, though ner props such asladies’ small bags and delicate hat decorationscan be made from it. In costume: Whenorgandy is used to make an over-dress, it cangive the character a delicate appearance. It isalso a useful fabric for stand-up frills and col-lars, but larger collars need to be under-wired.In lighting: Forms made in organdy appear hardand at under lights, so it is advisable to use thefabric sparingly if it has not been treated withpaints or dyes.

backed with a denser fabric. This then createsan opportunity to use contrasting colors. Inlighting: Lighting enhances the motifs of thelace, as the spaces between the patterns appeardark on the stage.

NET: Net is a fabric woven from several threadsthat interlink diagonally; this particular weavecreates the holes. The fabric is then treated withchemical solutions to give it more body orstiffness. It is made in different weights and canbe used in both scenery and costume.

In set: Net is a fabric ideally suited for back-drops and scrims; its transparency creates aspace on stage that remains hidden until it is lit.If the scrim is made of natural bers, it absorbs

paint more easily, but is then less hard-wearingand can tear. In costume: Net is used mainly tostiffen such undergarments as a petticoat orballet tutu. If sewn in frills with many layers, itcan create the effect of a crinoline. In lighting:Because net is the most transparent fabric avail-able, it is almost invisible under lighting unless

knitted fabrics absorb or reect light dependson which ber has been used in the making andwhether it is a heavy or light weight. The lightervariety appears at, whereas the heavy jerseymay appear rich in texture.

LACE: Lace is a delicate fabric woven frommany threads, either natural or man-made, thatall interlink in many directions. Different thick-nesses of thread are often used to enhance themain motifs in the design. Today lace can bewoven in any width, ranging from narrow ribbonsto fabrics with a standard width measurement.

In set: As with broidery anglaise, lace heightensthe feminine appearance of a set, adding a par-ticular quality of beauty. It may appear as a deli-

cate edge to cushions, dressing table cloths ordrapes at windows. In costume: Fine lace is notrobust enough for full costumes; it is moresuited for delicate trimmings at the neck andarms, for both male and female characters.Heavier lace can be used to make a full costumebut, because it is semi-transparent, needs to be

Lace Costume net Scenery net



35

the way in which a carpet is woven. As a result,the surface of the fabric has depth, the silks areshiny and the cotton has a deep warm dullnesseven when the color is cool. Most velvet fabricshave a nap, which means that the pile leans inone direction. This appears to change the

fabric’s color when it is laid in different direc-tions. Crushed velvet uses the nap by atteningit in a variety of directions. All velvets are dif-cult to sew unless the pieces are well-pinnedtogether, because the pile ‘walks’ or slidesaround. These fabrics have a good weight andmove in a attering way. They are also anexcellent foil for other textures, especially whenthe design requires that the colors remainunchanged.

TAFFETA: Taffeta is a densely woven fabricmade either from natural or synthetic bers. Ithas body, so it holds its own shape and rustlesas it moves because the folds rub against eachother. It is seldom to be found in printed orwoven patterns, but the single colors have a

rich, soft glow.

In set: The heavier varieties of taffeta can bemade into curtains and cushions that have a fulland rich quality. In costume: Taffeta is ideal forperiod skirts and dresses worn over crinolinesand for gentlemen’s waistcoats. It is more effec-tive and less bulky when pleated at the waist ofthe skirt rather than gathered. A bodice madeof taffeta holds its shape well but will be morehard-wearing when given a calico backing. In

lighting: Stage lighting heightens the richnessand glow of taffeta.

VELVET & VELVETEEN: Both these fabrics havea pile and are made from silk, cotton orsynthetic bers. The unique weaving techniqueuses an extra warp thread that is looped over arod and then cut to create the pile, similarly to

SATIN or SATEEN: This is the name given tofabrics whose main characteristic is their shinysurface. The effect is created by the pre-dominance of the warp threads on the uppersurface of the fabric. It drapes well, is stableand is useful for many purposes.

In set: Satin works well for curtains and otherset elements that need ow and a sheen as theirmain qualities. In costume: Satin was a favoritedress-making fabric in the past. Its dense weaveand glossy appearance make it suitable for ele-gant costumes that can be worn by self-assuredcharacters. In lighting: Lighting heightens theglamorous effect of satin.

Top: Organdy Bottom: Satin Taffeta Top: Crushed velvet Bottom: Velvet




36

it. These fabrics can also be useful for stage jewelery, crowns and armor. In lighting: Whenpaint is applied to the surface sheen of metallicfabrics, either to create patterned motifs or totone down the brightness of the reection, theinterplay with lighting can create unexpected

and powerful effects. With these fabrics it isadvisable to experiment with their effects wellin advance.

In set: The sheen of metallic fabric may appearat. However, if it is partially painted over, thesurface glitter can be transformed into a hiddenglow, giving the fabric a new level of life. Incostume: For characters whose main quality iseither their cruelty or their kindness, metallic

fabrics can emphasize either their brittle rigidityor inner radiance. Metallic threads in a brocadeweave lend opulence to the garment made with

In set: The three-dimensional quality of velvetadds depth and richness to any curtains orcushions. In deep colors they may create a mas-culine effect, ideal for the scene of a study. Incostume: Velvet adds dignity and stature to anystyle of costume, especially when combined

with silky or brocade textures. In lighting:Under stage lighting velvet absorbs any bright-ness and creates shadows that have a strongglow.

4. METALLIC FABRICS

All metallic fabrics have a ne chemical or alu -minum surface coating, either on the bersbefore they are woven, on the nished cloth oron both. This creates a sharp, mirror-like sheen.

They are cold and hard in appearance, butextremely effective if the designer wants todraw attention to the character or particularpart of the set. When placed alongside othersofter fabrics, they can add richness and depthto a set or costume.

Corduroy Metallics



37

in his belief that it is right to bequeath his king-dom to the daughter professing to love himmost, King Lear demonstrates a level of inno-cence that he quickly regrets. The soaring vaultsand the soft, owing lines of dress typical of theMiddle Ages lend themselves to the expressionof King Lear’s lack of insight into human nature,which also determines the atmosphere of hiskingdom, because this style creates a sense of

simplicity. From the moment that Hamlet learnsthat his father has been murdered, the princedisplays a sharp intelligence as he searches forproof of his uncle’s guilt, even if he is compelledto be slow to act. Airy columns, perfectly pro-portioned arches and marble oors in geomet-ric patterns all create the space for the manifoldactivities of his capacity for sharp thinking typi-cal of the Renaissance era. Strong, clear-cutpleating that emphasizes the uprightness of the

human stature, belts and yokes that draw the

are what will mainly interest and then serve thedesigner in the search for style. More arts,however—sculpture, painting, literature andmusic—also reveal how people lived, felt andthought at particular times. In fact, all arts canbe understood as expressions of a particularquality of human consciousness and so incor-porated into any research for the design of aplay. The relationships between dress and archi-

tecture through the ages, however, are the mainconcern for the designer.

King Lear and Hamlet demonstrate how the his-torical setting can be transcended to reveal theplay’s inner core by the choice of style andform of the set, and then how, if the style andform of costumes of the age in which the play isset are also transformed, the design can expressthe individual journey of the character from one

state of consciousness to another. For example,

When the lights go up for the rst time on aproduction, the audience’s eyes are immedi-ately led to the stage space in which the formsand lines of the set prepare them for the storythe actors are about to tell. In those rst fewseconds, the designer has the opportunity toconvey the general quality of the play and theperiod in which it is set. The tool available toachieve this is the style and form of set, cos-

tume and lighting. In searching for the style andform of these three elements, the designerneeds to consider which past, present, future orpurely imaginary styles can best illustrate andexpress the overall theme of the production.

Just as a costume clothes the body of the actor,so the set clothes the body of the whole play;scenery, furnishings and properties are compa-rable to the costumes of the characters. Dress

for the costume and architecture for the set

During a dress rehearsal of Beethoven’s Fidelio, when I was supposed tobe checking the costumes, I became absorbed in one particular scene inwhich, singing to the glory of the sun, the prisoners slowly emerged fromtheir cells. The setting was a bleak, harshly-edged courtyard surroundedby bleached stone walls. Each prisoner was wearing thin, dirty rags thathad long lost their color; only the prison warden and Fidelio herself werebetter dressed, though the tones of their clothing were also muted. Hear-ing that the prisoners had been released without his permission, Pizarro,the prison governor, stormed onto the stage. He was dressed in a scarletuniform with gold epaulettes and braiding that created a stark and jarringcontrast to the set and the other costumes. The limp, monotone clothingand harsh enclosure exaggerated the plight of the prisoners, while therigid style of the governor’s uniform emphasized the inexibility in hischaracter.

IV STYLE & FORM

“I think he bought his doublet in Italy,

his round hose in France, his bonnet in Germany,

and his behavior everywhere .”

The Merchant of Venice, Act I, scene 2

STYLE & FORM : DRESS & COSTUME



38

course, all human beings have their own uniquevariations of it. For example, the proportion ofthe upper to the lower arm is the same as theproportion of the lower arm to the whole whenmeasured from the ngertips to the shoulder.

The more the Golden Section or Mean is a basisfor design, the more harmonious the designbecomes. For example, when designing clothingfor Portia in The Merchant of Venice, whose clearthinking, compassion and capacity for actiongive her the means to resolve what appears tobe an insoluble conict, the costume designermay choose to work with this principle ofbalance.

In contrast, the deliberate distortion of the

Golden Section can express the opposite. Shy-lock’s obsessive desire for revenge makes clearthat reason plays little part in either his thinkingor his actions, and his costume may reect hislack of balance by having distorted proportions.Costumes for Shakespeare’s comic charactersoffer a wide range of opportunities to vary anddistort the Golden Section.

tions, could express a total freedom of move-ment. The elaborate decorations on layers ofpadded brocade found on the beautiful and ele-gant tted jackets and dresses of the Eliza-bethans are examples of a desire to reshape ordisguise the body.

Within each age there is another creative ten-sion at work: It exists between the general con-vention and individual taste, between thedictates of fashion (including the uniformity ofthe professional clothing) and the desire forfree expression that creates an entirely individ-ual appearance. This tension is what bringsabout every new style of dress.

2. THE GOLDEN SECTION

The Golden Section, sometimes known as theGolden Mean, is a proportion that is created bydividing a distance in such a way that the pro-portion of the smaller section to the larger isthe same as the proportion of the larger sectionto the whole. The Golden Section or Mean isfound throughout the human body, although, of

eye to the horizontal line, tights that give greatfreedom of movement and cloaks that y in anydirection all characterize the Renaissance styleof dress. This style reveals a strength and clar-ity in the emerging human intellect.

DRESS & COSTUME

The following ways of looking at the form of thehuman body can help to determine the style ofthe costumes. They can aid in the design ofboth historical styles and new, imaginary onesthat express the inner life of the characters.

1. POLARITY

One of the principles determining the stylesthat have evolved through the ages is the polar-ity of the naked and the clothed body. Familiarto us from ancient Greek sculptures, the free-owing folds that were created from gauze-likelengths of cloth indicate that, at that time, cloth-ing with little structure and form was desired,so that the human body, perfect in its propor-



39

ation with frills and other adornments. Kingsand queens have always been recognizable bytheir crowns, which represent the unique con-nection of these human beings to the invisibleworld of the gods. The actual crown, whichallowed them to receive the inspiration neededto serve their people, was originally a simplecircle of gold that rested on the brow andremained open to what streamed down on themfrom above; in later times the crown’s centerbecame closed when a new consciousnessevolved. Hamlet’s princely birth and noble mindmight suggest a simple, slender band of gold asa crown, whereas King Lear’s foolish hot-headed-ness might earn him an upside-down crown.

Purpose and our capacity to act lives in our

limbs; their many muscles and joints allow andinvite us to move freely, in contrast to the nor-mal resting position of the head. The way in

servant, Launcelot Gobbo, tends to be slovenlyand has a wavering conscience.

4. THE BODY

Every play has a cast of characters whoseactions reveal their strengths and weaknesses,and how the characters are costumed can givethem expression. Strength in one area may indi-cate weakness in another and this, too, may beincorporated into the costume design. One wayto do this is to consider where the strength of aparticular character lies. It may be in the clarityof intellect and capacity to reect. Hamlet’sundoubted strength lies in his capacity forreection, his weakness is his inability to act. Itmay lie in the force of purpose and capacity to

act. King Lear has a capacity to act spontane-ously, but he cannot think through the conse-quences of his actions. It may be found in thewarmth of emotions and capacity to empathize.Cordelia, King Lear’s youngest daughter, hassuch empathy and steadfastness that it empow-ers her to withstand her father’s actions, butshe is not able to think on her feet in momentsof crisis.

Intellect and our capacity for reection are cen-tered in the head, and a cool head is consid-ered to be the equivalent of clear thinking. Therounded shape of the head that sits in stillnesson the shoulders crowns the human form, andits natural costume is hair. If the intellect is thecharacter’s strong point and he or she is of aphilosophical bent, then the costuming of thehead can be sober and clear in design. A livelyand frivolous character, such as a clown, trou-

badour or courtesan, can carry off a frothy cre-

3. THE PERSONALITY

Four different types of human personality thatare known as the four temperaments may bemade visible in four basic body shapes. A tall,slender body may have an air of inwardness andmelancholia. In As You Like It , plain, verticallines and drapes may emphasize the heavy-heartedness of Jaques, an outsider who’s deep-est love is for philosophy. A short, roundedbody evokes a ery, impetuous and cholericnature. In The Winter’s Tale, padded hips andbust help to create rounded lines for Paulina,who even as a servant is not afraid to set her-self against the king. A petite body with quickand agile movements may house a butterybrain and happy, sanguine personality. The use

of chaotic, diagonal lines in the costume canemphasize the quick-wittedness and nimble n-gers of the pickpocket Autolycus in The Winter’s

Tale. A heavy body with a slow and casual gaitcan express a placid, easy-going and phleg-matic personality. In The Merchant of Venice, anabsence of clear lines in a loose, oppy gowncan help to create the impression that Shylock’s

Temperaments

h i f hi h f h h f h lhi h l f d bl d

STYLE & FORM : DRESS & COSTUME



40

a costume can express the emotions of a char-acter. Straight lines and shapes point to a char-acter’s clarity and equilibrium; they can alsoindicate antipathy, coldness and lack of feeling.A shirt, blouse or jacket buttoned to the neckgives the impression of a character that needsto be neat and tidy or that has withdrawn fromthe world. Curves convey a softness, warmthand sympathy but can also point to a bullish andoverbearing nature. As soon as the shirt, blouseor jacket is unbuttoned, the character’s open-ness and interest in others begin to speak, butthe possibly unkempt appearance can also indi-cates muddle-headedness or carelessness.

The costume design for the central part of thebody can either unite or separate the head from

the limbs. A belt placed at the waist of a similaror contrasting shape, texture or color to themain garment can either unite or divide thecharacter’s appearance. Elaborate embroidery,

attention to the fact that at the start of the playHamlet cannot make use of the freedom that hisstatus gives him, he may be clothed in tights.

Emotions are at home in the middle region ofthe body, the trunk; its center, the heart and thelungs, bridges the head and the limbs. This partof the body needs warmth and protection forthe many organs housed there that are vital tolife. Of all areas characterized so far, this is themost sensitive. The rhythmical beat of the heartand the rise and fall of the lungs continuallyadapt and change as they strive for balance intheir interaction, and the emotions ebb andow, rise and fall, in the same way. This dynamicexchange also occurs both between an individ-ual and other human beings and between the

outer world and an individual’s inner life.

When the basic tools of the straight line andthe curved line are used, the form and style of

which our legs are formed enables us to standrmly on the ground yet step with condence inany direction at a moment’s notice, leaving thearms free to perform more creative actions.When the legs are enveloped in many layers ofcloth, the actor’s movements are restricted andthe overall impression created is of a heavinessand unwillingness to act. King Lear may beclothed in a long, thick gown that draws atten-tion to the way in which the costume hampershis impulsive movements at the opening of theplay. In contrast, full sleeves, gathered at thewrist, emphasize the movement of the arms.The hands, as the most subtle instruments ofhuman action, enable us to give and to take.Hands and ngers are the tools of the craftsmanand can carry out the most intricate movements

and achieve extremely complex tasks. Clothingfor both arms and legs that allows for as muchfreedom of movement as possible expresses anenergetic and red sense of purpose. To draw

Intellect

Purpose

Emotion

prod ce a jagged appearance hen lit from febeading and other decoration can also disg ise



41

produce a jagged appearance when lit from fewlamps. Straight-lined shapes around Dionyza in

Pericles can heighten the audience’s sense ofher villainy in the moment when she is planningto murder Marina.

Roundness has exibility, gentleness, warmthand softness; it may also express weakness.When put together, rounded shapes create animpression of harmony. An excess of roundedforms can convey the atmosphere of comedy orfarce. If the drinking parlor in Twelfth Night inwhich Sir Toby Belch plots to ridicule Malvoliois full of rounded forms, it can underline thecomic excesses of the situation.

The vertical increases the height of the space

and draws the eye upwards, creating a formalatmosphere. The horizontal widens the spaceand allows the gaze to wander from side to side,creating an atmosphere of ease and comfort.

ARCHITECTURE & S ET

The following principles can inform the choiceof style for the set.

1. POLARITY

In the ongoing search for perfection in form,styles in architecture have alternated betweenclean simplicity and elaborate detail, each erausing the experiences of its predecessors tocreate its own style. The desire to create build-ings that honored the religious life on the onehand and that needed to satisfy material needson the other were what determined each par-ticular style. As with dress, another creative

tension exists between the styles designed forpurpose-built public spaces and buildings andindividual tastes that are expressed in privatehomes. Johannes Kepler’s (1571–1630) Harmon-

ice Mundi indicates one of the rst tools that canbe used to express polarities: “The world ofLines is as eternal as the Spirit of God… the linepresented him with archetypal pictures for theartistic edice of this world… In the beginningGod chose straightness and roundness in order

to endow the world with the signature of theDivine.”

Straightness has clarity, direction and purposeand leads to an experience of uprightness. If theset of Duke Vincentio’s palace in Measure for

Measure is created with straight lines, it willacquire the nobility that helps him to put rightthe state affairs that are in disarray. It may alsoexpress hardness. When put together, straight-

lined shapes create sharp angles that in turn

beading and other decoration can also disguisewhat lives in the character’s heart. A belted,buttoned and high-collared tunic can expressthe self-obsession of King Lear ’s Edmund. In

Hamlet , a tightly-buckled bodice, constrictingthe movement of Gertrude’s diaphragm, canmake her self-centeredness visible. When thecostume is to unite all three parts, a smoothow of fabric covering the whole body and withlittle ornamentation can help the audience todirectly perceive the inner qualities of the char-acter. In King Lear, a smooth, simple dress ttedto Cordelia’s slender form can make her open-ness a visual experience. A soft, unformed shifthanging freely from the shoulders can expressOphelia’s vulnerability and immaturity.

5. SYMMETRY

A general symmetry exists between the left andright sides of the body, but this principle doesnot apply to its front and back or its lower andupper halves. When emphasized, the symmetryof left and right can reveal uprightness andnobility. The absence of symmetry can suggestone-sidedness, even dishonesty. In the absenceof symmetry in the body of Richard, Duke of

Gloucester, clearly evident in his back that has aone-sided hump, Shakespeare has indicated hismoral ambiguity.

Finally, the designer will need to take into con-sideration both the physical comfort and thelevel of condence of the actors in the produc -tion: Does the actor prefer a tight or loose gar-ment? Does the actor have a sensitive skin?What feel can give the actor most condence

when wearing the costume?

and create the space between They separateitself a balanced and harmonious natural setWhen the vertical and horizontal meet in the

STYLE & FORM : ARCHITECTURE & SET



42

and create the space between. They separateand protect the inner from the outer space. Assoon as doors and windows are inserted intothe walls and open and close, the relationshipbetween inside and outside comes alive.

The three elements are connected or corre-spond to both the three parts of the body andto the varying inner dynamics of the produc-tion. When the ceiling or roof is lofty andvaulted, the actors’ intellect or thinking has thepotential to be free and clear, and the head willfeel free. When the ceiling or roof is low, theactors’ mental activity may stay limited to thepractical and everyday, and the head mayappear oppressed. A wide, open oor allows forfree movement of the actors’ limbs and expres-

sion of the characters’ will. Rostra, steps orother pieces of set on the oor restrict the free -dom of the limbs and hamper the will. Thespace created by the walls becomes the homeof the journey of the characters’ emotions justas the trunk of an actor’s body houses theheart. The number, proportions and positions ofdoors and windows affect the characters andtheir interactions with others. Many windowsand doors break up the uniformity of the walls

and open up a vista, but they can also evoke anatmosphere of restlessness or transience.

4. SYMMETRY

The vertical axis creates symmetry between leftand right and runs from the front to the back ofthe stage. When it is incorporated into the setdesign, symmetry evokes an impression of theformal and the ordered and creates a space in

which reason dominates and emotions are

itself a balanced and harmonious natural set-ting, but when three witches appear the har-mony vanishes. The drugged and unclear stateof mind of Cymbeline’s ruling king may suggest asetting that combines balanced and distortedproportions to express the ambiguity and ten-sions within the character; this same quality willalso be present throughout the royal household.

3. THE HOUSE

The set can be seen as the ‘house’ of the pro-duction and has three main elements: A houseneeds foundations rmly anchored in the earthon which to build the oor. A house also has acovering roof, which can also be seen as amicrocosmic image of the dome of the heavens

above. (Most stage designs do not usuallyinclude a roof, but leave the upper space opento accommodate the lighting and make theworld of inspiration accessible.) The walls asthe third element in the house hold the lowerand the upper parts in their rightful positions

When the vertical and horizontal meet in thediagonal, a living relationship is createdbetween the two spatial directions.

The space at the front of the stage has anatmosphere of intimacy and subjectivity. Theback is distant and more objective. The distanceand objectivity may be enhanced or exagger-ated by making furniture or other items thatstand close to the front of the stage larger thanthose positioned at the back.

The polarity of indoor and outdoor, of urbanand country, is also one of the greatest con-trasts to be found in a stage setting, and straightand curved lines and shapes can effectivelyconvey the differences. In an outdoor setting,

with curving branches of trees and other plants,the rounded or curved shapes create a naturalcountry look. In an indoor setting, a curvedshape lends an atmosphere of coziness orchaos; when combined with soft surfaces,rounded shapes lend warmth. Straight shapescreate an impression of a city setting, withstraight-edged buildings and streets. In anindoor setting the straight shapes evoke orderor austerity; straight forms with hard and shiny

surfaces bring a cool quality to the setting.

2. THE GOLDEN SECTION

When harmony and balance are required in thedesign of the stage set, the proportions of theGolden Section can be applied and may beincorporated at the same time as other, distort-ing elements. This apparently contradictorycombination can set up dramatic tension. The

opening of Macbeth takes place on a heath, inThe Golden Section

one side is lit in a different way than the otherways Fast or abrupt changes make the audi-calmed or suppressed This symmetry can be



43

one side is lit in a different way than the other,all kinds of alternative situations can be createdthat express the varying inner quality of anyparticular moment.

FINAL THOUGHTS

Working with the principles that determine thestyle and form for any aspect of stage designcan sometimes feel limiting, and this can lead toquestions: Is what has been described in thischapter necessary to create a good design? Canthe designer not put his trust in his own crea-tive resources alone? When the designer aimsto both serve the essential idea of the produc-tion and support the actors in their own crea-

tive process, the choices made ultimatelybecome an integral part of the design, whetherthey address style and form, texture or color.So if the design is started from this perspective,the principles are less likely to block the design-er’s creativity.

What can also help to deal with any sense oflimitation is the designer’s making the imagina-tion the principal tool with which to nd the

colors, textures, style and form. Then any guide-lines are more likely to be experienced as catalystsrather than obstacles to the designer’s creativity.

ways. Fast or abrupt changes make the audience aware of the lighting. If the change is slowor gradual, the mood or quality of both lightsettings prevails, and the audience will notnotice any changes.

2. THE SPACE

Lighting the entire stage in the same way cre-ates a harmonious and balanced atmospherethat may also make the audience a little dreamy.Lighting the different areas of the stage in con-trasting ways creates denition and depth ineach of the areas and heightens the audience’sawareness of their different qualities. If the lightin the upper area of the stage space is empha-sized over the middle and lower zones, the

space appears to be light and airy. If the lightingin the lower area is stronger than elsewhere,the darkness above can make it appear heavyand oppressive.

3. SYMMETRY

The vertical axis can be used in the lightingdesign to create symmetry that runs from frontto back between the left and the right sides of

the stage space. When the lighting is equallybalanced on both sides of the stage, it allowsthe audience to focus on the central area. When

calmed or suppressed. This symmetry can beused for formal gardens, ballrooms, courts oflaw and churches. It can heighten the restrainedformality of Hermione’s trial in The Winter’s Tale.If the symmetry is removed, the space becomesmore neutral. The joyful shepherds’ feast to cel-ebrate the end of the sheep-shearing in The

Winter’s Tale offers an opportunity to createasymmetrical set forms.

LIGHTING

The principles that apply to costume and setcan also be applied to lighting.

1. POLARITY

The use of single or multiple lighting instru-ments creates contrasting qualities in the stagespace. A group of lights used over the whole ofthe stage creates a wide, open space. Such aspace may be what is required for the nal gath-ering of all characters in The Tempest . A singlelighting instrument can isolate an area of thestage, making this style of lighting useful formonologues. One spotlight used on Hamlet dur-

ing his solitary reections can emphasize hisisolation. One light setting or cue can bechanged to the next in two main contrasting

HAMLET: Design sketch for Battlements scene Design sketch for Players scene

I once saw a production of Goethe’s Faust, in the opening scene of which

V



44

I once saw a production of Goethe s Faust , in the opening scene of whichFaust speaks of his inner struggles with his studies. Although the actorplaying the part was moving to watch, he was wearing a cloak made ofstiff, bulky linen that refused to drape, so that his long cuffs were stiff andstuck out. The consequence of this was that, while the character was pon-dering his deepest problems, the cuffs of the cloak were busy reachingout to the audience. I found it difcult to concentrate on the content of hiswords and wondered instead what the intention behind this was andwhether the designer was aware of its effect.

CLOTHINGTHE HEAD & NECK

At the top of the human form, what may rstcatch our attention are the face and head, withthe accompanying transformative hairstyles,wigs, hats and headdresses. These can all expressdifferent aspects of the character’s thinking.

1. HAIR & WIGS

As the head’s natural headdress, hair can bestyled in many ways that draw either more orless attention to it. Pulling the hair away fromthe face, for example, can emphasize its classi-cal beauty or severity and plainness, while if ayoung girl’s long hair is dressed with ringlets orcurls that are draped around the face, the char-acter will acquire a lightness and playfulness.By altering the actor’s facial hair for a male

V COSTUME

“Thou villain base, know’st me not by my clothes?”

“No, nor thy tailor, …which, as it seems, make thee.”

Cymbeline, Act IV, scene 2

I realized from this experience that we onlynotice a costume when it appears at odds withthe character or story, and I decided to paymore attention to the details of the garmentsactors were dressed in to help them bring theircharacters to life. I began to take a great inter-est in the exact cuts of garments in general andto observe how each cut affected me: Whatpart of the body did it emphasize and how? Theshape of a costume or of part of it can, of

course, either be in harmony with the otherparts or with the other costumes on the stageor not, but whatever the choice, it should bemade consciously.

Costumes have always inuenced the way inwhich the human body moves, and when fash-ions change, the overall shape of the body andthe way it is carried gradually changes withthem. For example, crinolines or panniers, thewide-hooped petticoats that lled out a lady’s

skirt at the sides and back in the eighteenthcentury, brought delicacy to the upper bodyand a gliding effect to the walk, while bustles,which extended only the back of the skirt,emphasized the uprightness of the wearer andmade each step look precise. In a similar way,the doublet and hose that came into fashion formen in the sixteenth century brought about anumber of changes: They lengthened the upperbody, pushed back the shoulders, widened the

hips and emphasized the shapeliness of thelegs, and so a brand new elegant pose cameabout that allowed for a swagger in the walk.The following descriptions of individual items ofclothing illustrate how different elements of acostume can help to transform the actor intothe character by highlighting one particular partof the body over another and in this way givevisible expression to the character’s individualqualities, both physical and psychological, andenhance the actor’s characterization.

selsh thoughts, a frivolous play of fabrics on2. HEADDRESSES & HATScharacter, by adding a false beard and/or a



45

g , p ythe head in a style created just for him and thatattracts the audience’s attention can make hiswhimsical nature more believable. Clowns areoften the sharpest wits in a play and need aheaddress or hat that stands out above theother characters’. One with sharp lines and

angles will emphasize the sharpness of his wit;rounded ones will render his humor less aggres-sive. A head-scarf or shawl tied closely aroundthe head can express that the character has nointerest in or time for vanity, especially if he orshe comes from impoverished circumstances.

3. COLLARS & NECKLINES

The type of neckline and collar on the costume

either allows the spectator to overlook the neck

For the character whose main activity is toreect and perhaps ponder on single thoughts,such as on the meaning of life, for longer peri-ods of time, whatever covers the head, home ofthe thinking, can be modest and discreet, in

plain color and simple fabric and style. For adandy-like character, on the other hand, whotends to entertain rapidly-changing, frivolous or

, y g /moustache, a marked change can be made tothe maturity and dignity of the character. Ifeither is shaved off, the actor will look youngerand more naïve. A wig can enhance the charac-ter more strongly still, because it alters the facemore than any change to the hair, and, if the

play species that the character must have aspecic hair color, using a wig is often the sim-plest way to bring about that change.

COSTUME : CLOTHING THE HEAD & NECK

heighten the impression of the character’s wis-or harmonizing with it. In Edwardian times, forand throat or draws the eye to them. This part



46

dom and integrity, and he or she will appear tobe well-‘centered.’ When this same line ismoved to one side, and the audience’s eyemoves with it, it appears to hinder or pervertthe character’s striving for wisdom. If a belt isadded, it will detract from the unied impres -

sion that the gown or dress creates unless madeof similar cloth to the garment. If the characterhas a large, round belly, and if any belt used ishung low, the same gown or dress can createthe impression of pompousness. The longer thegown, the greater the age of the character,whereas a short tunic can indicate that thecharacter is young and perhaps naïve. However,a gown alone, without a cloak or coat, oftenmakes the wearer look only half-dressed; this

effect can be used if the character is caught outor wants to appear unprepared for what is tocome.

2. COATS & CLOAKS

There are many styles of cloak or coat that lendthemselves to highlighting a character’s person-ality. They can hang from one or both shoul-ders, be cut long or short and have sleeves or

not. A full drape of fabric cut at hip-length for aman and gathered into generous folds at thecollar that swing easily when the charactermoves creates a lively impression, as if he isready to leap into action at a moment’s notice.A cloak or coat with fabric gathered at someodd places and on others left at and smooth,perhaps with an uneven hemline and so appear-ing tangled and disordered to the audiencemight well suit a confused character. A cloak orcoat with long, drooping lines made of a limp

example, when conventional etiquette did notwelcome plain speaking, high collars that but-toned tightly at the throat were high fashion. Atthe time of the Inquisition in Spain, large whitestiff ruffs were worn at the neck above dark

jackets, creating the impress ion that their pur-

pose was to prevent the character’s possiblydogmatic thoughts from being inuenced byany such personal feelings as compassion. Theopen-throated shirt suits characters with bighearts and open minds such as sailors and oth-ers whom life has taught to be generous andeasy-going. The wide, low necklines in women’sclothing fashionable in the seventeenth centurythat exposed the neck and throat can make visi-ble that the character takes pleasure in speaking

and loves gossip, while for elderly charactersthat want to appear more restrained, the neckmay be covered by placing a shawl around theshoulders that can then be wrapped round thethroat, as if sealing the lips and prohibiting theexpression of personal feelings.

CLOTHINGTHE WHOLE BODY

1. GOWNS & DRESSES

Garments that clothe the trunk and lower limbsin their entirety can convey a sense of the over-all personality of the character to the audience.They create an impression of unity or harmonyin the character and give their wearers the sen-sation that they are more upright and digniedthan otherwise. If the gown or dress is cut witha long vertical line at its center, this may

of the body is the home of the larynx, the organthat enables speech, and as most garmentsneed an opening at the neck, the position andsize of the fastening may relate to the manner ofthe character’s speech, either by contradicting

« MERCHANT OF VENICE: Jessica

convey dreaminess; if the actor’s body under-CLOTHING

fabric that makes it look weighty even if the fab-



47

neath is slender, the consequence may be thatthe character appears fragile. The same effectcan be achieved by highlighting the waistline,which will also draw attention to the character’sslenderness. A blousy, loose jacket or bodicemade in a heavy fabric can imply a heaviness or

drowsiness in a character; the same shape inrougher fabric may well be a suitable costumefor a bully.

2. SLEEVES & CUFFS

The arms are usually continually active andmaking gestures when actors speak, so thecloth that covers them can exaggerate thosemovements and enhance their expressiveness.

A generous and expansive character needs wide

CLOTHINGTHE UPPER BODY

1. BODICES & JACKETS

Bodices and jackets clothe the ribcage, the

home of the heart and lungs and also of humanfeelings and inner life in general. As the quali-ties of a character’s soul are perhaps the mostimportant element of any role, that not only thecharacter’s words can convey, the specicdetails of the bodice or jacket can contribute tothe revelation of the character’s inner naturewith considerable subtlety. Tight-tting bodicesand jackets can convey alertness or wakeful-ness in a character; if taken to an extreme, they

make a character look brittle. Flowing robes

ric is thin may indicate that the character isweak-willed or ineffective. A smooth, well-shaped and well-proportioned garment canindicate that the character’s life is well-ordered.Add decoration to any part of the cloak toenhance specic qualities.

« MACBETH: Lady Macbeth

COSTUME : CLOTHING THE UPPER BODY

CLOTHINGtop of the sleeve can create a wide or narrowh ld h ll k f

sleeves, possibly made of a soft fabric, for ak b l d l l



48

CLOTHINGTHE LOWER BODY

1. SKIRTS & TROUSERS

The lower half of the body and the way human

beings walk and stand reveal how we are con-nected with the ground beneath us. Young chil-dren may walk on tiptoes at rst before theyfeel grounded enough to walk with their heels

shoulder. The well-known gure of King HenryVIII is a good example of how padded sleevesthat are widest at the top can make for animposing width at the shoulders. His tailorsmust have used large quantities of buckram tomake this possible. A tight cuff at the wrist can

indicate a nimble alertness, and any decorationat the cuffs will draw attention to the hands,especially if the actor wears rings.

3. BELTS

The horizontal line of a belt cuts the body in halfand can therefore take attention away fromother parts of the body, so it is advisable to usebelts with restraint. But they can also help to

dene the overall shape of the body. Waistlineshave risen and fallen as styles have changedthrough the ages and inuenced how the bodymoves. For example, the low, loose girdlesdraped over the hips of ladies in the MiddleAges created a graceful, relaxed pose, whichbecame an expression of a calm, unrufednature. The Empire line of the nineteenth cen-tury, on the other hand, placed the belt at theother extreme, directly below the bust, and

drew the wearer’s weight onto the front of thefoot; this can express a nervous disposition.Between the two positions is the body’s naturalwaist, the most suitable place for a belt forcharacters that have a balanced nature. A tightbelt can indicate neatness and orderliness,while a loose one may convey the opposite.Finally, wherever the belt is on the body, itshould not be so tight that it hinders the fullmovement of the diaphragm and restrictsproper breathing.

quick gesture may be lost in wide, loose sleeves,which better accommodate slower, fuller move-ments and lend maturity to the wearer. A nar-row sleeve made of a stiff, unbending cloth mayhint at a tight-sted and mean character. The

MEASURE FOR MEASURE: Mariana

young girl, a soldier or a dancer, the possibilityt i h t A h b t ill t

quence, can evoke an impression of strong self-h hti Wid ki t

as well. When a skirt or pair of trousers in ah l th th l it l d



49

to move in character. A heavy boot will create aweighty, masculine tread and heighten thesense of the character’s seriousness. A sandalwill show off the lower leg to its full advantageand its lightness imbue the wearer with light-ness. A light, soft slipper with a heel will ensure

the actor walks with a feminine step. A jewel ordecoration attached to the slipper will draw theaudience’s attention to the daintiness of the foot.

awareness or haughtiness. Wide skirts ortrousers allow for fast-moving action, and tightsor stockings offer the greatest freedom ofmovement. Both allow characters to focus onmatters beyond themselves when necessary.

2. UNDERGARMENTS & LININGS

By denition all ‘under’-garments are wornbeneath ‘over’-clothes and intended not to bevisible to anyone but the wearer. But whenshirts and blouses (not underwear, strictlyspeaking), petticoats and bloomers peep outfrom underneath a top layer of a costume, theirwhiteness or general contrast to the over-gar-ment can give the whole outt a freshness and

sparkle. They will also reveal that there is moreto the character than what is seen on the sur-face. Only a small corner of any piece of under-wear, just briey glimpsed when the characteris moving, betrays that he or she has a hiddenside. This glimpse tantalizes the audience andcan point to a cheekiness or slyness in the char-acter; it can also reveal the true colors of anotherwise well disguised villain. The lining of anouter garment can also have this effect and can

be a useful tool in alerting the audience thatthere is another, possibly quite opposing driveor quality in the character.

3. SHOES & BOOTS

Footwear is the one part of the costume designwhere the actor’s comfort and security havepriority over the artistic. However, the feetneed to be part of the whole costume and togive the actor, whether playing an old man or a

heavy cloth covers the legs, it can slow downthe walk and highlight the character’s earthi-ness. Characters with their head in the clouds,and therefore little or no relationship to theearth, may wear a skirt or trousers made of aimsy fabric and so be able to move with

greater speed and lightness. A tightly-ttingskirt or pair of trousers highlights the shape ofthe body, restricts movement and, as a conse-

« Mock crinolin

COSTUME: ACCESSORIES

5. ARMOR(ornamented belts), the wrists (bracelets) andhands (rings) or the feet (shoe buckles) A pieceACCESSORIES



50

Armor is designed to protect the wearer againstattack, creating an impregnable and often cum-bersome hard metal covering of part or all ofthe body. Whether a character has only onepiece of armor, such as a helmet, breastplate or

shield, or wears an entire suit, the metallicsheen of its surface when under lighting can lifta dark and chaotic mood of conict and trans -form it into something that can inspire the cour-age for battle. Armor makes the wearer moreupright and immediately highlights his heroicstature.

hands (rings) or the feet (shoe buckles). A pieceof jewelry can add a nishing touch to an ele -gantly dressed character of aristocratic orwealthy origins. The jewel’s sparkle can be anasset to a character, but it can be distracting onstage if it continually catches the light, so needs

to be used sparingly to retain its effectiveness.A small dab of grease will soften the effect.

ACCESSORIES

4. JEWELRY

A piece of jewelry draws the eye immediately toa specic part of the body, such as the head

(crowns or tiaras and bejeweled hats), the neck(necklaces), the bustline, natural waist or hips

FINAL THOUGHTS6. DECORATION



51

FINAL THOUGHTS

Any or all of the details described here may be worked into any costume style or period. It is justimportant to be selective about what elements are incorporated into the design of any one costume.The overall aim when designing the costume should be to bring focus to the most prominent featureof the character and to allow the rest of the costume to blend into the overall appearance of the play.

If designer and actor come to a mutual understanding of who the character is, and the designer cre-ates a costume that is capable of conveying this to the audience, both physically and psychologically,then both actor and production have been immensely helped. It is vital that the design support theactor in every detail and is never in competition with those who embody the characters.

After every aspect of the costume has been n-ished, decoration can add nal highlights, oftenquite quickly, to specic areas of any costume.Patterns embroidered or painted on and aroundthe neckline enhance the upper body. Embroi-

dered cuffs bring focus to the hand movements.A beaded belt emphasizes the waist. An elabo-rate border on the hem can give weight to thewhole appearance of the character.

On our way to the United States some years ago, one of the airport check-in staff took one look at my hand luggage and said: “That goes into theVI



52

If the designer is working with the principles setout so far, he or she will see the face as anextension of the body and as part of the wholehuman being, and consequently makeupbecomes as much a part of the transformationof the actor into the character as the hat orshoes of the costume.

I am aware that this approach may not be instep with a lot of contemporary practice, whichuses no or very little makeup and, when it isapplied, primarily serves the denition of theactor’s personal features. However, modifyingthe features to create the character does notnecessarily involve the application of layers ofheavy foundation and intense colors. Indeed,here less is probably more.

What do spectators see when watching a maskor puppet in play? How can faces that do notmove and have no life of their own potentiallyawaken such a wide range of emotions in any-one watching them? A look at the role andnature of the human face may begin to explainthis.

During a performance the audience’s attentionmay wander from one part of an actor’s body toanother, depending on what the actor is doing.If he or she is listening at the side or back of thestage, the audience is more likely to take in theentire gure. If the performer is active at thecenter or front, the audience absorbs primarilythe movements of the body, but if he or she isspeaking and standing still at the same time,then the face will be the part of the body thatthe audience watches.

in staff took one look at my hand luggage and said: That goes into thehold!” I replied that it was too fragile for that, and unzipped the lid toshow her my solitary marionette, Max, hanging on his peg. She stared atthe puppet, and the severe expression on her face vanished. Without tak-ing her eyes off Max, she asked my husband whether he could put on atie. Once the tie was in place and, without uttering a single word about

Max, she upgraded us to business class. When I later took him throughsecurity and he appeared on the screen of the x-ray machine, several of -cials gathered around, curious to see him in the esh, so I opened the lidagain, briey moved him, and they began to smile. At check-in on thereturn journey, Max worked his wonders again on the American staffmember and she, too, upgraded us.

VIMAKEUP, MASK & PUPPETRY

“God hath given you one face,

and you make yourselves another.”

Hamlet, Prince of Denmark, Act III, scene 1

Max

parts of the human body as described in the lasttwo chapters, The jaw relates to the lower

2. GENERAL FEATURESTHE FACE



53

p , jalimbs, the forehead to the head as a whole andthe cheeks and nose to the chest, heart andlungs. An instance of when this connection isclearly visible is when the legs or hands are par-ticularly active; that is the moment when the

jaw often juts forward.

4. INNER QUALITIES

The unique forms of the three main parts of theface, and the specic relationship betweenthem, may also express the inner qualities of itsowner, revealing his or her strengths and weak-nesses. A high, domed forehead may point to acapacity for clear and profound thinking and be

seen in a person of powerful intellect. A strong jaw may indicate a dominant will, as a crafts-person or laborer may have. The cheeks andnose are linked to the realm of emotions andfeelings and may show the highs and lows of

The whole face occupies the front of the headand is usually framed by hair. The uppermostpart, the forehead is part of the curved domeof the head that mirrors in miniature the roof ofthe heavens. The cheeks and the nose slanting

downwards form the middle area; breathing andtaking in the scents and smells of the surround-ing air or atmosphere are their main activities.The jaw, including the chin, forms the base ofthe face; it is its most mobile element or ‘limb’that when chewing breaks down the food grownin the earth. The face can be understood andseen as an echo or mirror image of the diverseaspects of the world around it.

3. CORRESPONDENCES

These three realms of the face—above, belowand the area between—also have their corre-spondences in and connections to the three

The following points that belong to the essentialnature of the face have their implications formakeup, the mask and the puppet face when aspecic aspect of character needs to be

highlighted.

1. METAMORPHOSIS

During a lifetime the face is in a continual proc-ess of change. The child is lled with energyfrom within, and the skin is full and smooth andhas a rosy glow; the wrinkled features of elderlypeople are perhaps what their life experienceshave imprinted on their faces. In the ages

between childhood and old age, the face is avisible statement of the evolving character andcomes to express more and more of the humanindividuality.

p h o t o

b y

K a r e n

R e e s

MAKEUP, MASK & PUPPETRY : THE FACE

and enlarges and denes the individual featuresto make them visible to the audience.

the mobility of the jaw and between these theintricate curves that echo the undulations of the

the dynamic relationship between the self andthe world. Such a person in whom these are



54

1. SKIN TONE

The shading of various areas of the face in avariety of colors is a rst, more general stage of

transformation that can change the character’sage, state of health and reveal the temperament.

Age: Firstly, makeup can both reveal and thenalter the age of the character. At the beginningof The Winter’s Tale, Hermione appears as ayoung and happy queen and mother, and theactor’s face can be made up with ivory androse-red tones that are softly blended. After six-teen years of suffering, Hermione’s features will

cheeks and nose. They in turn link the top andthe bottom of the face.

The neck, which both holds the face and headin place above the shoulders and then links

them to the rest of the body does not emergeas a form until the child begins to stand andthen walk.

MAKEUP

Makeup transforms the actor’s face into thecharacter he or she will portray. It both softensand dulls the overall natural sheen of the skin

pstrong features may be an artist or a caregiver,in whom sensitivity is the predominant charac-teristic.

5. TRANSITIONS

The mouth, situated between the lower and themiddle regions of the face, makes it possible forus to take food into the body and to breathe andspeak, an activity that uses audible words tosend thoughts and feelings into the world. Thedirection of activity or movement, from insideto outside, involved in speaking is the oppositeof the outside to inside direction of movementof eating, and the shape of the two lips indi-

cates their dual purpose; while the corners ofthe mouth turn inward, the skin inside themouth turns outward to form the upper andlower lips.

The eyes are between the middle and upperregions of the face and are linked to the air andthe heavens. They look out into the objectivityof the physical world; they also gaze inward andreect, and so are part of the human soul. Here,

too, there is a polarity of direction, and theform of the eyes echoes their dual purpose; thelens enables the eye to focus on outer objectsand the retina reects.

The ears, on either side of the middle of theface, make it possible for us to hear. The formsthat echo this purpose are hidden inside thehead, but the visible shapes repeat in miniaturethe forms of the entire face: the upper curveechoes the dome of the head, the lower lobe

In The Merchant of Venice Shylock’s obsessionwith his money exemplies this. When awe and

It , Jaques’ melancholia may be visible in a sal-low tone and darker shading under the eyes and

have changed, and in order to make the changesvisible, the tone of the base color can become



55

wonder at all that life and the beyond offer livestrongly in a character, this may be made visibleby drawing horizontal lines across the brow.This is a strong feature of Prospero, in The Tem-

pest , whose knowledge and wisdom can com-

mand the supernatural world.

4. EYEBROWS

The lines above the eyes created by tiny hairsmay be thick and bushy and thus prominent, orpale, ne and almost invisible. They may alsohave many varied shapes and positions on theforehead. They can strongly express aspects ofboth the personality in general and also the

character’s reaction to changing situations. Ifthe actor’s eyebrows do not have the shape andposition needed, they can be covered with thebase tone and then new ones created in anyshape, width, position and color. When eye-brows slant up and outwards, they make a self-centered and opportunistic impression, whichmay be useful for Lady Macbeth. When theyslant gently downwards, they convey an inward-ness and profundity, which can highlight thephilosopher in Jaques in As You Like It . If theyare more strongly slanted, the character lookslike a simpleton. Bushy and low eyebrows in amore or less straight line—this may be furtheraccentuated by the use of false hair—illustratelow-leveled motives, such as those of Sir TobyBelch. Fine and delicately curved eyebrows mayexpress Miranda’s high-minded and pure inten-tions in The Tempest .

cheekbones. The choleric Paulina in The Win-

ter’s Tale can be given a ruddy complexion androunded highlights on the cheeks. From thesame play, a light and fresh pink skin tone andbright nose can demonstrate Autolycus’ san-

guine and curious nature. A warm but pale skintone and undened features may make visiblethe slow and phlegmatic temperament ofLauncelot Gobbo in The Merchant of Venice.

2. FACIAL CONTOURS

Lines added to the basic tones can individualizethe features of the character’s face. They maybe used to reveal a character’s strengths or

weaknesses by emphasizing one area of theface and understating another.

3. FOREHEAD

As an illustration of an intelligent mind, a highforehead can be achieved by either pulling thehair back rmly or removing the hair that growsbelow the line required. Vincentio’s perceptiveintelligence of the needs of his people in Meas-

ure for Measure may justify creating a high fore-head. If the hair is combed forward, the heightof the forehead can be reduced, thus giving theimpression of a simpler mind. The clown in The

Winter’s Tale, not renowned for his intelligence,may benet from a low forehead, which can beachieved by having his hair plastered to hisbrow. A character that focuses on the everydaystruggles of material existence may be givenvertical creases between the eyes to illustratecontinual frowning.

paler and her cheeks hollow by applying adeeper brown-red color below the cheekbones.

Health: Both the color of the complexion andthe toning of the skin illustrate the general state

of health. The tone of the base can be varied tomake that of a particular character’s visible. Ahealthy constitution, such as Twelfth Night ’s SirToby Belch, needs warm colors. An ailing char-acter needs to use cooler tones, including yel-lows and greens. Sir Andrew Aguecheek’s namein the same play already indicates the pale toneof his skin.

Personality: The skin tone may also illustrate

the temperament of a character. In As You Like

pinched. Such a lip form may be given toDionyza in Pericles to express her jealousy. If a

7. CHEEKS5. EYES

MAKEUP, MASK & PUPPETRY : MAKEUP



56

dark line is drawn outside the edges of the lips,so that they appear fuller and wider, the charac-ter appears to be more generous. The fun-loving Benedick in Much Ado about Nothing isperhaps a good example.

9. CHIN

The chin completes the image of the face. Thistoo can be blended into the neck by the basetone or highlighted with a paler tone. A strongand forceful individual such as the same Ben-edick may have a jutting chin to emphasize hisstrength. To do this, the center of the chin andthe jawline can be highlighted with a light base

tone and the neck darkened. A lily-livered char-acter such as Twelfth Night ’s Sir Andrew mayneed to have the contours of his chin toneddown by leaving the base tone on both chin andneck untouched by color.

10. EARS

Both hair and hats often hide the ears, but theystill need to be included in the general basetone covering. Ears that lie at against the headgive an impression of elegance, whereas onesthat stand out from the side of the head maycreate a comical look. Highlighting the outeredges of the ears can emphasize the character’slove of eavesdropping. Polonius in Hamlet is aprime example, as he has a long-standing habitof listening to private conversations.

The cheekbones and soft esh below them oneither side of the nose can be highlighted andshadowed to indicate the age of the character.High and soft cheekbones make a characteryounger. Lower, lined cheekbones increase the

age. Highlighting the cheekbones and darkeningthe area below gives a thin and highly-strungimpression, such as might suit Lady Macbeth.To give the impression of a more easy-goingand older character, the emphasis can bebrought lower and made to look fuller by high-lighting the jawline, such as the Earl of Glouces-ter may have at the opening of King Lear. Tocreate an angry look, as may characterize theface of Edmund in the same play, the lines either

side of the nose that reach down to the mouthcan be darkened.

8. MOUTH

Just as the eyebrows can be completely trans-formed, the edges of the actor’s lips can becovered with the base color to wipe away theactor’s mouth shape, and the character’s indi-vidual mouth can then be built up on this blankcanvas. The transformation of the mouth is pro-nounced in the traditional makeup of a Geisha,over whose personal mouth shape the lips arepainted in a tiny, heart-shaped form. The circusclown exaggerates the size of his mouth. For amore natural look, the size of the mouth can bechanged more subtly by darkening the outlineof the mouth along the edges of the lips. Whenthe dark line is brought in to reduce the size ofthe lip surface, so that less lip is visible, thecharacter’s appearance becomes mean and

The shape of the eye may be emphasized byapplying a dark outline. A sharp-eyed look iscreated if the outer corners are lifted, as mayemphasize the trickster in Autolycus in The Win-

ter’s Tale. The Queen in Cymbeline may also have

high outer corners, but a darkening of the innercorners may lend a mean, half-closed expres-sion that disguises her evil intentions. Bringingthe outer corners down creates a sorrowful oranxious expression, such as Ophelia may havewhen distressed by Hamlet’s harsh words. Ham-let’s eyes may have a less prominent outline, togive more weight to his many inward-lookingmoments.

6. NOSE

The nose can be evidence of the racial origin ofan individual more than any other part of theface. To create a at, short and broad nose forthe Moor Othello, for example, the highlightacross the bridge of the nose, including theared nostrils, may be wide and blended gentlyinto the base tone of the cheeks. To create along, curved and slender nose, such as may begiven to the Jewish Venetian merchant Shylock,the highlight on the bridge may be narrow withdarker sides. If the highlight on the bridge of thenose is shortened, the character may lookyounger. When the same highlight is length-ened, the character appears to be older. The tipof the nose can be reddened when the charac-ter is known to be a regular and excessivedrinker, such as Stephano in The Tempest .

3. ANIMAL & OBJECT MASKS

Wh d i i k h b

masked part of the face. This presents actorswith a new range of challenges, as they discoverh bl d i h i i h k h

THE MASK



57

When designing masks that bear no resem-blance to the human face, the actor’s face caneither remain unseen or be shown within orbeneath the mask. The second option honorsand respects the humanity in the facial form

and enables the audience to see the actor’schanging expressions. The mask can be placedon top of the actor’s head and the makeup andthe painted mask blended. When the animal orobject mask is to cover the entire face andhead, it may be made of transparent fabric builton a wire frame so that the face remains par-tially visible. An example of such an animalmask is the ass’s head given to Bottom in A

Midsummer Night’s Dream. Here it may be impor-

tant to have the face partially visible becauseBottom himself does not know that his appear-ance has changed.

4. MASKS AS PROPS

Not all masks convey aspects of the character;their purpose may rather be to hide the facetemporarily. Such masks can be made as propsby tting them onto long rods or sticks. Thiskind of mask lends itself well to carnival and, forexample, to the masked ball in Much Ado about

Nothing, in which the characters can say muchthey would not say if their identities wereknown to the listeners.

5. DESIGNING MASKS

Giving an actor a mask for the character meansthat the character’s face can be integrated moreeffectively into the entire design of costume

how to blend with or integrate into the mask thechanging facial expressions of those parts ofthe face still visible to the audience.

2. FULL MASKS

These hide the actor’s features completely andx the whole facial appearance into that of thecharacter. The full mask may seem mysteriousto the audience and when a number of them areused at the same time may initially create someanxiety in the spectator. But ultimately theydraw the audience in and make them want toknow what lives inside them. They also invitethem to look more attentively. The full mask

freezes the face into one expression that altersonly with the help of the imagination and innerparticipation of the viewer. It is remarkable howoften the audience experiences changing andvaried emotions in the xed features of the fullmask.

The fully masked actor obviously works withoutspeaking because the mouth is covered, and soperforming with full masks means that the actorneeds to give much greater attention to creatingan active inner process. A performer must beable to radiate his or her character’s inner life tothe audience through movements, so that theycan experience what the character is inwardlyexperiencing. The fact is that the less we speak,the stronger our inner awareness or inner lifebecomes, and it is essential that the actor wear-ing a mask is aware of this. This continualstream of inner activity is what gives the charac-ter life and connects the actor and the audience.

The mask requires a stronger imaginativeengagement of the audience than the mobilehuman face with makeup. At the same time itextends and heightens the possibilities of

makeup. Masks are created by covering part orall of the face with a hardened substance that isgiven a shape that enhances or emphasizes thecharacter’s features. The more the face is cov-ered, the less it is possible for the actor to relyon his or her facial expressions, and so themovements of the whole body must tell thestory.

1. PART, HALF & THREE-QUARTER MASKS

These lend themselves to the exaggeration of aparticular feature, especially for caricature ordisguise. It allows the actor to speak and beheard clearly but adds a xed appearance to the

Carneval mask

In fact, the puppet is another step removedfrom the actor and a performer in its own right,

ith l t t it b th t ’

exaggeration of any one feature will remain asthe one expression throughout the perform-ance and it is also important to consider the

and set than when applying makeup only. Theclose collaborations between both designer anddirector and bet een designer and mask earer

MAKEUP, MASK & PUPPETRY : THE MASK



58

with equal status, so it can become the actor’scompanion. It is therefore advisable to treatpuppets as characters played either by a pup-peteer or an actor and to give as much attentionto their design as to any other aspect of the

overall production, using all the principlesdescribed so far.

One thing separates the puppet from the humanactor, however: There is no discrepancy betweenthe outer and the inner in a puppet, as can beeasily perceived when the puppet moves. Thepuppet has the ability to be entirely true toitself, to its own character and, in contrast tothe actor, has no trace of a private personality.

To the audience the puppet embodies a strengthand purity of individuality that speaks directly tothem, so they can identify with and come closeto an experience of being the character. There-fore, the designer needs to step into the charac-ter and identify with it, too, in order to create thefeatures, body and costume of a puppet that ex-press this individuality as convincingly as possible.

Finally, as a sort of answer to the questionasked at the beginning of this chapter, becausethe inner life and the outer form of the puppetare in complete harmony, it is hardly surprisingthat the audience experiences different innerqualities in the puppet when it adopts differentouter forms or gestures. The static facial fea-tures seem to change expression and move withthe emotions the puppet experiences, andwhether these are strong or subtle, the viewercan be moved as much as the puppet appearsto be itself. The face of a puppet and the tilt of

ance, and it is also important to consider thecharacter’s development through the play. Anover-sized mask can make the body look top-heavy and the character clumsy. An under-sized mask enlarges the body in proportion and

the character becomes pompous and overbear-ing. A round and curved mask makes the bodyplump and the character generous. A squareand sharp-angled mask makes the body thinand the character mean and hard. An over-widemask makes the face expansive and the charac-ter extrovert. An over-long mask makes theface reective and the character introvert. Big,wide-open eyes may express surprise and won-der. Small, half-closed eyes may express calcu-

lation and evil intent. Wide-set eyes may lookinnocent and youthful. Narrow-set eyes mayaccentuate meanness. A large mouth maydominate the mask’s image and make the char-acter an incessant talker. A small mouth mayalmost disappear and express the character’sreluctance to speak. However, any design of amask must take into account the actor’s abilityto wear it comfortably, be able to breathe andnot collide with fellow actors.

THE PUPPET

With its beginnings in ancient Asian cultures,puppet theatre preceded the beginnings of whatis called theatre today, and in recent years pup-pets have been playing an ever greater role incontemporary theatre. So the stage designermay well be asked to include puppets in theoverall design of a production.

director and between designer and mask-wearerare therefore more essential in this realm ofstage design than in any other. In fact, the actormay need help in learning how to work with amask, and then a neutral mask, free of any dis-

tinctive features, character or coloring, can helpperformers to familiarize themselves with thenew ways of moving.

6. COLOR & TEXTURE

Both the mask’s base coloring and painted fea-tures again offer opportunities for unlimited andfantastic exaggeration, and the same principlesof coloring that work for makeup also apply

here. But the color of the mask responds to thelighting in the same way as the fabric of thecostume or scenery and not as makeup does,and lighting may or may not inuence the over-all expression on the mask’s surface. When themask is smooth and relatively at, the lightingdoes not change its general appearance. If themask has a rough or a strongly contoured sur-face, any changes in lighting alter its expression.

7. FORM & PROPORTIONS

When designing a mask, the designer need notbe restricted to realistic or naturalistic imagery.Indeed, the fantastic may be the strongest inspi-ration, and the production using fantastic masksmay well engage the audience’s imagination in amore powerful way than if the masks are realis-tic. The mask’s size and shape need have noboundaries, and a set of proportions may becreated free of any conventions. However, the

can be designed in a variety of ways, and awooden cross with a hole at each of the fourends is the simplest and most common The

Rod Puppets: Rod puppets have a head, handsand a costume of any size, all xed to rods orpoles They are controlled either by a single play

its head when in play seem to speak directly tothe heart, as though the puppet is speakingeven though everyone knows that it cannot



59

ends is the simplest and most common. Thehead thread can be attached to the center ofthe cross; the hand thread can be attached toboth hands through the front hole; the threadbetween the puppet’s shoulder-blades can be

attached to the back hole; the knee threads canbe attached to the holes left and right. Stringpuppets or marionettes are played on a stage oropen oor.

Shadow Puppets: These are simple silhouettesof character or animal shapes that are thenattached to rods. Lit from behind, they areplayed on the back of a screen. Shadow pup-pets lend themselves to any size or type of

performance.

Bunraku Puppets: This is a particular type of Japanese puppet that is usually life-sized. Thehead, hands, feet and cloth body are controlledby several puppeteers; the master puppeteercontrols the head. Bunraku puppets are usuallyplayed on a theatre stage.

poles. They are controlled either by a single play-er from inside for a small puppet or by severalplayers from outside. Rod puppets can be playedin a booth, on stage or in an open environment.

Glove-Rod Puppets: Although this is not a com-mon form of puppet, the combination of gloveand rod makes more differentiated movementspossible. The left puppet hand has a glove t-ting for the puppeteer’s left middle nger. Theright puppet hand is on a short rod for the pup-peteer’s right hand. The head is on anothershort rod for the puppeteer’s left forenger andthumb. The costume is a large piece of fabricwith head and hands inserted. Glove-rod puppets

can be played on the puppeteer’s lap or in abooth.

String Puppets or Marionettes: In a marionettethe head, hands and feet are connected to aexible body and costume of any size and sus-pended on threads from a control. The controlrequired to move the puppet’s body and limbs

even though everyone knows that it cannot.

1. TYPES OF PUPPETS

The differences in the size, structure and

appearance of the different kinds of puppetsmean that each has a specic quality of expres -sion and can play its individual role in all kindsof performances. In addition, every kind of pup-pet can be played with the puppeteer hidden orvisible, either dressed in black so that he or shefades into the background, or dressed to blendin with or be part of the action on stage.

Finger Puppets: Finger puppets are small char-

acter or animal heads that can be tted onto anger. Finger puppets are most useful for close-up and children’s play.

Glove Puppets: Glove puppets consist of ahead, two hands and a costume tted over theplayer’s hand. Glove puppets can be played in abooth or freely in any environment.

Rod puppet Glove puppets String puppet Shadow puppets

wicked stepmother in a fairy tale, the face maybe narrowed and the cheeks hollowed, the eyelevel lowered and the eyes themselves reduced

moved from above on strings, while the earthiercharacters can be glove or nger puppetsmoved from below; shadow puppets can be

2. PLAYING THE PUPPET

Every three-dimensional puppet is challenging

MAKEUP, MASK & PUPPETRY : THE PUPPET



60

level lowered and the eyes themselves reducedto slits, while the chin can be extended andsharpened. The archetypal fairy godmother mayhave a widened face with rounded cheeks, nor-mal eye level at normal height and the eyes

open, while the chin may be shortened andgiven a dimple. The truer to ideal human pro-portions the puppet face and form are, themore human it becomes, and the prince andprincess, as ideal archetypes, may be giventhese proportions.

All my puppets have eye-hollows to enable theireyes to focus and gie more expression thansolid painted eyeballs can achieve.

moved from below; shadow puppets can beplayed behind the backdrop at particularmoments as, for example, dream images.

3. THE PUPPET HEAD

It is generally assumed that the human head isround, but for the purposes of making puppetheads, it is more useful to imagine its three-dimensional form as closer to the shape of anegg, with the pointed end of the egg as the chin.Seen both from above and the back, in two dimen-sions only, the form resembles the ve sides of apentagon. If the back of the head is completelyround, it can indicate intelligence. When it is at-

ter, the character appears more simple minded.The face occupies one sixth of the surface of theadult head. In puppetry this proportion can bechanged to emphasize varying aspects of thecharacter, and the following is an archetypalpolarity: A large head and small face may indi-cate an introverted character; a small head andlarge face may indicate an extroverted character.

4. THE PUPPET FACE

The human face is more or less symmetricalbetween left and right, i.e., on the vertical axis,but not between above and below, i.e., on thehorizontal axis. Looking at the egg-shaped formfrom the front, the eyes divide the face intoapproximately two halves and the horizontallevels of the hairline and the mouth roughlydivide each half into quarters. With a puppetthese proportions can be altered to emphasizespecic characteristics. For the archetypal

Every three dimensional puppet is challengingto control, by one of three types. The fnger,glove and rod puppets are played from below,with a direct, hands-on action that makes for adirect and close relationship between the player

and the puppet. The string puppet or mario-nette is played from above. This creates a moredetached and indirect relationship, in which theplayer seems to take on the role of God anddirects events from on high. The two-dimen-sional shadow puppet is played from behind.These three types of puppet can be used bothto complement each other and to express con-trasting elements or groups of characters withina play or story. In a fairy tale, for example, the

less earthly gures, such as fairies, can be

BRUNO by E. Edmunds ‘Strawberry’

FINAL THOUGHTSa heavy jowl and rounded face may have wideworkman’s hands with short ngers. Theseexamples are archetypal characters: the thinker,

5. PUPPET HANDS

The movement of the hands is often an exten-



61

Thanks to continual technological develop-ments, new forms of puppets, whose facesmove and who seem to speak, have begun toappear on stage and elsewhere. These puppets

open up extraordinary new possibilities that gobeyond the scope of this book, but the designprinciples described so far, which suggest thatthe forms of all aspects of a puppet can bedeveloped out of the character’s core color orcolors, are still entirely relevant, as they speakto the essence of the human being, whateverform the puppet may take.

examples are archetypal characters: the thinker,who may use his intellect for good or evil, andthe artisan or craftsman, who may be skilled orclumsy. These features can demonstrate thatthe hands make the character’s lifestyle visible.

6. THE PUPPET BODY

The body of an actor, with or without a mask,obviously has denite form and proportions,and conventionally the designer uses the cos-tume to help change the actor’s look. In a pup-pet, however, the form and proportions can bevaried much more strongly to express the char-acter’s inner nature. The slender and long-

limbed puppet appears active, serious andsensitive. A round-shaped puppet body withshort limbs seems full of humor or perhapsbossy. A shifty character may be distorted andunsymmetrical. A noble king or prince may havea well-proportioned and symmetrical body.

The movement of the hands is often an extension of the activity of speaking, and after theface, they create a second strong point of focus.They are the most mobile part of the body andcan become the ‘speaking voice’ of the puppet,

echoing the gestures the head makes to inten-sify their expression. The palms and ngertipsof the actor’s or puppeteer’s hands are rounded,soft and particularly sensitive to touch, whilethe back of the hand is atter, bony and hard.The many joints in the ngers give enormousexibility, and the intricate structure of the wristincreases this. Thanks to this exibility, an in -nite variety of gestures becomes possible. Apuppet with a high brow may have slender

hands and long, sensitive ngers. A puppet with

‘Alifanfaron,’ a giant & simpleton

« ‘Spixy,’ a wicked witch

‘Rombo,’ a cobbler

VIIWhen I was working on The Moon and Sixpence, an opera about the artistGauguin based on the novel of the same name by Somerset Maugham, thestage designer created one of the sets in imitation of the painter’s style.



62

cause they allow us to feel secure when we aresurrounded by them. When they are intensiedthey may have the opposite effect and becomethreatening. Cool colors can arouse feelings ofsadness and loneliness or isolation, becausethey throw us back upon ourselves. They canalso be experienced as threatening when thecolors increase in intensity. When warm andcool colors balance each other in a space, weas spectators have a greater freedom to experi-ence both the space and ourselves in it.

2. SPACE

In relation to space, color can have two maineffects: It can make the space bigger or smaller,and it can evoke a sense of well-being or a lack

by the surrounding colors. Then we might beginto become aware of the space itself, of itsdimensions and forms and their qualities. If thisawareness of the space continues, we may alsonotice the perspective. The application of colorin the set can be the means by which thesethree elements—mood, the sense of space andperspective—are created on the stage.

1. MOODS OR ATMOSPHERES

Colors can affect and inuence our feelings pro-foundly just because our initial response tothem is unconscious, and the earliest distinc-tion we make of which we may be aware isbetween warm and cool tones. Warm colors arewelcoming and draw us out of ourselves, be-

I realized from this peculiar experience that aset must allow the actors to complete the pic-ture and not compete with them for the audi-ence’s attention. When later working forprofessional theatre and opera companies, I dis-covered that one of the factors that determinedwhether an overall design succeeded or failed

was whether the team of costume, set and light-ing designers competed or cooperated witheach other.

COLOR

When we enter a space, the rst thing we usu-ally experience, though often unconsciously, isits mood or atmosphere that has been created

SCENERY

“Suppose within the girdle of these walls

Are now conn’d two mighty monarchies…”

Henry V, Prologue

g g p yGauguin’s paintings are vibrant, they are full of green foliage and exoticowers and their colors are strong. Once these images had been trans-ferred onto ats, they immediately took hold of the stage space and lledit with the tropical rainforest; other scenes that depicted Parisian streets

and houses had been painted in muted monotones and had nothing likethe same power. The contrast of the urban and country settings gave astrong sense of Gauguin’s need to break free of the restrictions of the cityand nd freedom in the jungle, so that he could begin to paint in ways thatallowed him to be true to himself and his art. The entire stage picturemade such an impression on me that I can recall it half a century later. Butit had one major drawback: This particular set was complete in its ownright, so much so that the singers were a distraction and prevented mefrom enjoying the riot of colors and forms behind them.

than the original color. A texture that is bothrough and hard creates an impression of abra-siveness, such as that of brick or rusty metal.

4. TONES

When working with either contrasting or similar

of it in the individual looking at it. Warm tonespush into and ll the stage space and can crowdout anything else present. Cool tones widen the



63

Rough and soft textures in the same object,such as in a rustic woollen curtain, conveywarmth.

Smooth surfaces: A smooth texture reects thelight and makes the setting appear paler thanthe original colors. An extremely smooth tex-ture may look polished and reect the light.Regardless of whether it is applied to a hardwall or oor or to soft drapes and curtains, asmooth surface appears cool.

STYLE

From the outset, the setting of any productioninvites the audience into a space that they donot yet know, into a world in which anythingcan happen. At the same time the setting cangive clues as to what is about to happen. As ageneral rule, the style of the set makes anessential contribution to both the structure andframework of the production in the same wayas the skeleton gives structure to the humanbody. The following points that the designer

may want to consider can be best applied todesigning for a stage with a proscenium arch,behind which the majority of the action takesplace. Designing for the increasingly popularthrust stage, for theatre in the round and foropen-air productions probably requires otherapproaches, though the principles describedbelow will still apply and can be easilymodied.

colors, it is important to dene each area ofcolor as clearly as possible. This is because thisdenition helps to prevent the whole set imagefrom acquiring a general dullness and the colors

appearing blurred from the back of the audito-rium. Contrasting or complementary colors cancreate liveliness in the set images. They canalso make the impression that the space is con-fused and chaotic. Strongly clashing colors canlook brash. Colors similar in tone, such as thosein the rainbow sequence, enhance each other;this in turn creates harmony and possibly a cer-tain naïveté. If only similar colors are used, theycan become bland and will appear boring. When

the tone is varied within a given color, intenseareas glow and reach forward, while pale areasrecede.

TEXTURE

In general, texture speaks to the sense of touchand in any observer can awaken the emotionsof sympathy and antipathy with directness,though the audience will not necessarily be

aware of them. When textures are used effec-tively in a set, the viewer may have such anexperience without having to actually touch thesurfaces. When applying textures to a set, themain tool is the contrast between rough andsmooth surfaces.

Rough surfaces: An uneven texture absorbsthe light and creates tiny shadows between theraised areas, so that the overall effect is darker

stage space and can give the impression ofemptiness. It can be helpful to work with thisfundamental contrast when creating two dis-tinct areas of the stage to accommodate differ-

ent actions that are happening at the same time.

3. PERSPECTIVE

Color can have a powerful inuence on how anaudience experiences the perspective of theset: When the scene needs greater depth thanthe actual size the stage provides, strongerblues and lavenders at the front that recede intosofter and paler shades at the back of the stage

give the illusion of innite distances. If thedesigner places a building or a half-indoor set inintense reds and browns in the foreground, theillusion of distance will be stronger. Changingthe perspective in the course of the play, bybringing cool tones forward and placing thewarmer shades at the back may cause confu-sion or discomfort in the audience and go so faras to alter or disrupt their breathing.

SCENERY : STYLE

distance. It can create the same illusion for indoorspaces, for example, to create a long ballroomor hallway that is larger than the stage allows.

2. DIRECTIONS

There are three basic spatial directions that

1. CONTRAST

The historically realistic or imaginary period in



64

SPECIF IC STAGE ARE AS

1. FLOOR

A solid base under the actors’ feet uncon-sciously gives them—and therefore the audi-ence—security, so that the latter can freelyenter the world of the play. Plain oors allowthe actors to be clearly visible. A patternedoor, such as that of a checkerboard, competesfor the audience’s attention, and an actor wear-ing a black costume, for example, distracts the

audience from entering the overall story whenhe or she moves from a black to a white square.

2. ROSTRA / STEPS / STAIRS

The use of rostra or ramps raises the oor levelin strategic areas of the stage and so changesthe rhythm and dynamic of the actors’ move-ments. The variety of physical actions created

inform and inuence the style of the set, and adesigner may use each of them in both straightand rounded forms. Up/down or the verticalline or plane echoes the uprightness of the

human being and has the potential to inwardlylift the audience. It also suggests man-madestructures, such as buildings and cityscapes.Right/left or the horizontal line or plane sug-gests open spaces; it widens the stage andallows the audience to expand also. In everydaylife, looking at the ocean conveys a similarexperience. Front/back, sometimes called thesagittal plane of space, offers a dynamic inter-change between the outer and inner worlds and

may be used to convey supernatural events.The diagonal, the meeting of the vertical andhorizontal, can perhaps be seen as an image ofthe interaction between the characters. It canalso create a mood that resembles the verdantworld of nature. In a woodland scene, tall pinetrees allow the space to seem cool and open,while beech trees, with low spreading branches,make it sheltered and perhaps secretive.

3. UP- OR DOWNSIZING DIMENSIONS

There are a number of ways to increase ordiminish a performing space. If the playing spaceis to appear smaller, a large part of the stage canbe left empty and a small set placed in one area.The whole stage can be lled with only a portionof the set, creating the impression that the play-ing space is too large for the actual stage. Whencreating landscapes or seascapes, a greatly exag-gerated perspective can increase the illusion of

which the production is to be set obviouslydetermines the overall style. Maintaining thesame style of setting throughout a productionensures that the audience’s focus is on the

story and on the interaction between the char-acters. A brief contrast in style that breaks theconvention already established can highlight anindividual situation and allow the audience tobreathe out for a moment. For example, whenHamlet visits his mother in her private chamberfor a conversation, an intimate and frivolousRococo set in a riot of warm colors can offsetthe cold, dark and austere spaces in the medi-aeval castle at Elsinore that are the play’s basic

setting. A set consisting of abstract shapes thatcreate a neutral effect provides the designerwith the opportunity to include contrastingmobile objects specic to each scene; usingthese can simplify the general ow of the play.

a stage may create a sense of comedy or farce,especially when the audience hears them open-ing and closing. Exits and entrances without

ff f

4. WINDOWS

Windows offer opportunities for further den-

in this way can stimulate and awaken the audi-ence’s interest and also raise the importance ofthose moments when actors perform on rostra.h f l dd



65

doors between different pieces of the set makethe comings and goings less obvious and canhelp to create an atmosphere of deception orstealth.

6. CEILING / ROOF

Overhead scenery obscures the lighting, and socaution is advised when using it because theopen space above the heads of the actorsleaves the imagination of the audience free tocomplete the stage picture. If a scene cloth orroof structure is essential for the overall image,a heavy and low roof or ceiling seems to pressdown on the actors. If a light and high structureis designed, it may appear to lift the actors offtheir feet.

ELEMENTS OF SET

1. THE CYCLORAMA

Cyc is the conventional abbreviation for theword cyclorama, a solid, curved wall of unpaint-

ed stretched fabric, wood or plaster, usuallycolored white or black, at the back of the play-ing area of the stage and which remains a xturethroughout the production. Most white cycshelp to create moods of dawn or dusk and otherweather conditions when combined withcolored lighting. The open space created by thecyc awakens the impression of endless dis-tances, either when covered in part by sceneryor when fully visible. A black cyclorama swal-

ing the style. They may open up a vista thatexpands the spectator’s awareness of the space,especially if the weather and time of day aredened by lighting from outside the set. However,

windows can draw the gaze backwards and for-wards between the two so that the audience’sattention is taken away from the central action,expecting events to occur outside. One windowplaced in the surrounding walls creates a strongpoint of focus. Many windows give the settingan atmosphere of airiness. Tall windows maysuggest elegance on the one hand and narrow-ness on the other. Broad windows can create animpression of comfort and simplicity; they canalso make a setting look impoverished.

5. DOORS

Doors provide another opportunity to illustratea specic style or period. They also emphasizethe comings and goings of the actors so that theaudience can more readily imagine the spacebeyond what is visible on stage. Many doors on

The use of steps or longer staircases adds moreoor levels and strengthens or emphasizes thechanges in the dynamic of the movements fur-ther still. Rostra lend height to a building and

can be used for either its inside or outside. Theyalso create the opportunity for the kind of sweep-ing entrances down a staircase known so wellfrom lm.

3. WALLS

Walls in a set may be built for the scene oroverall production or they may be simply indi-cated by the sides of the stage and set pieces,such as ats. Unbroken walls in an indoor set-ting create an atmosphere of security but canalso make the space claustrophobic, so can beuseful for creating the inside of a prison. Whenapplied to outdoor scenes, solid walls appearforbidding, as the external walls of any mediae-val castle demonstrate. When decorating thewalls, height or breadth can be emphasized witha stripe effect.

in a realistic style, the same tree or buildingneeds to be constructed in three dimensions.

CURTAINS OR TABS

can easily be lowered or raised. The further for-ward the backdrop is hung, the more intimatethe space becomes.

lows all colored lighting, and dark costumes dis-appear into the dark background. The conse-quence can be that the heads and hands of the

t t t F b i ith t t

SCENERY : ELEMENTS OF SET



66

5. CURTAINS OR TABS

Curtains or tabs are large pieces of soft fabricthat can be used as an alternative to ats; they

are sometimes gathered at the top, so as to cre-ate folds. A curtain is a simple tool to separateone area of the stage from another. The soft,three-dimensional surface created by the foldsof a curtain brings warmth and intimacy to aspace. If curtains ll a space entirely, they cancreate a claustrophobic atmosphere. For exam-ple, in the three indoor scenes in As You Like It ,an excessive use of curtains can convey the factthat Duke Frederick’s tyrannical and unpredict-able brother has made the court a place whereno one can speak freely.

6. GAUZES OR SCRIMS

Gauzes are large, loosely woven, semi-transparentcurtains that are stretched taut on rods orframes and suspended using pulleys that can be

3. FLY SHEETS

These are short, wide pieces of canvas that are

hung from long, strong bars or poles, such asscaffolding pipes, across and above the stage.Their primary purpose is to hide the overheadlighting units, but they can also play a part increating an artistic mood on the stage. Whenthe bottom edge of the y sheet is straight, thehard line can make the scene look sharp andrectangular, and the space above the actor’shead becomes heavy. If the lower edge curvesslightly upwards towards the center, the line stillappears straight, but the same space abovebecomes lighter. An irregular, ‘leafy’ edge sof-tens the line of the y sheets and can be effec -tive in woodland scenes.

4. FLATS

A at is the term given to a wooden frame madein a variety of sizes that, when covered withheavy, tightly stretched calico or canvas, cre-ates a at canvas. It is usually painted, rst with

white emulsion, so that this neutral base canbecome the foundation onto which colors andtextures are added. The at surfaces lend them-selves to an abstract style of set, in front ofwhich actors do not appear to be an intrusion.Painting three-dimensional imagery, such as atree or the façade of a building, onto two-dimensional surfaces suggests a simple or naïverealism which at the same time allows the audi-ence to engage imaginatively. If the set is to be

actors appear to oat. Fabrics with strong tex -tures, such as silk, velvet or brocade, are theonly ones to remain visible even if the fabriccolor is dark.

2. BACKDROPS

This is the name given to the large, at sheets ofstrong canvas that are usually painted and thenweighted by slotting long metal pipes into theirlength both at the top and the bottom edges.They can be hung at any depth of the stage andcover its entire width and height, serving as abackground for any scene and providing analternative to a cyc. If the stage has a y towerthat serves as a storage space for backdrops,the design can include the use of several that

« Ophelia with Hamlet

appear to clutter the space and limit the actors’movements, creating an atmosphere of conne-ment or perhaps oppression. When the furni-ture required is in harmony with the style of the

8. FLOOR CLOTHS

Floor cloths are large pieces of canvas, whichare usually painted and stretched across the

painted in a similar way to backdrops. They areused to divide the stage into different areas thatcan be seen separately or at the same time.When lit by strip lights positioned in the down



67

ture required is in harmony with the style of theentire set, the space appears balanced. Whenthe furniture is in contrast to other aspects ofthe set, tension is created. The placement of the

furniture should lead the audience’s eye to thecenter of the action. Designing pieces of furni-ture that can be used in more than one way—abed that serves as a tower, a bench and a wall,for example—brings both simplicity and effec-tiveness to any set.

10. DÉCOR

Scenery, curtains and furniture can be high-lighted with an unlimited variety of patterneddesigns, adding style and focus. But beware oftoo much, especially in clashing styles, unlessdeliberately choosing that look.

11. PROPERTIES OR PROPS

Properties are smaller objects required on stageas part of the play’s action, such as walkingsticks, tea sets, fans, bags and letters, and arealso known as props. As with the larger items of

furniture, props made specically for the pro -duction are, in general, more effective thanthose ready-made, as the opportunity to workwith color, texture and style are simply greater.Generally props should be in proportion withthe rest of the scene, but exaggerated sizes canadd humor. Props made smaller, on the otherhand, can become difcult for the audience tosee. Ideally, props should be made available tothe actors as soon as possible for rehearsals.

are usually painted and stretched across theoor and can be used to give focus to the actionand to establish a clear performing space whenit is not identical with the size of the actual

stage. Using a oor cloth has two positiveaspects: It reduces the sound of actors’ foot-steps and eliminates the dangers that accom-pany slippery oor surfaces. The size, color,texture, shape and position of the oor cloth,both individually and in combination with otherelements of the set, create a broad spectrum ofatmospheres.

9. FURNITURE

Furniture designed and built specically for aproduction and in keeping with its style isalways more effective than ready-made or second-hand pieces. A stage devoid of furnitureemphasizes the emptiness of the space and cre-ates a mood of either openness or isolation.Chairs, tables and other items of furniture can

When lit by strip lights positioned in the down-stage wings, the gauze becomes opaque, andonly the stage space in front is visible. When litwith strip lights and spotlights positioned center

front as well, the gauze becomes semi-transparent.When no light is shone on its front and thespace behind is illuminated, the gauze becomescompletely transparent, so that both spaces arevisible, but the back becomes the focus. Whenboth spaces can be seen at the same time, thegauze allows each to have its own quality ormood; it can be particularly useful in scenes inwhich the metaphysical world is present at thesame time as the physical.

7. DRAPES

These are pieces of soft fabric gathered at thetop into folds that serve as set accessories atwindows and doors. They can be used to softenindoor settings. Light, silky drapes that catchthe light when hanging at windows lend a femi-nine, elegant touch to the set. Heavy velvet fab-ric that absorbs the light creates a formal,masculine space. Long, full curtains suggest

opulence and wealth. Short, skimpy drapes givethe sense of hard times and constricting cir-cumstances. In the same way as stage curtains,drapes may be used to divide a space, butwithin interior settings only, when contrastingevents take place simultaneously. The ‘arras,’ ordrape, for example, in Hamlet separates onesmall part of the stage from the main area sothat Polonius can eavesdrop on Hamlet’s con-versation with his mother.

The school where my parents were teachers was evacuated during thewar, and so my family moved to a large country house with unused farmbuildings on the grounds in a small town on the west coast of England. Myparents transformed a grain loft above the stable block into our new home

VIII



68

We do not, in general, see light itself, but we dosee both the objects that light touches and theshadows the light creates when it meets theobject, whether this is an actor, a backdrop or apiece of furniture. This means that lighting astage is as much about the play of shadows thatare created as it is about making objects visiblein clear light.

Lighting for a theatre production therefore has

two main aims: at a basic level, to make theactors and the action visible to the audience,but also, of equal importance, to create atmos-pheres and moods. These potentially contrast-ing goals need to be in the designer’s mindthroughout the design process. Too much lighton the stage makes a scene everyday or blandand washes out the shadows; too little, accom-panied by strong shadows, and the audience’seyes will strain to see the action. As with all

mers were ready for use. To vary the lightinglevels, the barrel-shaped metal tube was low-ered towards the copper cup and plate, and thecloser it came to them, the stronger the lightgrew. Unfortunately, the deeper the tube waslowered, the hotter the solution became, andthe gurgling of the water grew so loud that thetube had to be raised as quickly as possible tolower the temperature again and reduce thesound level (and, sadly, the lighting level, too).

I cannot remember how the individual lampswere connected to the dimmers, but I can stillsee my father cutting plywood levers for thepulleys and painting on them the colors of thecolored gels to be installed. Once the dimmerswere working, my father built oodlights by cut-ting holes in extremely large metal biscuit tinsand made the frames for individual color gelsout of the tin lids, wire and a lot of ingenuity.

Somehow he acquired—not an easy task duringthe war—nine accumulator jars (not unlike large,tall, rectangular vases) and tted a copper plate(the permanent contact or electrode) into thebase of each of them. He then joined a length ofcopper wire to the plate, led the wire to the topof the jar, which he would later connect to theelectric power supply. His next step was to tcopper cups to the bottom of Aladdin lampglasses (four for each jar) and to place these

inside each accumulator jar so that they allstood on the copper plate. He then hung athree-inch long, barrel-shaped copper tube (themoveable contact or electrode) from a pulleyabove the jar. The pulley allowed the tubes tobe lowered into and lifted out of each of theAladdin glasses. Finally, he attached conductorwires to the metal tubes, connected these tothe power supply, lled the jar with water and ameasure of salt to make the brine, and the dim-

parents transformed a grain loft above the stable block into our new home.Once this was done, my father, a true handyman, set about transformingthe stables below us into a simple theatre for school assemblies and playsby removing the partitions between the looseboxes and installing an elec-

tric power supply. He was inspired by his friend Michael Wilson, who formany years had worked on how to use color in lighting, and one day hebegan to build what are known as saltwater dimmers for a simple stagelighting system.

LIGHTING

“How far that little candle throws his beams!

So shines a good deed in a naughty world.”

The Merchant of Venice, Act V, scene 1

three-dimensional lighting are governed byprinciples different from those of the two-dimensional canvas.

ing and the other components of the production,such as set, props and costumes, and continueto make adjustments that enable these relation-ships to become a true expression of the life of

other aspects of the production, designing andthen creating the sequence of lighting changesis about applying the artistic principle—that theinner life of the play can be given physical



69

1. PRIMARY & COMPLEMENTARY COLORS

Six colors make up the entire lighting color

spectrum: three primary colors and their moremetaphysical counterparts, three complemen-tary colors. In contrast to those used in set andcostumes, red, blue and yellow, the three pri-mary colors in lighting are red, blue and green.The primary colors are stark. Using them tolight the stage creates strong atmospheres anddramatic effects and brings a dynamic quality tothe lighting of specic scenes or areas of thestage that an audience may notice. The comple-mentary color for red is turquoise or cyan, for

ships to become a true expression of the life ofthe play.

COLORA lot of lighting that simply makes objects visi-ble is created by the light from neutral instru-ments and appears much like daylight. Colorsbuild atmospheres and intensify moods createdby the performers, giving any setting a psycho-logical dimension. As a designer it is helpful toapproach colors in lighting as if they were pig-ments or paints with which the surfaces on thestage are ‘painted.’ However, the colors in

inner life of the play can be given physicalexpression, in atmospheres, for example—to thepractical demands of the production.

The stronger the contrasts are in color and tex-ture, style and form in the lighting, the moredramatic the production becomes. At the sametime, the drama created by the contrastsbetween the lightest and darkest areas can besoftened and harmonious moods created with

just small changes in the color, texture and formof the lighting. So designing the lighting for aproduction consists of working with the princi-ples of contrast and balance or harmony atevery phase of the performance. Once thisaspect of the design has been addressed, thechanges from one image, scene and act to thenext need to be as uid and smooth as possibleso that they can be unobtrusive in those placeswhere that is the designer’s choice.

Finally, in contrast to the time-consumingefforts needed to rst create and then makealterations to nished set, props and costumes,it is quite normal and a standard procedure that

the lighting design is only realized in the last fewrehearsal days. One of the reasons for this isthat lighting settings can be adjusted quicklywhen changes need to be made, and many anunsatisfying moment in the initial design can bepositively transformed with only small and sim-ple shifts in the color, texture, type, source andlevel of lighting. It is also only in the end phaseof a production that the designer can con-sciously see the relationships between the light-

LIGHTING : COLOR

TEXTURE

The texture of a beam of light from any lamp

lights the stage, the shadows appear black. If allthree primary colors are tted as colored ltersinto the same lamp, no light shines through andthe stage remains black. If the same primary

blue, lemon yellow and for green, magenta;these are the colors that are only seen in theshadows created when colors in the lightinginstruments shine on objects that block one or



70

g y pcan be altered in two main ways: 1) by makingor buying templates of specic shapes, knownas gobos, to mask part of the light beam. They

can be inserted, for example, into ERS or prolespotlights (see Lighting Instruments) to createwindows instead of having a solid window built.Other standardized gobos create images suchas trees, buildings and cityscapes. 2) by usinggobos in lamps with a rotating facility (see Mov-ing Head Lights) that then create movingimages, such as clouds. Special lighting effectscreated by gobos give focus to an importantmoment in a play, but they are most effectivewhen used sparingly if they are not to distractthe audience’s attention away from the actionand make the scene restless.

Another way of creating textures is to combinethe lighting with a sculptured or textured sur-face or object, such as a piece of scenery. If thesurface is lit with color washes coming frommore than one angle using strip lights and avariety of lters are used, the same sculpturedor textured surface or object can change its

appearance in many ways. If prole spotlightsare added to create specic focus, the possibili -ties become limitless.

STYLE

As a general principle, the less obtrusive thelighting is for the majority of a production, themore effective any strong lighting effects will be

g p ycolors are tted into separate instruments andthey light the same area of a white surface, thethree colors cancel each other out and the

stage becomes white.

The primary colors also change the colorspainted onto scenery and of costume fabrics. Ared light on a green surface creates a black sur-face, on a red surface creates a white surfaceaand on a blue surface warms the blue. In thesame way a green light on a red surface createsa black surface, on a green surface creates awhite surface and on a blue surface cools theblue. The primary color of blue does not createsuch extreme contrasts: A blue light on a greensurface softens the green, on a red surface sof-tens the red and on a blue surface dilutes theblue. A yellow light (not a primary color) dullsthe entire stage.

2. COLOR FILTERS

When complementary colors are required tocreate atmospheres, not just as shadows, color

lters can be used. When lters create thecolored light, the shadows that appear oncolored surfaces are subtle and extremely var-ied in tone, and an audience will probably notbe aware of them.

jother of the colors. As the illustrations show,when one of the primary colors is reduced orcompletely removed, the remaining two make

the complementary colors seen in the shadowsmore intense. When only one primary color

greater precision if they are used in combina-tion with exible shutters or barn doors (seebelow). For example, the beam of a spotlightcan be cut to t exactly inside the frame of the

backdrop; such strip lights are called ‘cyc’lights. Strip lights can also be placed on theoor along the front edge of the stage for use asfootlights.

to highlight dramatic moments and create con-trasts. Three elements of style create variety inlighting: the type of lighting instrument, thesource of light, the level of lighting. Strip lights,



71

ydoor to pick out a character in a doorway. If thebeam has been given a clear edge with a barndoor shutter, the spotlight lens can be adjusted

further, either to retain the sharpness or tothrow the light out of focus.

Fresnels: The main feature of a Fresnel is that ithas a specic Fresnel lens that gives a soft edgeto the beam of light; this beam can also be nar-rowed or widened by adjusting the lens. Fresnellenses can operate close to the light source, sothe actual lanterns tend to be small. They areoften used in groups, but it is useful if the Fres-nels can be individually controlled, so that thesoft light can be more clearly directed into themain acting areas of the performing space. AFresnel instrument can be used, for example, tocreate a soft pool or shaft of light on a particu-lar actor. If a more controlled beam of light isrequired and no ERS spotlights are available, abarn door (see below) can be attached to thefront of the Fresnel.

LEDs: An LED or ‘light-emitting diode’ is a crys-

tal the size of a grain of sugar that gives off lightfrom its top surface. While once LEDs could notproduce strong light, in recent years the bright-ness of multi-color LED lights has increased andthey can now be used for lighting all types ofperformances. The units used for the stage havebeen mainly three-color RGB (red, green andblue) units; their limitation was that they couldnot produce a good yellow. But now most manu-facturers are producing good quality RGBAW

g

PAR-cans: PAR-cans are instruments with asealed beam and a high level of brightness. In

the past they were the main instruments usedfor lighting rock and pop events, for whichstrong primary colors and at white light werewhat was required. In the theatre they are usedto create powerful beams of side, top or backlighting and for washes of strong color andother special effects. PAR-cans come in anumber of widths: very narrow, narrow, mediumand wide. Because of their low cost, lightweight, easy maintenance and high durability,they are often used in combination with stagesmoke to make visible the path of the lightbeam.

Mini PAR-cans or Birdies: As a form of miniPAR-can, using only 12 volts, the small size of‘birdies’ means that they can be hidden behindfurniture and scenery and positioned close tothe area to be lit, to create a spotlight or colorwash for a small area of the stage. Another oftheir advantages is that they can be mounted on

the front of the stage without blocking the audi-ence’s view.

2. SPOTLIGHTS

ERSs: Ellipsoidal Reector Spotlights, alsoknown as prole spotlights, give, as their nameimplies, a clear edge to the light beam and aretherefore used to light specic areas of thestage. The beam edge can be cut off with even

g g g p gfor example, illuminate the whole stage, whilespotlights light specic areas. Lighting frombelow or the sides creates indoor settings, and

a lighting wash mainly from above sets thescene for an outdoor environment such as astreet or forest.

LIGHTING INSTRUMENTS

There are two basic types of lighting instru-ments: manually controlled lanterns, generallytermed ‘generics or generic lights,’ and thoseremotely controlled, called ‘intelligent lights.’Generics are generally divided into two groups:those that create broad washes of light, striplights, and those that light specic areas,spotlights.

1. GENERIC LIGHTS

Strip lights: Strip lights or basic oodlights arethe simplest form of lighting for a stage and areused to create wide and open washes of light.

They are made of square boxes that when joined together become one oblong housing;each box has one of its sides open. Strip lightshave no lenses that focus or intensify the beamof light but can have a frame attached to theopen side into which a color lter can be slot-ted. As a batten, strip lights can be hung from abar above the stage and ood the stage oorwith light. A line of strip lights hung and tilted isuseful for general lighting for the cyclorama or

THE SOURCE OF LIGHT

Any light draws the audience’s attention to the

Finally, an all-round lighting rig for a stage mayconsist of strip lights, ERS spotlights, Fresnelsand LEDs that can create strong color moods. Aselection of other instruments that light specic

(red, green, blue, amber and white) LEDs. LEDshave a number of advantages: They use onlyapproximately 40–60 watts per unit comparedto 1000 watts for a standard PAR-can, they do

LIGHTING : LIGHTING INSTRUMENTS



72

area to which it is directed, and if the lighting ofthat area is to be balanced, it must be lit fromdifferent sides of the stage. When the lighting

level is stronger from one direction than fromothers, any moods created by the actors, setand costumes can be heightened. Thus, wherethe instruments lighting the stage are placedhas an inuence on their effects. The main posi -tions are above and below, the front and theback, and the left and the right of the stage.

1. THE FRONT

Lighting directly from the front clearly illuminesa specic area, such as an actor’s face, but italso makes the area appear at and blinds theperformers. If the light is directed slightly fromthe left or the right, the face retains more formand character. If the entire stage is lit mainlyfrom the front, the moving shadows behind theactor draw the audience’s attention away fromthe acting. If front light is important for a scene,instruments with softer edges to the light

areas of the stage can be added to this basicset-up.

4. LIGHTING ACCESSORIES

Filters or Gels: To color the beam of light,transparent colored sheets, cut to the sizerequired, are slotted into the frame attached tothe front of each lamp. ‘Gel’ refers to the gela-tine from which they were originally manufac-tured but which crumpled and melted if thelamp became too hot and were therefore a rehazard. Today they are made of exible plasticand called ‘lters.’

Barn Doors: Barn doors are metal frames withfour individually adjustable shutters that can beslotted onto the front of all instruments. Theyare a useful addition to any lighting instrumentto mask unwanted light spillage. They have fourindividual hinges so that each shutter can beadjusted to the specic angle required.

not require conventional dimmers because theyare dimmed digitally and the professional rangeof LEDs today allows almost any color to be

mixed.

3. INTELLIGENT LIGHTS

Moving Head Lights: Moving head lights areremotely controlled instruments that during aperformance can be moved and then focusedon to any part of the stage. Conventionally theyhave pan and tilt motors and a number of xedcolor lters inside or a color mixing system ofmoving color wheels. They are manufacturedeither as ERS spotlights or Fresnels, and mayhave tted gobos that spin, have prism effectsand be put in or out of focus. As they can befocused almost anywhere and refocused fromthe lighting control board as often as is neededduring a performance, they can easily reducethe number of lighting instruments a productionneeds. Moving head lights are the most versa-tile and powerful pieces of lighting equipmentavailable today. When used in combination with

stage smoke, they sculpt the light and add thethird dimension. However, they are expensiveand the motors are noisy, which can be distract-ing. They are also considerably heavier thangeneric lanterns and take time to program, butonce set up they can be left to take care ofthemselves.

Above / Overhead Below

and his friends in Twelfth Night sit house right/stage left and are lit from house left/stage right,the setting and the lighting create the atmos-phere of an indoor drinking parlor; when Viola

re outdoors where the dark invites thosepresent to conde their inmost thoughts andfeelings. Light from below on a specic area ofthe stage also creates an atmosphere of con-

beams, such as Fresnels, will soften the shad-ows and blend them with the background.

2. ABOVE/OVERHEAD



73

stands house left/stage right, mourning the lossof her twin brother or dreaming of her love,Duke Orsino, light on her from house right/

stage left heightens the intensity of her feelings.

5. THE BACK/BEHIND

Light from the back of the stage creates silhou-ettes of and halos around actors and scenery;stage smoke can enhance this effect. If the frontof the stage is dark and the back is lit, the illu-mined area at the back deepens and expandsthe entire stage space, creating the impressionof a tunnel. However, when lights shine from

the back of the stage into the auditorium, it isimportant not to blind the audience. One way tocounter the problems that back lighting oftencauses is to use one strong main color from theback and a soft ll light from the front in anopposite color.

If a piece of the set is lit from behind, the con-trasts create the third dimension. This style of

spiracy or threat and is useful, for example, toheighten moments when a plot is being hatched.On an otherwise darkened stage, one or two

instruments lighting the space from below cre-ates a ghostly atmosphere. A row of footlightsalong the front of the stage may seem to be abarrier between the audience and actors, butwhen used skillfully it can build a bridge thatallows greater interaction between the two.

4. LEFT & RIGHT

Floodlights positioned either on the right or theleft create an atmosphere of dawn or dusk and

cast long shadows across the stage oor. A sin-gle shaft of light from a spotlight at either sideof the stage creates an inner space. In the sameway, light from house left/stage right illuminat-ing the house right/stage left side of the stageemphasises the outer aspects of a situation;light from house right/stage left illuminatinghouse left/stage right creates intimacy andinwardness. For example, when Sir Toby Belch

Light from above creates a daytime mood; theatmosphere becomes social when the light lls

the entire stage. When only one instrumentshines from above, the space appears emptyand isolates actors or actions taking place in it.The shadows that one light creates on the oormay be minimal, but faces appear hollow andghostlike when one spotlight from above is theonly source of light. This use of a single spot-light from above heightened a particularly dra-matic moment in a production of King Lear :After Cornwall and his wife had maliciouslyblinded Gloucester, a dark stage and one spot-

light with a red lter that shone on him aloneemphasized the fact that his empty eye socketshad become ‘dark and comfortless.’

3. BELOW

Light from below has an intimate, inward qualityand, when used to ll the stage, creates theatmosphere of an evening at home or a camp-

House left / Stage right House right / Stage left Back lighting

TO SUM UP:

Lighting a play, when all the instruments haveb h d l i ll d i lik i i

sity reduced so that the audience and actorsfeel that they can see what is happening.

The shadows also play their part in determiningh l l f h li h i Th li h d b

lighting is useful when a gauze is used to sepa-rate one part of the stage from another whenstaging a dream or vision. Back lighting wasused in the same production of King Lear

l d i d Wh h bli d d Gl

LIGHTING : THE SOURCE OF LIGHT



74

been hung and lters installed, is like paintingon a moving, three-dimensional canvas whenboth the visible actions and the inner life of a

production are continuously changing. Aftermany years of working with the principles, I canonly describe my personal experience ofattempting to illuminate the actors in their cos-tumes—with their colors, textures and styleswhen they are moving within the colors, tex-tures and styles of the set in ways that enhancetheir artistic work—as having the privilege andresponsibility of placing the cherry on top ofthe cake.

the level of the lighting. The light needs to bestrong enough that the shadows—both the darkareas of the stage and the colored shadows cre-

ated by the mixtures of colors used—do notdominate the light areas. If, before the design isimplemented, a number of lights have been welldistributed throughout the playing space andthe highlights and shadows balanced so thatthere are no dark holes or glaring patches, thenthe stage has an effective basic level of lightingwhich can then be adapted to whatever thedesign requires.

An effectively lit stage not only helps actors feel

comfortable on stage, it also allows an audienceto enjoy the performance. Installing some softlow lighting in the auditorium for the perform-ance also helps actors maintain their relation-ship to the audience, especially when the levelof lighting on stage is low.

already mentioned: When the blinded Glouces-ter stood at the imagined cliff edge, ready tothrow himself off, light from the back created a

halo around his head that darkened his sightlesseyes and gave the audience the sense that theywere standing beside him.

LIGHTING LEVELS

As the third of the elements that create style orform in lighting, the level of light is as importantas the choice of lighting instrument and thesource of light. In addition, the colors of the l -

ters play a signicant role when setting thelighting levels; the darker the color, the higherthe lighting level needs to be. A deep tone ordark color in the lighting may indeed create themood or atmosphere of a scene, but the lightinglevel may need to be raised and the color inten-

When I was working for the Royal Shakespeare Company, one of myresponsibilities was to return the costumes made for past productions totheir proper places in the storage space after they had been dry-cleaned. Ioften wondered what the future held for them. Were these creations ofyears gone by all waiting to appear on stage again? I later saw a play per

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Colors: The plays are not in chronologicalsequence; their order is determined by thequality and nature of the colors used in eachproduction, starting with dark, indistinct tonesand moving on to those of greater intensity andstronger contrasts.

The Stage: The designs were made for a spacethat had no side curtains, backdrop or tabs. Thebasic elements used to create the stage were:1m x 2m ats, a cyclorama and a paintable, non-slip oor.

Costumes: Following the descriptions of thedesign are the descriptions of some of theexperiences of individual actors when wearingthe costumes.

INTRODUCTION/BACKGROUND

The following points give the specic back-ground to the descriptions of each play and thedesign choices made.

The Plays: The descriptions of the plays, theirsettings and characters express my individualartistic approach to each production. There isno attempt to be all-inclusive. I have selected

just one or more characters from each play anddescribed the principles as applied to one ormore costumes worn by these characters atparticular moments.

Chapters 2 to 4 describe the three principles atthe heart of the design process, and chapters 5to 8 set out how to use them in the individualelds of costume, makeup, set and lighting. Butanyone wishing to incorporate these principlesinto an actual design may nd it difcult toenvisage what happens when the three ele-

ments of color, texture and style are applied toall of the four elds, let alone to imagine howeach interacts with the other three. So the fol-lowing examples of application taken from pro-ductions I have designed may help to move theinner pictures from the world of the imaginationinto colors, materials and forms and to trans-form the two-dimensional sketches into three-dimensional objects—curtains, furniture, cos-tumes and props—living in a stage space.

years gone by all waiting to appear on stage again? I later saw a play per-formed by a new, young company, and, as usual, before the productionbegan I searched the program for the names of those who had designedthe show and made the costumes. I found no mention of either designeror backstage staff, but when the performance began, the questions I hadasked in the RSC wardrobe were answered, as I recognized a costume onstage as one I had made all those years ago.

APPLICATION & EXAMPLES

“How many goodly creatures are there here!

How beauteous mankind is! O brave new world,

That has such people in’t…”

The Tempest, Act V, scene 1

painted in varying shades of grey. The lightingwas cool and dim, and oor lights were used atthe sides to create low-level lighting of the mainplaying space to create the atmosphere of aconspiracy I envisaged the three witches as a

for evil, lead them both to their inexorable andtragic ends. I was struck by the murky situationand the power of superstition at the opening ofthe play and wondered about Macbeth’s stateof mind Why would he believe the witches’

MACBETH

THE PLAY

APPLICATION & EXAMPLES : THE PLAYS



76

conspiracy. I envisaged the three witches as atrio dressed in costumes of washed-out greyrags. I cut fabrics in varying grey tones and tex-tures into rough, shapeless pieces, draped themaround the gures and then sewed themtogether. My aim was to blend these costumesinto their setting to create an eerie effect. ForMacbeth’s costume I used a mixture of variedtones that created the overall effect of grey. Iwanted him to appear clumsy and susceptible tohis wife’s evil intentions, so I made a bulky

jacket from heavy tweed. In contrast, LadyMacbeth’s gure-hugging dress was created out

of mind. Why would he believe the witcheswords? Further on in the play, I felt Macbeth tobe ambitious, weak and lacking any sense of

judgement; this allows Lady Macbeth to per-suade him to murder Duncan and then followthis rst murder with others.

THE DESIGNMonotone Colors, Varied Textures,

Uncoordinated Styles

For the opening of the play I created a setting bare of scenery apart from low-lying rocks

We nd ourselves in a murky fog on a lonelyheath when the play opens. The swirling“… lthy air”

is robbed of color and only grey shapes seem tomove about within it; these are the threewitches, who have gathered to observe and ndways of confusing those they encounter. Nodistinctions exist between them; their words ofprophetic doom sound as if from one voice.Macbeth stands out against this monotone lackof form. Lady Macbeth’s schemes, followed byher encouragement of her husband’s propensity

The Witches Lady Macbeth and Macbeth As Queen and King

ment not present in the other two groups. Themechanicals, the ‘salt of the earth,’ I chose todress in earth tones. I saw the fairies as embody-ing the entire rainbow circle of colors, bridgingthe worlds of the nobles and the craftsmen

A MIDSUMMER NIGHT’SDREAM

THE PLAY

of a owing silver satin with a brittle, semi-transparent drape in the same color. When shebecame queen, I added another drape in poi-sonous green, made of heavy, dull silk andimsy nylon When Lady Macbeth spoke of



77

the worlds of the nobles and the craftsmen.

THE DESIGNComplementary Colors, Soft Textures,

Flowing Styles

For scenery I placed ats painted in dark blues,greens and a hint of purple around the edge ofthe stage. Bushes, created out of chicken wireand cloth, were added to the open space,behind which the playful Puck could vanish atwill. By lighting the setting in soft, dim bluesand greens, I wanted to create a mood of mys-tery. I added the impression of moonlight shin-

ing through the trees by using a couple ofbranch gobos without colored lters. As theactors walked through the delicate patterns ofthe beams created by the gobos shining on tothem, the audience understood exactly wherethey were and at what time. For Puck’s costume I painted the complementary colors of green

THE PLAY

Most of the play is set at night at midsummer,and both characters and audience experiencethe events of the play as if they are a dream.The gure of Puck, a more benign and playfulmanifestation of the supernatural than thewitches in Macbeth, spreads confusion amongthe mortals by transforming his appearance andchanging the sound of his voice. Some victimsof Puck’s mischief are the group of craftsmen,also referred to as ‘the mechanicals.’ Bottom,the weaver, is the central gure, on whoseshoulders Puck places an ass’s head.

The fact that there are three groups of charac-ters caught my attention: the nobles, themechanicals and the fairies. Each group is dis-tinct, and I wanted to express their differenceswith the three color circles. For the nobles Ichose pastel colors to create a degree of rene -

imsy nylon. When Lady Macbeth spoke ofblood staining her hands in the sleepwalkingscene, a green spotlight was shone on her fromabove and a red one from below. The comple-mentary colored shadows of each light couldthen be seen in the jagged creases of her glass-like costume, creating an almost supernaturaleffect.

Macbeth: “I really enjoyed wearing this costume,because the character felt very human and real.I had a strong sense of bluster and insecurepride with the stiff, puffy chest and there wassomething about the tightness of the cuffs that

brought my attention to my wrists. It made mefeel vulnerable, and I became aware of the factthat I was being controlled and manipulated bysomeone else.” – Matt

Lady Macbeth: “The costume almost suffocatedme at the neck, and a rigid feeling in the backmade me want to hold my posture very erectand immediately gave me a sense of my ownregal qualities. The long, silk skirt gave my

movement a uidity and condence. The silkwas also cool against my skin and seemed tointensify the cold in the room. The green collargave me a sense that my head was separatefrom my body.” – Lara

The Mechanicals Puck

Benedick’s costume was a red-brown velvet jacket or tunic with a large white collar that hewore over white tights and red-brown suedeboots. The cut of the jacket emphasized theupper body; the sleeves were the opposite to

The wide gardens and generous inner spaces ofLeonato’s palace under the same intense, Sicil-ian sun are the settings for the ongoing battle ofwits that takes place between Beatrice and Ben-edick. I experienced the life of this play in the

and red in chaotic, varied brush-strokes ontosoft cotton fabric, and then cut this into a thigh-length, sleeveless tunic with a hood and anangular, jagged hemline to emphasize how dif-ferent he was from the other fairies. These I




78

upper body; the sleeves were the opposite toDogberry’s in that they were wide at the shoul-ders and narrow at the wrists, again to give theupper body and shoulders the focus.

Beatrice: “The dress and Empire-style bodicemade this costume fun to wear. When I put it onand looked in the mirror, I was a little toopleased with how well it looked. Because of theshape of the skirt, I had to take long, arguablyovercondent strides when walking, from timeto time lightly kicking up the hem in front of me.The openness of the dress was balanced by thestructure of the bodice and sleeves, which held

my upper body rmly in place.” – Brigitte

Benedick: “The transformation into this charac-ter was virtually instantaneous once I put on thecostume, and as soon as I saw myself in themirror, my chin lifted and a smug grin appeared

edick. I experienced the life of this play in thecontrast between the more active characters,such as Beatrice and Benedick, and the morepassive, such as Hero and Claudio. I chose touse bright colors for the active and pale onesfor the passive. For me, Dogberry personiedthese contrasts.

THE DESIGNWarm Colors, Plain Textures,

Individual Styles

The setting was asymmetrical and thereforeoff-balance: a wide street lled with elegant, pil-

lared buildings was where Dogberry spreadcomic confusion. The lighting used was inwarm, bright colors, mainly from above. Toexpress Dogberry’s muddle-headedness andbombastic style of speaking, his costume was acalf-length, simple tunic of rough calico, withreds and browns randomly splashed, daubedand scrubbed onto it. The tunic was stretchedover a padded belly as body padding and ttedtightly. The garment’s hem drooped loosely

below. I added sleeves that were wide at thewrists and narrow at the shoulders both toemphasize his ample girth and to create theimpression that he was on the verge of burstingout of his clothing. Beatrice was dressed in aowing bright and warm orange oor-lengthdress with a tight-tting bodice cut in Empire-style and wide at the hem. The dress had longtight sleeves with a white frill at the wrists andlow round neckline. The most striking part of

ferent he was from the other fairies. These Idressed in soft, owing gauzes in rainbowcolors as a contrast. I created owing costumesin Grecian styles for the nobles and dressed themechanicals in a range of natural colors inautumnal tones. Their costumes were made ofrough sacking and worn blankets which werecut into baggy trousers and loose smocks.

MUCH ADO ABOUT NOTHING

THE PLAY

A street bathed in sunshine in a Sicilian city isthe main setting in which Dogberry, a policeconstable, goes about his business, accompa-nied by his remarkable gift for muddling hiswords.

Dogberry Beatrice and Benedick

Lucio: “As soon as I put on this costume I beganto prance around the stag. I kept looking atmyself in the mirror and generally had a goodtime in it. The black and white stripes and aredskirt-like part made me feel rather jaunty and

next to each other was the basis of the costume designed for Lucio. I chose a geometric form forhis tunic, making the lower part into a skirt ofRenaissance vertical pleating that hung from ahorizontal yoke. A belt emphasized the horizon-

on my face! I loved the color and the cut andgenerally felt rather proud of myself.” – Matt

MEASURE FOR MEASURE



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p j yfaintly ridiculous, and the hat was simply glori-ous in its absurdity.” – Matt

HAMLET

THE PLAY

Hamlet returns home to Elsinore for his father’sfuneral, only to witness his mother’s remarriageto his uncle almost immediately afterwards. Hisdespair at this imprisons him until his father’sghost reveals that he has been murdered by his

brother and calls on his son to avenge him.Hamlet is initially unable to act on this; yet whensome visiting players prepare a short play forthe new monarch, he is inspired to partlyrewrite it in order to“catch the conscience of a king.”

Although he does not succeed in catching Clau-dius at this time, before his death Hamlet freeshimself from his inner imprisonment, nding anequanimity that at last enables him to avenge

his father’s death.

In conversation with his childhood friends,Rosenkrantz and Gildenstern, Hamlet describesthe true essence of the human being:“What a piece of work is a man!”

He speaks of the nobility, ‘innite’ faculties andother attributes that are the highest aspects ofhuman nature. To me this is the core of the play,a nugget of truth embedded in the depths of the

y ptal line. I stiffened the tunic by backing the geo-metric pleating in a heavy felt. A short, brightyellow cloak and yellow fez-shaped hat com-pleted the costume. The cloak could y freelyfrom Lucio’s shoulders when he sprang fromone situation to the next in the play. At the frontone side fell into a point, and he used this totease other characters by picking it up and pok-ing them with it.

THE PLAY

The story is set in the dukedom of Vienna,where the affairs of state are in disarray and themorals of its citizens lax. Lucio, a ‘Fantastic,’ isan outrageous, inquisitive character, similar to awasp buzzing around other people’s affairs, witha sharp wit and perceptive zeal. He often over-steps the thresholds of conventional decorumand is full of his own abilities and importance.To me this play addresses issues of right andwrong in their extreme forms. I also noted two

aspects that differentiate it from other plays:the use of disguise to discover the truth and thestruggle to nd clarity in the darkness and con-fusion of the disarray. I chose to use the tensionbetween black and white to express this theme.

THE DESIGNContrasting Colors, Elegant Textures,

Clear-cut Styles

I built the entire design on the contrast of blackand white and heightened this with other clear,bright colors. I created a geometrical set andadded a third dimension by building abstract,rectangular bas-reliefs of different sizes anddepths on the ats out of cardboard boxes,which were then painted. The lighting createdsharp, square shadows wherever it touched theedges of the playing space and made angularpatterns on the oor. Black and white placed

Lucio

nist wears; the ‘inky black’ helps Hamlet retainhis equilibrium. However, at the moment whenhe becomes more alert and asks the players toinclude a new speech in their upcoming per-formance, I gave him a short, black cloak with a

ments scenes. Flowing, deep red velvet andbrocade curtains draped the ats for the indoorscenes. The indoor set was elegantly yetsparsely furnished, aimed at echoing the auster-ity of the outer scenes and capturing the mood

deceit and treachery that surround Hamlet. Iwanted to show in my design how the light oftruth is able to right wrongs, even if the cost isdeath.




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harsh white lining. When Hamlet returns fromEngland with proof of his uncle’s capacity fordeceit, I dressed him entirely in white. I chosestiff textures to indicate the formality of royaltyand used heavy brocade and velvet for Hamlet’srst doublet, hose and cloak and softer andmore light-weight fabrics for his second costume.The clear-cut Renaissance style was chosen tohighlight Hamlet’s awakened consciousness inboth costumes, the rst more literal in stylethan the second.

CYMBELINE

THE PLAY

Cymbeline is set at the time when Caesar Augus-tus ruled over the Roman Empire and was grad-ually colonizing large areas of Europe, demand-ing high taxes from his new subjects. Cymbeline,the ruling King of Britain, is unaware that thequeen, his second wife, is drugging him; it

clouds his judgment, and because he unjustia-bly refuses to pay what he rightfully owes toRome, the two nations nd themselves in con-ict. To me, the dynamic between light andwarmth expressed the tension between Britainand Rome; the re of the Roman Empire wantedto devour the light of Britain. I also realized thatCaesar Augustus was Emperor at the time of thebirth of Christ-Jesus, in whom light and warmthlive in harmony. The conict at the heart of the

of the entire play.

The lighting was in cool colors and directedfrom the sides and front. It became wild andstormy when lamps with gobos and blue andgreen lters were focused on the backdrop.Floor lights were also directed onto the back-drop to create silhouettes of the battlements;this effect heightened the general dark andtragic mood.

Hamlet is the only play in which Shakespeareindicates the color of the costume its protago-

THE DESIGNBlack & White Colors, Hard & Soft Textures,

Formal & Freer Styles

The contrast of outdoor and indoor scenes setup a dynamic in the settings of the play. For theoutdoor scenes the ats were painted in tonesof dark stone and straight painted lines thatevoked the austerity of the castle battlements.Rostra were placed in a pentagon around theedges of the stage oor, the fth edge being thefront of the stage. An extra level of rostra liftedthe oor level further at the back for the battle-

Hamlet

one expression of his clouded mind. Over thishe wore a velvet cloak in muddied yellow andalso partly darkened in uneven tones. This wascut asymmetrically and trimmed with richembroidery. I chose to make the cloak asym-

main tool used to distinguish the worlds of Brit-ain and Rome. Soft greens and blues createdthe mood for the light of Britain, and by posi-tioning spotlights tted with leaf gobos and palegreen lters on the oor at the side of the stage,

play then became the theme of my design. Themood and characters of the British north livedin yellows and light tones and those of theRoman south in reds and deeper shades.



81

metrical to demonstrate that Cymbeline is psy-chologically unbalanced. The ‘moon-like’ queenonly shines thanks to her husband’s light thatreects on her; she was dressed in pale silvertouched with black to make visible her evilintent. The dress was made of shiny silver satin;it tted tightly and had a high neck. This was toshow that she wished to prevent her feelingsfrom interfering with her evil thoughts andintentions. A brittle and glass-like veil draped inangles indicated her fragile psychological state.

TWELFTH NIGHT

THE PLAY

The comedy deals with issues of identity andthe confusion that ensues when individuals donot know themselves and therefore cannot rec-ognize each other. Its mood turns sour when SirToby Belch, Maria and Feste mock Sir AndrewAguecheek for his dullness. Then they ridicule

and humiliate Olivia’s steward, Malvolio, who isdriven into painful isolation as a consequence oftheir malicious plot. Although in Shakespeare’scanon this is the play that most wants to enter-tain, I found it frothy on the surface, but discov-ered a bitter profundity underneath. So I lookedfor colors, textures and styles that elaboratedthe outer appearance and disguised or hid whatlay beneath.

the impression was created that the woods ofBritain and later of Wales were lled with sun -light. Strong oranges and reds in the connedapron space then created the atmosphere of theheat and dust of the city of Rome.

Two thousand years ago the style of clothingwas unformed in comparison to that of latercenturies. Loose tunics or dresses with largesquares of cloth draped as cloaks were thenorm. The costume of Cymbeline, a sun to hissubjects, was a worn and heavy old gold gownmade of a silk-like fabric; the darkened hem was

THE DESIGNWarm & Light Colors, Elaborate & Plain

Textures, Rigid & Unformed Styles

The set depicted the rough stonework of Cym-beline’s castle in soft, pale tones so that indoorand outdoor scenes could alternate in quicksuccession. Articial branches, rough logs,rocks made of wire netting and sacking and acave, built out of irregularly-shaped woodenstructures, created the woodland scenes. Thosein Rome were performed in a conned space onan apron stage with no set. The lighting was the

Cymbeline The Queen

how the world in which he found himself limitedhis movements and his initiatives.

THE TEMPEST

and Maria in lighter tones, with added stripes.Sir Andrew Aguecheek’s bilious green jacketand breeches were made in washed-out tonesto express the weakness of his character. Mal-volio, the vain and pompous steward wishing to

h bl h bl k f f

THE DESIGNPastel Colors, Rich Textures, Fussy Styles

The ats used for the set were painted in vary-ing greens to create a garden; bushes that were

d f d l h d d




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THE PLAY

In Shakespeare’s last play, in which magic andenchantment feature as strongly as in A Mid-

summer Night’s Dream, the human magus, Pros-pero, uses his“so potent art…”

to direct a number of human destinies. Hisinterventions also determine his daughterMiranda’s future. Ariel, a spirit being of air andre and Prospero’s servant, yearns for the free -dom that only Prospero can give him. Caliban,

half-man half-beast, is a being of earth andwater; just as Ariel he must serve Prospero untilhe can once again take possession of the islandthat had once been his own. Strong images

appear humble, wore the black uniform ofofce, but made of elegant brocade. Thestraight velvet trimmings on his jacket stood outstrongly against the garment’s fullness andemphasized his mock-Puritanical attitudes. Thecontrasting elements in this design were usedto expose the contradictions in his complexcharacter. Feste, with the soul of a poet andsomewhat distant from the other characters,wore a hip-length patchwork poncho with ahood, made of a variety of yellow tones toexpress his quick and lively wit. The ponchowas lined with ne mid-blue cotton that was

rarely in evidence. This was intended as a gentlepointer to a wisdom within him that he kept wellhidden. The whole style of poncho and hoodthat enclosed his upper body wanted to express

made from wire and cloth and painted in greensbecame places to hide. Curtains that could bedrawn across different parts of the stage wereused for the indoor scenes. To create bright,summery lighting I used primarily strip lightswith blue and green lters to ood the stage,with several yellow spotlights directed at spe-cic areas.

I found softer colors suitable for the ecstaticmood that being in love with love created andadded frills, furbelows and other fussy detailstypical of the Rococo style to enhance the

movement of the costumes. Both Sir TobyBelch, ringleader of the plot, and Maria, Olivia’smaid, wore clashing oranges and pinks to high-light their comic nature, Sir Toby in the darker

Sir Toby Belch Maria Sir Andrew Aguecheek Malvolio Feste

creating a lavender tone in her movements, allas expression of the love for the King of Naples’son Ferdinand that was gradually awakeningwithin her. Prospero’s rough wool gown in adeeper blue contained both the blue of the

d th bl f th k di th

three primary colors and yellow. Colored spot-lights were used to highlight particular areas ofthe island.

The contrasting natures of the two servants,A i l d C lib t d th l f th i

arose in me out of the themes of the powers ofnature and of magic, and I spent time in woodsand on the moors and heath observing cloudsand the colors of different weather conditions.Then, one after another, I imagined myself as thediff t h t i i P ’ i l d



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ocean and the blue of the sky surrounding theisland. For his cloak, one of the instruments ofhis magical powers, nothing less than the fullcolor circle that occurs in the rainbow could beused with which to make visible that he was atrue master of his ‘charms.’

Caliban: “Apart from the physical discomfort ofthe hump and the difculty of trying to crawl onthe oor while trying to show my face to thecamera, this costume still did not allow for ow-ing or human movements. It made me clumsyand uncomfortable, but I felt sympathy for the

character, as the costume gave me more asense of an inherent disability than of a twistedpsyche. I also discovered that there was still thepossibility of a light touch and certain control-led gestures as my forearms, in particular, wereentirely free, and my arms seemed central towhat this character was able to do.” – Matt

Ariel and Caliban, suggested the colors of theircostumes: Ariel wore owing pastel tones onlight, semi-transparent veils; Caliban had theearth colors on small pieces of seaweed-shapedfabrics all over his large, amorphous ponchothat completely covered his body. Each shapewas as amorphous as the poncho itself, so thathis movements, even though they were slowand heavy, constantly changed the shapes hiscostume created. To create a bulky shapeless-ness that bore little resemblance to the humanform, a cushion was xed at the back of theactor’s neck under the poncho and gave the

impression of a hump. To me Miranda repre-sented the future; she was dressed in a silk shiftin the soft blush rose of a spring dawn. Overthis she wore a translucent cape in pale blue,

different characters arriving on Prospero’s island.I sensed their inner life and gave this expressionin color, my primary design tool for this play.

THE DESIGNRainbow Colors, Varied Textures,

Mixed Styles

To depict the play’s outdoor setting on anisland, the set consisted of ats on either sideof the stage painted in soft green and blueabstract forms, with a white cyclorama at theback. Prospero’s and Miranda’s dwelling, a

cave, was built of chicken wire and texturedpapier-mache on a wooden frame and paintedin deep purples. The general lighting effectswere created with battens of oodlights hungabove the front and middle of the stage anddirectly above the cyclorama. Floor lights lit itsbase. These were all tted with lters in the

Prospero’s cloak Ariel and Prospero Caliban

At the beginning of the creative process, I always ask myself how thedesigns of costume, set and lighting can best serve the spoken words andgestures of the actors and their characters. Having this question as a focusfor the design has enabled me to nd ways of melding the three elementsof color, texture and style into a whole, so that the story of the play itselftakes the focus of the production and the details of costume set and

X DESIGNING A WHOLE



84

strongly differing situations that Periclesencounters. I then noticed that each of these—and the characters within them—is in itself staticand has a two-dimensional quality. Pericles’transformations on the other hand allow him tobecome a three-dimensional character.

THEMES OR MOTIFS

IN PER IC L E S

1. THE HUMAN BIOGRAPHY

Starting by looking at Pericles as a whole, I dis-covered that one theme strongly present in theplay is the archetypal biography of a humanbeing, the phases of which I compared to thechanging times of the day. The play opens withthe idealism of Pericles’ youth when he is

THE WHOLE PLAY

In Pericles Shakespeare takes his hero on asequence of journeys to many places separatedby the ocean; at the same time Pericles under-goes a sequence of inner transformations.These offer any designer a challenge, and mygoal was to nd ways to show how each of the

six places to which Pericles travels can be dis-tinguished from the others, and their individualmoods highlighted and enhanced in all threeaspects of the stage design. I also wanted to usechanges in the costumes of the main characterto express and make visible the stages of histransformation. I discovered during my readingsof the play that Pericles and the ocean are thetwo constant elements running through thestory, while the storyteller Gower links the

takes the focus of the production, and the details of costume, set andlighting are in second place. I could believe that I had actually begun tomake this reality when my mother, with tears rolling down her cheeks,

paid me a remarkable compliment: “The play was wonderful,” she said atthe end of one production, “but I am so sorry, I cannot remember a thingabout your costumes.”

This chapter sets out some of the insights important to me in coming tothe design for a production of Pericles, Prince of Tyre. It also describes howI applied the principles already described to make the design a reality onstage, using simple and inexpensive means.

DESIGNING A WHOLEPRODUCTION PERICLES, PRINCE OF TYRE

AS AN EXAMPLE

“Therefore, my lord, go travel for a while,”

Pericles, Act I, scene 2

moved to ask for the hand of Antiochus’ daugh-ter at the dawn of his adult life. Pericles is stillyoung but has acquired some life experience;he celebrates his wedding to Thaisa in a moodof alertness and lightness at his midday of life.The play culminates in a mood of veneration,gratitude and fulllment when, years later, atruly tested and mature Pericles rediscovers hiswife Thaisa at the evening of his life.

2. THE STORMS OF LOSS

I noticed that three storms, both outer andinner, have a deep impact on Pericles as hetravels. To me each brought about a differentkind of loss: the loss of physical or worldly pos-sessions, a loss that profoundly affect Pericles’personal feelings and loss of ‘self’ at an individ-ual spiritual level. During a storm occurring

chus’ costume was made of heavy, black,smooth, synthetic fur, cut asymmetrically andembroidered with rough lumps of fabric scrapsin a variety of reds, to create the impression ofclotted blood. His daughter wore a tight-tting,sleeveless dress of two layers of soft chiffon

PERICLES’ INDIVIDUALSTATIONS

1. ANTIOCH

between Tyre and Pentapolis Pericles’ ship islost, all his sailors drown and he is bereft“of all his fortunes.”

When the second storm arises, Pericles is travel-ling from Pentapolis home to Tyre with his wifeThaisa While at sea Thaisa gives birth to their



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sleeveless dress of two layers of soft chiffon,red under black. The chiffon was draped hori-zontally and gathered on the left side of the

body from neck to hem. It had a high collar thatintended to indicate the character’s constrictedinner state.

Antiochus’ Daughter: “I have seldom felt morepromiscuous or on display than in this dress,despite its high neck. The cut is very tight at thewaist, neck and thigh but loosens at the chestand hip which gave me the sensation of beingrather exposed in those areas. Because it is

snug at the leg, I was forced to take small stepsand swing my hips more than I ordinarily wouldto keep my balance. The feelings of constraintand objectication elicited in modelling this cos-tume were surprisingly strong. When I wore it Ifelt extremely attractive but also completelytrapped.” – Brigit te

Pericles visits King Antiochus and his radiantlybeautiful but nameless daughter, whom he

wishes to wed. But to do so he learns that hemust rst solve a riddle, and if he cannot he willforfeit his life. After hearing the riddle he real-izes that he is doomed one way or the otherbecause he quickly guesses the answer: that theking and his daughter live in an incestuous rela-tionship. So Pericles ees the corrupt and intro-verted world where“Hell only danceth at so harsh a chime.”

Dark & Heavy Colors, Rough & SmoothTextures, Asymmetrical Style

A black and deep red curtain was hung anddraped as a backdrop at the back of an apronstage to create a heavy and dark set. The light-ing consisted of a few harsh white spotlightsilluminating specic playing areas. King Antio-

Thaisa. While at sea Thaisa gives birth to theirdaughter and then dies, depriving Pericles of hissoul partner:“O you gods!

Why do you make us love your goodly gifts,

And snatch them straight away?”

The third storm is within Pericles himself, ofwhom Gower says he“… bears

A tempest which his mortal vessel tears”

as his ship lies at anchor in calm waters, andbecause of this inner storm, Pericles loses bothhis sense of direction and his purpose in life.

3. ASPECTS OF LOVE

Love is also a theme or motif that is present inmany forms within the main and secondarycharacters. What struck me is that its negativeaspects are found in the secondary characterswhile Pericles strives for its positive sides. Lustdrives Antiochus to practice incest with hisdaughter in Antioch. Envy drives Dionyza to

plan the murder of Pericles’ daughter Marina inTarsus. Promiscuity is the basis of the bawd’sand her associates’ life and work in the Mytilenebrothel. Love of others or altruism motivatesPericles’ gift of grain to the starving citizens ofTarsus. The true love for an individual isdepicted in Pericles’ undying love for Thaisa.Love of the Divine is demonstrated by bothPericles and Thaisa at Diana’s temple atEphesus.

Antioch

hung from one shoulder complemented it. Hisyouthful zest for life lived in both the textureand style of the costume.

3. TARSUS

2. TYRE

Pericles ees to his own city but this, too,becomes a dangerous place for him. Antiochus’wrath pursues him across the seas to his ownhome in the form of Thaliard who has taken on

Antiochus: “ The main feeling I got from this cos-tume was dullness. The thick outer tunic was somonolithic it left me feeling inhuman and dis-connected from any sensitivity to the world.The placement of the crown over my foreheadagain dulled my senses and made me feel

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Pericles’ ship arrives at Tarsus, where both fam-ine and its consequent misery abound and its

inhabitants are compelled to“Draw lots who rst shall die to lengthen life.”

Pericles brings relief by providing grain; for thisgenerous deed he earns the gratitude of theGovernor, Cleon, and his wife, Dionyza.

Natural Colors, Rigid & Flimsy Textures,Hard & Soft Styles

The set was built of ats at the sides of the

stage and a white cyclorama at the back with agauze hung in front of it, roughly painted inbeige and brown tones. The ats were paintedin pale, natural tones, the effect of whichchanged when they were lit with differentcolors. Otherwise the acting space was empty.

home in the form of Thaliard, who has taken onthe task of silencing him. So Pericles resolves to“go travel for a while …”

and soon boards ship again.

Cool Colors, Formal Textures,Grecian Style

The set for Tyre was a shallow stage with a bluecurtain drawn across its entire width. The light-ing was cool, created by using a pale primaryblue wash with two straw-colored spotlightsilluminating the actors. Pericles’ costume was

in the blue-green color of the sea, intended tohighlight his loneliness on the one hand and hisafnity with the elements around him on theother. Its slightly shiny yet elegant texture wascut in the style of a short, sleeveless, one-shouldered Grecian tunic; a longer cloak that

again dulled my senses and made me feelclosely connected to a base and unreectingpower. But the great slash in the tunic leaving

one whole side of my body completely openmade me feel ex-tremely conscious ofthis weakness andawoke a need to dis-guise it with activemalignancy in myactions.” – Matt

Tyre Antiochus and his daughter Tarsus

Pericles wins Thaisa’s hand and they soon cele-brate their wedding. This setting is full of joy,radiance and the true love that lives betweenPericles and Thaisa, but then Pericles receivesnews that he must return to Tyre to reclaim hisown throne.

thick material, so I had the sense of becomingever more xed and plant-like. It is very difcultto describe how, but the costume awoke thesensation in me of having gone too far in onedirection: I began to lose the sense of myhumanity after several minutes in it.” – Brigitte

The lighting was a wash of mixed yellow andgreen that turned the ats and cyclorama greenand made visible the renewed greening of theisland. I did not use primary green because thiswould have turned the green surfaces in set andcostume white. A similar mixture of yellows and



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Warm, Radiant Colors, Rich Textures,

Formal Style

The set consisted of one heavy golden brocadecurtain hung from the ceiling and behind athrone covered in red velvet that stood at theback of the stage on the left (stage right). Thefront was left free to accommodate the jousting.The lighting was bright and sunny; reds and yel-lows were used in a general wash. Floor lightsand battens above lit the cyclorama in varying

yellow and peach tones. King Simonides’ cos-tume was a warm yellow and gold gown and arichly encrusted brocade coat. Thaisa wore ashining satin sleeveless dress in pale peach witha chiffon overdress painted in rose, warm goldand yellow dyes. Pericles wore three successive

y g

Cleon: “This was by far the simplest costume I’ve

worn, and I appreciated the cooling breeze afterthe density and discomfort of incestuous KingAntiochus. But I denitely felt rather exposed,and as soon as I saw Brigitte as Dionyza I knewwho was in charge in the relationsh ip.” – Matt

4. PENTAPOLIS

After losing his ship, all hands and his worldlywealth in a storm, Pericles himself is washed up

on the shore of another city. There he ndshimself in the midst of festivities that include a

jousting tournament for the hand of Thaisa,daughter to King Simonides, whose sons“sit, like stars about his throne,

And he the sun for them to reverenc e.”

ygreens was used in the costumes for the twomain characters, Cleon and Dionyza. To accen-

tuate Dionyza’s hard, unfeeling character, shewas dressed in a padded yet hard A-line dresshooped at the hem and made of many differentgreens. They were cut and then painted in sharpangles and appliquéd in clusters of patchwork.Her husband Cleon, the weaker of the two, wore a pale green, shapeless gown and cloak ofsoft fabric, which emphasized both his weak-ness and his inability to curb his wife’s evilintentions.

Dionyza: “It was a challenge to wear this costumebecause I felt slightly off balance at all times.Because of the hooped hem, the skirt is hollowand swung dramatically when I walked, but thewhole costume was still heavy and made of

Dionyza and Cleon Pentapolis

forms. In contrast, Marina wore a soft bluesleeveless muslin shift, while Lysimachus wasdressed in a lavender tunic in a rm fabric. Hisdeeper violet cloak, tinged with rose, was madeof rich brocade. The grieving Pericles wore adeep blue, full-length gown in rough wool.

fth setting, the town of Mitylene. There she isplaced in a brothel where she is to work as aprostitute, but neither the bawd in charge norany of her employees can corrupt her:“If res be hot, knives sharp, or waters deep,

Untied I still my virgin knot will keep.”

costumes when in Pentapolis: the rst, a color-less, shapeless suit of rags in which he foundhimself after being shipwrecked; the second, hisrusted armor that enabled him to win the tour-nament; the third, a royal blue gown and cloakmade of velvet and brocade that he wore for his

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p g g g

6. EPHESUS

The goddess Diana reveals to Pericles in adream that he and his daughter must set sail forher temple in Ephesus to pay her homage. Therehe discovers Thaisa serving as a high priestess:“… no more you gods! Your present kindness

Makes past miseri es sport…”

A tender reconciliation takes place betweenfather, mother and child.

Pastel Colors, Flowing Textures,Grecian Style

The set was a wide and open space, but to dis-tinguish the inner sanctuary of the temple fromits outside, the transparent gauze remainedacross the full width of the stage halfway

y g p

Marina has the inner strength to improve both

her immediate situation and the moral values ofthe brothel’s clients. One of these, Lysimachus,governor of Mitylene, takes Marina to Pericles’ship in the belief that she can cure him of hisunrelenting grief. Her stricken father soon recog-nizes her as the daughter he believed dead.

Warm & Cool Colors, Fluid Textures,Unstructured Style

A rough, Hessian curtain painted in dark redsand browns that was hung at the back of theleft-hand area of the stage (stage right) createda simple set; a stool was the only piece of furni-ture. The lighting consisted of only footlightsand spots in dim reds and greens that created amurky atmosphere. For the scene in whichfather and daughter are reconciled, only acouch was brought to the right side of the stage(stage left), and stretched across the whole

width of the stage was the gauze curtain. Asmall area downstage was lit by soft, cool spot-lights to transform the previously murky atmos-phere. At the end of the scene, for Pericles’dream the lighting in front of the gauze wasdimmed whilst behind the gauze the lights wereraised to illumine the Temple Maidens at Ephe-sus. The bawd and her associates wore cos-tumes in clashing orange and shocking pink.Their silky fabrics were draped in irregular

wedding.

Before the ship in which the couple is travellingreaches Tyre, a second storm arises, duringwhich Thaisa dies in childbirth. Following thecustom at sea, Pericles reluctantly casts hiswife’s cofn into the ocean. He then changescourse for Tarsus to place his baby daughter,Marina, in Dionyza’s care. From there he setsout once again for Tyre, where he grieves forhis lost wife.

5. MITYLENE

Fourteen years pass; Marina has grown into ayoung girl of exceptional beauty and awakenedDionyza’s envy. So a murderer is hired to killMarina; however, she is kidnapped by piratesbefore the killing takes place and taken to the

Mitylene Ephesus

THE COLOR JOURNEYIN SET AND COSTUME

My design for Pericles became a journey throughthe sequence of some of the colors of the rain-

green and were made of light silk. They wereworn with transparent chiffon drapes in theclassical Grecian style. Marina’s and Lysima-chus’ costumes remained the same, while Peri-cles now wore a simple purple caftan.

between the cyclorama and the front footlights.This was painted in a mixture of pastel shadesusing a sponging technique. The lighting for thecyclorama came from behind, using oor andceiling battens with peach, rose and lavenderlters. The area behind the gauze was lit by bat-



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bow for the settings, lighting and secondarycharacters’ costumes, starting with the darkest,

black, at Antioch, going on to using mainly blueat Tyre, green at Tarsus, yellow at Pentapolis,orange and pink at Mitylene and at the end thelightest, peach-rose at Ephesus. The constantcolor was the blue of Pericles’ costumes. But toillustrate his metamorphoses, I took these on a‘journey’ through the spectrum of blue. Thisbegan with turquoise (blue-green) and endedwith purple (blue-red).

7. THE OCEAN

The seventh space in which the story unfolds isthe sea. Pericles encounters it in its extremes:when it is wild and stormy and when the watersare becalmed. Its ever-changing dynamic ena-bles him to change, too. Only lighting was usedto make this seventh space a presence on thestage. Before each scene began, the set was litin a watery blue and green wash for somemoments while the stage remained empty. Theactors entered the stage only when the specic

lighting for the coming scene had been broughtup. Finally, when the action took place on boardship during the storm in which Thaisa dies inchildbirth, the set consisted of a simple mastand sail held up by sailors, while the castpresent on the stage swayed as if tossed by thewaves.

tens with lters in the same colors from thesides, above and below. Spots and oodlights

were used to light the front half of the stage.When the action of the play was in the sanctu-ary, the front half of the stage was dimmed, sothat the gauze became transparent. When theaction took place outside the temple, the gauzebecame opaque, lit by lamps placed directly infront of it that stood in the wings. The cos-tumes for Diana, Thaisa as the high priestessand the virgins had the pastel tones of rose,peach, primrose yellow, lavender and apple

Ephesus temple The Ocean Gower, the Storyteller

XIEXERCISES

When preparing for a production of Hamlet, I was working with a group often people who had joined me to create the costumes, set and lighting. Iwas still devising the sequence of exercises described below and had gonethrough the stages for color and texture, when we arrived at the modellingfor the set shapes. By this time the group knew the story well and theywere capable of coming to entirely their own choices. The next goal was



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Exercise: Invite each designer to start with onecolor only, different from those chosen by theothers, and then to cover the paper with theone color, using a variety of tonal levels, includ-ing the palest and the darkest.

COLOR EXERCISES FORSET AND COSTUME

1. DISCOVERING THE CHARACTEROF INDIVIDUAL COLORS

Equipment: Crayons or paints; paintbrushes

and water; paper; tables and chairs

Preparation: Ensure that all designers havetheir own set of colors in the same medium sothat what they create is in that same medium.For the same reason give them the same sizeand weight of paper. Use a large enough work-ing space so that everyone has enough space inwhich to explore on their own and not distractthose around.

These exercises are for those interested inresearching and creating designs in a group,and their intention is to both awaken and freethe group’s artistic potential. When developingand using them over the last twenty years Ihave made a major discovery: The more theindividuals are given opportunities to explorethe principles of each element on their own, the

more the group is able to arrive at a design forthe production out of artistic principles and notout of personal choices.

“The head is not more native to the heart,

The hand more instrumental to the mouth,

Than is the throne of Denmark to thy father.”

Hamlet, Prince of Denmark, Act I, scene 2

to elevate the oor level, and an animated discussion of the merits of thevarious options for the set shapes had just started. The main question they

were addressing was where to place the available rostra. The passage inthe play they found most relevant to their question was: “What a piece of

work is a man …” . They had grasped that Hamlet’s striving for the truth ofwhat it means to be human was a central theme, and to express this andthe essence of Hamlet’s own humanity, they chose the ve-sided form of apentagon. The group then created this pentagon as the central set pieceby placing four separate rostra around the sides of the stage; its fth sidewas the stage front.

3. EXPLORING SCENEPAINTING TECHNIQUES

Equipment: Three, four or ve (as many asthere are sections in the ‘strip cartoon’) whiteats and stage weights to hold the ats safely

i h l h f hi i d

play, prepare strips of paper, one for eachdesigner, approximately six to eight inches highand at least a yard long, and fold them intothree, four or ve sections. The exact numberdepends on the number of climaxes or turning-points that the group has discovered the play toh

Request well in advance of this that everyonepaint or draw freely, without resorting to image-ry such as trees, houses or people. At the endask the group to blend in a small quantity of anyneighboring colors (in tonal sequence) to widenthe color spectrum used. Draw their attention

h f h h i i h l h



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upright, or large sheets of white paper pinnedto a wall; large quantities of plastic sheeting as

underlay; broad decorators’ paintbrushes; buck-ets of water thickened with sizing (or wallpaperpaste); powder paints in as many colors as pos-sible, including black and white; sponges; atplastic or glass palette boards large enough touse as mixing boards; aprons (advisable)

Preparation: Lay plastic sheeting on the oor ofthe workspace. Paint three to ve ats withwhite emulsion and leave to dry. Set up the ats

in their vertical position and weight them, or pinsheets of paper to the surrounding walls. Mixthe water and sizing as directed in the instruc-tions until the mixture acquires a consistencythat prevents it from dripping. Spoon small quan-tities of a range of powder paint colors onto thepalettes and place these in front of the ats orsheets of paper. Place one bucket of paste andtwo or three paintbrushes alongside each pal-ette in front of the ats or sheets of paper.

Exercise: This is a repetition of the sequence ofsteps used to create the ‘strip cartoon,’ usingone at for each section of the ‘cartoon.’ Seatthe group at the back of the auditorium to cre-ate the maximum distance between the paintingand the viewing. Suggest that two or three design-ers become the ‘hands,’ i.e., go on the stageand paint the rst at together. Invite the remain-ing designers to be the ‘eyes,’ i.e., to watch close-

have.

Exercise: Set up work-tables so that the design-ers can sit with their backs to each other. Giveone strip to each. Once everyone has both astrip and the same color medium, tell the storyof the play. Pause at the three to ve turningpoints of the play. During the pauses, invite eve-ryone to use their colors to create the moods ofthe turning-points, but without using imagerysuch as trees, houses or people. Explain to eachdesigner how to use the folded paper: From left

to right, use one section for each of the turning-points, then fold the nished section under therest of the strip so that it is no longer visible.Emphasize the importance of everyone’s notonly working individually but also of not refer-ring to their previous picture or pictures.

Evaluation: Collect the strips and hang them onthe wall beneath each other so that each scenebecomes one column. Ask the group to sit at a

distance and nd and describe the contrastsand similarities in the separate sections. Inviteeach designer to share other perceptions; allowthe sharing to lead to the discovery of whichcolors belong to which scenes. Encourage every-one to reect on the colors that might belong tothe various characters. Write the discoveriesand reections on sheets of paper in large writ-ing so that they can be referred to later.

to the fact that the aim is not to overwhelm themain color with the neighboring ones. This

exercise can also be done with dyes on cottoncloth.

Evaluation: Collect the examples and hangthem on a wall in the sequence of the colors ofthe three rainbows, as described in chapter 2.Ask everyone to sit at a distance that ensuresthat each has an overview of all colors. Lookingat one color at a time, invite the designers toshare impressions, which may be single words,

that express their experiences of the individualcolors. Write the impressions in large writingbeneath each color so that they can be referredto later.

2. CREATING A ‘STRIP CARTOON’

Equipment/Preparation: After everyone hasfamiliarized themselves thoroughly with the

everyone pick up the fabrics to observe howthey move.

Evaluation: Ensure that everyone has an over-view of the textures. Looking at one fabric at atime, invite each designer to share impressions,which may be single words that express their

Conclusion: Retain the ats so they can beused at a later date to discover the effect ofcolored lighting on the colors used on the atsor paper. Once the above study of the effects ofthe colored lights on the colored ats has beencompleted, the ats may be scrubbed cleanwith a broom and hose They are then ready to

ly and suggest to the ‘hands’ how to proceed.While the group is painting and watching, encour-age each individual to think about fur ther devel-oping the choices made in earlier exercises.Ensure that the ‘hands’ regularly become the‘eyes’ and vice versa, so the collaboration amongthe individuals in the group can intensify

EXERCISES : SET & COSTUME



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which may be single words, that express theirexperiences of the individual textures. Discuss

what the suitable use of each fabric is within theproduction.

2. TEXTURES FOR THECHARACTERS’ COSTUMES

Equipment: Fabrics of different textures; pins;tape; tailor’s dummies (optional); no scissors. Itis advisable when exploring the textures to usethe colors already chosen for the characters.

Preparation: As above for previous textureexercise.

Exercise: Spread the fabrics on the oor in asequence of colors that relates to the colorexercises. Suggest that the designers form

with a broom and hose. They are then ready tobe painted for the actual set.

TEXTURE EXERCISESFOR COSTUME &SOFT SCENERY

1. DISCOVERING THE QUALITY &CHARACTER OF INDIVIDUAL TEXTURES

Equipment: Pieces of fabric in a wide variety of

textures

Preparation: At every opportunity beg, borrowor buy as wide a selection as possible of fabrictextures and colors, from friends and family,second-hand shops and charity sales. Collectcurtains, bedspreads and tablecloths ratherthan nished items of clothing or costumes;they provide inexpensive examples of unusualtextures. Use a large enough working space so

that everyone has enough space in which toexplore on their own and not distract thosearound. Ensure that the oor of the work spaceis scrupulously clean.

Exercise: Spread the fabrics on the oor in asequence of colors that freely relates to thecolor exercises. Invite the designers to walkaround and between the fabrics in silence andto feel their textures and weights. Suggest that

the individuals in the group can intensify.

Evaluation: Once the painting is nished andthe tools cleared away, invite the participants toshare their impressions of the effects. Allow thereections to either conrm or adjust anychoices made so far. Write the comments onlarge sheets of paper and hang them on the sur-rounding walls so that they can be referred to later.

between the fabrics in silence, while they imag-ine the scene or scenes. Invite each group tofeel and move the fabric textures while theyimagine the scenes. Ask them to select texturesfor: background curtains, window hangings,sofas, chairs and tables. Divide the designersinto two groups and suggest that they drape

to place the groups of characters alongsideeach other to observe whether the costumedrafts work together. Then ask them to look atall the costume drafts individually. Encouragethe designers to share their perceptions andinsights so that the sharing leads to the discov-ery of which textures belong to which charac

groups of three and in the group choose a char-acter on whom they wish to focus. Invite eachgroup to walk around and between the fabricsin silence, looking at them and feeling the fabrictextures while they imagine the character.

Suggest that everyone pick up the fabrics and



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into two groups and suggest that they drapebackground curtains over one end of one of the

rods or rails and test whether the texture can bepulled or draped to the side by lif ting the fabricand tying it back with tape. Using the two endsof the second rod or rail, invite each group tohang lightweight fabrics, such as lace or net,over one end of the rail or rod, then to drapethe heavier fabric or fabrics beside them, andthen to tie them back with tape, as sample win-dow hangings. Invite everyone to lay, stretch orpull fabrics selected for sofas and chairs over

the chairs set. Using the tables, spread fabricsselected either as a decorative cover or as atablecloth over them.

Evaluation: Seat everyone at the back of thework space to look at the effect of the varioustextures from a distance. Invite the designers toshare their perceptions so that the sharing leadsto the discovery of which textures can be usedfor which scenes or situations. Make notes ofthe discoveries and reections on sheets ofpaper in large writing so that they can bereferred to throughout the process. At the endstore the draped rails or rods so that they areavailable later for lighting exercises.

ery of which textures belong to which charac-ters. Along the way make deliberate changes to

some elements of the costume drafts, including‘bad’ choices, so that the different qualities ofthe textures in combination with their colorsbecome more apparent. Make notes of the dis-coveries and reections on sheets of paper inlarge writing so that they can be referred tolater. At the end unpin the costume drafts fromthe living models or dummies and re-pin themon coathangers so that they are available laterfor the lighting exercises.

3. TEXTURES FOR THE SOFT SCENERY

Equipment: Two rods or clothes rails withheight extension pieces; two tables; three tove old chairs in different styles; fabrics of dif -ferent textures; heavy-duty pins where availa-ble, otherwise dressmaker’s pins; tape; noscissors

Preparation: The same as for previous textureexercises. Hang the rods or set up the clothesrails in such a way that they will be able to sup-port the weight of lengths of fabric hung overthem. Set out the chairs and tables in the work-ing space.

Exercise: Spread the fabrics on the oor in asequence of colors that relate to the color exer-cises. Ask the designers to walk around and

Suggest that everyone pick up the fabrics andmove them, observing how they move in rela-

tion to the character. Invite them to select twoor three fabrics inspired by the character andtake them to their individual working spaces.Either ask one member of the group to stand asthe character or use a tailor’s dummy. Requestthat the other two drape and pin the fabricschosen onto the participant or dummy with thehelp of dressmaker’s pins and tape, but no scis-sors. The aim is to create a three-dimensionalsketch or draft of the costume. This same exer-

cise can be explored with smaller models, forexample, puppets, using silk squares or fabricscraps pinned around a stand.

Evaluation: Seat everyone at the back of theworking space so that they can see the effect ofthe costume drafts from a distance. Invite them

in miniature. Then ask everyone to create mod-els of: the physical spaces as they are at theturning points in the play used in the color andtexture exercises, abstract forms that expressthe essence of the same turning points, e.g. tall,straight, short, curved, the forms of the objects(trees rocks furniture) Explore whether the

ences of: the whole ensemble, the groups ofcharacters, individual characters. Write the impres-sions in large writing beneath each design sothey can be referred to later. The costume designsare now the basis of the building of the costume.

FORM & ST YLE EXERCISESFOR COSTU MES

Equipment: One table and chair for eachdesigner; paper; leaded pencils; colored pencils,paints or any other color medium It is advisable

EXERCISES : SET & COSTUMES



94

(trees, rocks, furniture). Explore whether theforms belong at the back or the front of the

stage. Remember that every shape casts ashadow or shadows.

Evaluation: Ask everyone to place the claymodels on their modelling board as they mightset them in the space for the production. Invitethe whole group to sit where they have an over-view of the designed shapes. Ask them to shareimpressions and experiences of: the spaces, theobjects, the abstract forms. Write the impres-

sions in large writing beside each design so thatthey can be referred to later. At the end coverthe forms in plastic bags so that they remainmoist; store them safely so that they are availa-ble later for lighting exercises.

2. LARGE FORMS

Equipment: Wooden poles 3 meters long

Preparation: Distribute one pole to each design-er. Draw attention to the dangers of workingwith long poles: once a particular direction (i.e.,vertical/horizontal/diagonal) has been adopted,it is important that everyone hold the polepointing in the same direction until instructedotherwise.

Exercise 1 – Vertical Shapes: Ask everyone tostand in the workspace holding the pole verti-

FORM & STY LE EXERCISES

FOR THE SET

1. DISCOVERING THE STYLEIN MINIATURE FORMS

Equipment: One table and chair for each par-ticipant; clay modelling boards; clay (approx.one football-sized piece per board); cardboardboxes; knives. This exercise can be done singlyor in groups of two or three.

Preparation: Set up tables, chairs, boards. Dis-tribute clay and working tools.

Exercise: Using the clay supplied, invite thedesigners to create and mold a variety of shapes

paints or any other color medium. It is advisablewhen exploring the forms to work with the

colors already selected for costumes.

Preparation: Set up tables and chairs. Lay outpaper and pencils/paints. Exercise: Starting with a ve-pointed star, askeveryone to explore human proportions indrawing as described in Chapter 4. Invite thedesigners to expand and contract the propor-tions of the ve-pointed star and to explore how

specic human characteristics can be expressedin the proportions of the lines. Then ask themto observe the qualities of the direction of theline (the vertical, horizontal and diagonal in bothdirections), rst in the upper, then in the lowerbody and nally in the whole human form.Allow individuals to choose a character forwhich to design a costume. Using the discover-ies made about the qualities of the line direc-tions, encourage them to allow the form of thecostume to emerge as they imagine the charac-ter. Once this has happened, suggest that theyadd the colors for the dif ferent parts of the charac-ter’s costume from the choices made so far.

Evaluation: Collect the designs and then hangthem up in character groups. Suggest that every-one sit at a distance to ensure that they have anoverview of the designs. Then invite the design-ers to share the impressions of their experi-

and red, followed by the non-primary color yel-low, ensuring that the stage is dark between thecolor experiences.

Exercise 1b: Repeat the above sequence, withone half of the group moving to the colors andthe other half observing the movers. Repeat the

LIGHTING EXERCISES

1. DISCOVERING INDIVIDUAL COLORSIN LIGHTING

Equipment: A stage; white curtains or ats

cally in front of them. Starting with either a cir-cle or a straight line, invite the group to create anumber of different shapes in the space (tobuild ‘mobile walls’), holding the poles verticallyin front of them. Repeat the same forms andshapes, holding the poles behind them. Hori-zontal Shapes: Ask participants to hold the



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the other half observing the movers. Repeat theabove sequence with the second half moving

and the rst half observing.

Evaluation: Ask everyone to leave the stageand sit in a circle, if possible in daylight. Sug-gest that they share their experiences of thecolors in lighting. Take note of how the individ-ual colors have inuenced those who have beenmoving. This inuences the audience, too,mainly unconsciously. Write the impressions inlarge writing on sheets of paper so that they

can be referred to later.

Exercise 2a: Allowing everyone to observefrom the auditorium, repeat the above sequencefor the same four colors as in exercise 1, butwithout returning to darkness between the colors.

Exercise 2b: Again allowing everyone toobserve from the auditorium, repeat the samesequence as in exercise 1, this time changing,adding and combining the colors and buildingup the lighting levels until they are as intense aspossible.

Evaluation: Ask everybody to sit in a circle, ifpossible in daylight. Suggest that they shareadditional impressions of their experiences ofthe colors in lighting. Write the impressions inlarge writing on sheets of paper for laterreference.

Equipment: A stage; white curtains or ats(sheets can be hung over colored ats); a vari-

ety of lamps (strip lights, spotlights, etc.); light-ing control board; lters in blue, green, red andamber or yellow; two ladders

Preparation: Clear and clean the stage. Set upwhite ats or hang white curtains or sheets. Ifnecessary cut colored lters to t into theframes to be used. Check that the lighting con-trol board is in working order. Fill the frameswith the four colored lters mentioned above

and t the frames to the lamps. Suggest thatbetween the individual phases of the exerciseseveryone rests or closes their eyes as often aspossible. Be aware that the intensity of thecolored lights can have strong and disturbingeffects on individuals; pay special attention toeveryone’s well-being.

Exercise 1a: Invite everyone to move onto thedarkened stage and crouch with closed eyes.Gradually bring up the blue strip lights. Ask every-one to open their eyes and begin to move as thecolor around them inspires them. Watch themovements closely, allowing the group itself todetermine when everyone returns to theircrouching position. Invite participants to returnto their crouching position with closed eyes,gradually fading out the blue, so that the stageis again in darkness. Repeat this sequence withthe other two primary lighting colors of green

zontal Shapes: Ask participants to hold thepoles horizontally in front of them. Starting with

either a circle or a straight line, invite the groupto create a number of different shapes in thespace (to build ‘mobile fences,’ etc.), holdingthe poles horizontally in front of them. DiagonalShapes: Ask everyone to hold the poles in avariety of diagonal positions. Starting witheither a circle or a straight line, invite the groupto create a number of different shapes in thespace (to build ‘mobile roofs,’ etc.), holding thepoles diagonally in front of them.

Exercise 2 – Ask the designers to create shapeswith the poles both upstage and downstage.Invite them to create shapes with the poles onthe left and right of the stage. Ask them to cre-ate shapes in the upper regions of the stage,near the lights, then in the lower regions, nearthe oor. Invite individuals in turn to standwithin the created form and experience it frominside. Allow the same designer to observe thesame form from the auditorium.

Evaluation: Invite everyone to share impres-sions of their experiences of creating theshapes. Pay attention to the variations in theexperiences of standing in front of or behindthe pole. Write the impressions in large writingso that they can be referred to later. Both theminiature and the large forms create the basisfrom which to design and build the set.

above the stage and then down to oor leveland lighting the stage with it; and with the sides,moving the ashlight from stage left and fromstage right and lighting the stage with it. Sug-gest that the others note the effects they haveobserved. Repeat the above sequence for thefurther turning points of the play.

Evaluation: Ask everyone to sit in a circle, ifpossible in daylight. Ask them to share impres-sions of their experiences of the colored shad-ows on the background. Write the impressionsin large writing on large sheets of paper for laterreference.

Exercise 3: Invite everyone to stand with theirbacks to the colored strip lights and face thewhite ats. Gradually light the stage with rstthe blue strip lights and then the green ones.While raising and lowering the levels of the twocolors, but without removing either colorentirely, ask participants to gently move whilst

EXERCISES : LIGHTING



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g p p y

Evaluation: Ask everyone to sit in a circle, ifpossible in daylight. Suggest that they shareimpressions of their experiences of the formsunder the colored lights and the shadows theforms created on the white backdrop. Write theimpressions in large writing on large sheets ofpaper for later reference.

Large Surfaces & Forms

Equipment: A stage; the three, four or ve atsalready painted in the exercises on set painting;three white ats; all the costume drafts createdin earlier exercises; dummies or coat-hangers;artists’ easels; a gauze curtain or scrim; lightingequipment as earlier; chairs

Preparation: Place the white ats on one sideof the stage, the colored ats on the other andthe set drapes in the center. Place the costumesthat are still pinned to the dummies or coat-hangers in front of the white ats.

Exercise 1: Invite everyone to sit in front of thestage. Darken the auditorium. Light the stagerst with blue strip lights alone, then with greenalone, then with red alone, then with yellowalone. Repeat as required. Ask the group toobserve the effects of the individual colors onthe painted ats and on the costume drafts.

2. EFFECTS OF COLORED LIGHTING ON

COLORED SURFACES & FORMS

Miniature Forms

Equipment: A space which can be blacked out;one clay modelling board per set of clay modelsas a miniature stage; the clay models made inthe earlier exercise; four ashlights; miniaturecolored lters in the three primary colors andyellow; scissors and tape; white cloth or stiff

paper or a board as a backdrop; table; chairs

Preparation: Place the modelling board on thetable in front of the group. Create a miniaturetheatre space by hanging or creating at the backof the modelling board a vertical white back-drop out of paper, board or cloth. Set out chairsfor the group. Cut small lters in the three pri -mary colors and yellow and tape them to theashlights.

Exercise: Once everybody is seated, invite oneor more group members to set the forms for therst turning point in the play in the miniaturestage space. Hand one ashlight each to fourdesigners; invite the others to observe. Blackout the space. Invite the four to experiment withdistances, moving the ashlight close into andthen away from the stage and lighting the stagewith it: with angles, moving the ashlight high

y, p p g yobserving the shadows on the white ats cre-

ated by their movements. Repeat the samesequence, rst bringing up the green and thenthe red strip lights. Repeat the same sequenceagain, rst bringing up the blue and then the redstrip lights. Repeat the same sequence for athird time, rst bringing up the blue, then thegreen and then the red strip lights, again raisingand lowering the levels of the three colors alter-nately. Finally, add yellow to the three colorsand ask everyone to observe the effect. Repeat

the same sequence, reversing the order inwhich the colors have been introduced. Followthis with an improvised sequence of colors.

FINAL THOUGHTS

Anyone interested in design and who has gone through the sequence of exercises described in thischapter, discussed and reviewed the entire process, and used the notes taken in the evaluations ofthe exercises when necessary, should now be in a position to create the nal design of the set, thecostumes and the lighting with a good degree of condence. As to the time they may take. These

Then combine the colors, building up sequen-ces, both prepared and freely improvised. Askeveryone to observe the effects of the differentcombinations of colors on the painted ats andcostume drafts. Encourage them to take partic-ular note of the effect of the red and greenlights on the red and green surfaces.



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exercises need approximately forty hours, or one full week of work, if they are to be done effectively.

They can be done either in one block before the production starts, or during the early phase of therehearsals or run more slowly, parallel to most of the rehearsal process. Of course, the creativeprocess does not end once the different components have been designed. It goes on throughout thebuilding of the costumes and set and beyond that into the nal stages of rehearsal and ultimately intoperformance. Only then can the designer begin to think that the work has come to some sort ofcompletion.

Exercise 2: Using both strip lights and spot-lights, change the source of the lighting. Lightthe stage from the front, from both right andleft and from behind; light it from below andfrom above. Invite everybody to observe theeffects of the different lighting sources.

Exercise 3: Using white spotlights only, lightspecic areas of the stage. Ask one or twodesigners to move in and out of the lit areas of

the stage. Invite everyone to observe the effectsof lighting the stage with white spotlights only.

Exercise 4: Hang a gauze curtain or scrim andrepeat the above sequence of lighting exercises,lighting the gauze rst from the front only, thenfrom the back only and nally from one or bothsides. Invite everyone to observe the effects oflighting the scrim from the three sources oflight.

Evaluation: Ask everybody to sit in a circle, ifpossible in daylight. Suggest that they shareimpressions of their experiences of the coloredlights coming from different sources. Write theimpressions in large writing on large sheets ofpaper for later reference.

XIIPRACTICAL ISSUES

When I was working in the wardrobe at Sadlers Wells, I was instructed tomake a bellboy jacket for a ballet dancer. I had never made a garment formen, so I approached the task with care. Once I had been shown the vari-ous methods I was to employ and followed them to the letter, I wasdelighted that the jacket tted perfectly when the dancer came for a t -ting: It looked as if he had been poured into it. In fact, it tted so snuglythat it raised my boss’s suspicions, and he asked the dancer to lift his arms



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1. SCENE CHANGES

Keep set changes to a minimum. As necessaryuse or build lightweight furniture that can beeasily carried on and off stage. Use heavy setpieces only when they can be on stage through-out the performance. If heavy pieces have to bemoved, attach wheels beneath them that rollsilently. On an uneven oor give the wheelsregular attention so that they remain silent.

2. LIGHTING CHANGES

Ensure that the lighting technician can see theentire stage so that adjustments to the lightingplot can be made dur ing the performance. Givethe technician manual control of the lightingboard, even if the lighting changes run auto-matically from a computer, so that adjustmentscan be made during the performance. Considerintroducing any new lighting setting before

THE STAGE

One of the rst challenges the designer maymeet is how to organize and structure the stageand the surrounding backstage area. Assess thestage spaces carefully before embarking on thedesign, as the layout determines to what extentthe design can be implemented. Where possi-ble, use a playing space with a ceiling highenough to hang backdrops and lamps out of theaudience’s sight. Allocate enough space to thebackstage area so that scene and costumechanges can take place easily and actors canmove freely from their exits to their new pointsof entry. Where possible, ensure that the back-stage area also allows for scene and costumestorage.

SCHEDULING

All aspects of backstage work conventionallytake longer to nish than rst imagined orplanned. So scheduling backwards from open-ing night, make a plan of action that includesdeadlines for the different phases of produc-tion, such as the completion of set and cos-tumes. Before rehearsals start, schedule costumettings, technical and dress rehearsals, allowingenough time for alterations before the rst per-formance so that the inevitable problems canbe resolved with as little stress as possible.Allow enough time for all the lighting rehears-als, bearing in mind that other rehearsals can-not take place on the stage at the same time.For rehearsals to build the lighting settings,ensure that there is a team on hand enthusi-astic about changing sets and carrying cos-tumes on and off stage and able to wait whilechoices for the settings and levels are made.

“To show our simple skill,

That is the true beginning of our end.”

A Midsummer Night’s Dream, Act V, scene 1

as he would do if holding his partner in the air. As he did so, the seams

ripped open and, slowly but surely, pieces of my carefully-sewn costumedropped to the oor. I was devastated at the sight, but realized that I hadforgotten one of the instructions: Double-stitch every seam. This chapterdeals with general practicalities and the specic crafting of costumes, setand lighting.

and to wait backstage in full costume. Place theset pieces so that all backstage areas are con-cealed. Check sightlines from every corner ofthe auditorium. Avoid any refreshments broughtinto the backstage area for fear of accidents toset and costumes, especially when the space isdark during performance time.

hair. (Avoid zippers due to their unreliability.)Organize enough help for the dressing andundressing at the start and end of the perform-ance, as well as for the quick changes.

SET & SCENERY

actors enter the stage, given that the lightingcreates the atmosphere or mood for the actionthat follows.

3. COSTUME CHANGES

Design the costumes with any necessary quickh d f h h



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3. SET MATERIALS

Wood: Use sturdy and lightweight timber; it hasan innite number of uses, so can be reused.

1. PLANNING

Know the play well and familiarize yourself withthe director’s vision or concept. Know the spe-cic circumstances of the production, e.g., thenumber of rehearsal weeks, stage hands andtechnical and dress rehearsals. Ensure that setbuilding and other technical requirements areincorporated into the overall rehearsal sched-ule. Remember that the simpler the solution,

the more effective it usually is.

2. STAGE SPACE

Keep the acting and backstage areas as open aspossible. Position exits and entrances withenough space for actors to enter and exit safely

changes in mind. Determine from the charac-

ters’ entrances and exits exactly where in thebackstage area the changes can take place.Afx fastenings to the quick-change costumesthat do not disturb the character’s makeup and

Furniture: Build basic pieces that can be easilyindividualized. Blend the pieces with the generalcharacter of the design.Breaking Down: Breaking down is a processthat gives décor a used look. This is necessaryeven when the set piece needs to look new, asthe genuine newness of the fabric or other

t i l di t t B k d f b i ith

be opened, closed and slammed without wob-bling the whole set.Ceiling/Roof: When creating a stage roof orceiling, avoid blocking overhead lighting andcausing unwanted shadows.Cyclorama: Be aware that a cyclorama restrictsthe number of entrances and exits.B kd U l h t f

Avoid knots in timber; they are weaknesses inthe wood. Avoid unseasoned wood; it can warp.Metal: Iron is strong and rigid but heavy,whereas aluminum is light and easy to move butmay bend. Chicken wire xed to a woodenstructure can be molded into any realistic shapeor fantastic form.F b i T k k d th f f th

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material can distract. Break down fabrics either

before cutting or after they have been hung. Tobreak down a set element made of fabric, sprayit or splash it with dull paint or dye. Cut holesand fray edges with scissors, scouring pads andsandpaper to create a rustic effect. Spray adarker shade of the base color into the folds, tocreate the effect of curtains and furniture fadedby the sun. Break down furniture and other setpieces with hammers, scissors and any othersimilar implements so that items appear used or

lived in.Shortcuts: When the budget is tight or there isno time to build new scenery, hose down andrepaint any ats used previously. Use rostra ofpast productions in new combinations. Hangsimple curtains to create an indoor setting.Hang greenery to create an outdoor setting.

LIGHTING

1. PLANNING & DESIGNING

Know in which areas of the stage the action willtake place. Before building full-size scenery andcostumes, build a scaled cardboard model ofthe set and install ashlights or small lamps aslighting instruments, attaching colored lters tothe ashlights or small lamps where necessary.Experiment with colored light projected onto

Backdrops: Unless scene changes are part of

the ow of the production, hang a backdropthat closes off the back of the stage duringmajor scene changes so that the action cancontinue undisturbed at the front.Flats: If ats will be used for more than one pro-duction, use a standard measurement of 2.5m x1.5m that allows for multiple uses. To stabilizeats, build and attach to their backs wooden tri -angles of at least two thirds of the height of theat, using hinges that allow them to lie ush

against the at when stored. Once in position,lay one or two stage weights or sandbags acrossthe bottom strut. Paint ats either on the oor,with long-handled brushes, or upright and intheir nal position on the stage.Fly Sheet: Hang y sheets and backdrops fromscaffolding pipes and suspend from pulleysattached to the ceiling.Curtains: Sew a chain or lead weight into thecurtain hems so that the curtains remain stillwhenever actors—either on or offstage—moveclose to them. Leave no gap between curtainsand oor when hanging. Remove excess curtainfabric to avoid accidents.Gauzes: Handle delicate gauzes with care; holesare easily created and immediately visible,especially when lit. Stretch gauzes by sewinghems at top and bottom and sliding a rod intothem; this will prevent the strong shadowscaused by creases when lit.

Fabric: To make rocks and other forms for the

set, soak canvas or calico in glue or sizing. Moldthe fabric onto a chicken wire frame and allowto dry. Paint the form when it has hardened.Paints: Use powder paints for scene painting;they wash off easily if set pieces are to bereused. Add wallpaper paste to the water toprevent the colors from running. Use sand, saw-dust, gravel and matte, shiny or iridescent fab-ric scraps stiffened with sizing and partiallymixed into the paint to add textures to painted

surfaces. Apply paints with vertical and horizon-tal brush strokes to create a man-made impres-sion, such as of houses and streets. Applypaints with diagonal brush strokes to create out-door and nature scenes with trees.

4. SET ELEMENTS

Floor/Coverings: Ensure that the surface of theoor is even and smooth. If using a oor cover -ing, take a material that absorbs the sound offootsteps, such as cloth or sheets of hardboardlaid with the rough side facing up. Stretch anyoor cover and secure it rmly along all edges.Rostra/Ramps/Stairs: Build sturdy rostra, rampsand stairs and x them securely into position.Ensure that any such pieces of set are availableto actors in rehearsal as early as possible.Walls/Windows/Doors: Build ats to be usedfor walls, windows and doors so that they can

COSTUMES

1. FABRICS

Avoid using brand-new fabric when possible;they can appear harsh under lighting. If usingnew fabrics treat them with paints appliqué

below, behind a piece of scenery, for example,so that as many lighting options as possible areavailable. Hang footlights from the edge of thefront of the stage rather than placing them onits surface, so that the audience can see theactors’ feet. Hang the footlights at an angle thateliminates or reduces unnecessary shadows.Light the backstage area independently of the

samples of both white and painted set surfacesand onto swatches of costume fabrics. Experi-ment with different miniature gobos beforedeciding on lighting textures. Experiment withhow changes in the angles and sources of light-ing instruments inuence the appearance ofscenery and costumes. Describe the moodsthat the design wants to create at the same time



101

new fabrics, treat them with paints, appliqué

and other techniques before using them for cos-tumes. Where possible use plain fabrics; theyoffer greater freedom when decorating andchoosing style, and patterns lose denition at adistance. When it is necessary to use patternedfabrics, paint them asymmetrically to enhanceand strengthen the overall effect.

2. DYEING, PAINTING & APPLIQUÉ

Use natural bers wherever possible; they takepaints and dyes more easily than man-madefabrics. Test samples of fabrics to be dyed orpainted before treating them. Start by bleachingthe fabric irregularly to give an uneven appear-ance. Wash fabrics to remove the bleach, sothat new colors added later hold. Add newcolors by dyeing or painting the fabric. Unevencoloring conveys that the costume or décor hasbeen lived in and imbues the overall coloreffects with depth and variety.

Fabric Dyes: After mixing the dye or dyes, usethem as if they are watercolor paints. Spreadthe fabric out on a large at surface, oor orgarden lawn. Either splash, sponge, brush orapply the dyes or soak the cloth in dye andleave unstirred, so that the colors take uneven-ly. Wherever possible, use cold-water dyes, hot-water ones need large containers in which the

Light the backstage area independently of the

stage lighting, attaching blue lters to simple t-tings to keep lighting levels low. When installingbackstage lighting, ensure that it is not visiblefrom the auditorium. Install color lters after theinstruments have been hung and focused.

4. PLOTTING & BUILDINGLIGHTING CHANGES

Using copies of a plan of the stage, with indica-

tions of where set pieces are positioned, makesketches of the areas in which characters moveand stand. This will serve as a reference whencreating the lighting plot. In a blank, single-sided copy of the script prepared in advance,use the empty space opposite the text to indi-cate: when the lighting changes take place,which instruments and color lters are used ateach change and the level of light for eachinstrument. Ensure that enough time is availableto build each lighting setting in a rehearsal or

rehearsals arranged for this purpose. Use thisrehearsal time to make adjustments to the posi-tion of instruments already hung. Rehearse thelighting changes on the lighting board until theyow smoothly.

that the design wants to create at the same time

as using the lights on the model stage whenpresenting the lighting design to the directorand producer.

2. PREPARING

Make an inventory of the permanent lighting x-tures and other moveable instruments available.Get to know on site the positions and effects ofany lighting instruments already hung. If equip-

ping a stage with lters for the rst time, buythe primary and complementary colors andamber. Ensure that any standard gobos pur-chased are the correct size for the type or typesof prole spotlight available for the production.An individual gobo can be made by cutting asquare sheet of thin aluminum to size with aStanley knife and with the aid of a paper orcardboard template to carve the design into thealuminum.

3. HANGING & FOCUSING

Hang the instruments so that they are invisibleto the audience or directed away from the audi-torium. Ensure when hanging and focusing thatevery area of the stage can be lit, with equalbrightness as far as possible. Hang the instru-ments not only from the front and above butalso at the sides and back of the stage and from

Shaping & Padding the Body: The body ofcharacters such as Richard III, Sir John Falstaffand Sir Toby Belch may benet from beingaltered through shaping and adding paddingbefore the costume is cut, and this can be donein a number of ways.

a) Upper Body: Make a waistcoat comfortably

shape of the garment or curtain. Examine thetexture, the weave and direction of the grain todetermine how to cut the cloth. Where possiblebuild costumes on the straight grain from theshoulders downwards. When the warp and weftthreads are of a similar weight and the garmentneeds to ow, cut the garment on the bias,using the weave of the fabric diagonally To

fabrics are boiled, and this process may destroythe fabric texture.Fabric Oil Paints: Spray or paint fabrics with oilpaints specically made for fabrics, as theseallow fabrics to move after the paint has dried.Apply paint over the dye to further enhance thecolor. To avoid any rigidity in the patterning,make a cardboard template of the design and

PRACTICAL ISSUES : COSTUMES



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a) Upper Body: Make a waistcoat comfortably

tted to the actor’s body. Attach any of thehumps and bumps of the character to this base,using layers of wadding made into shapes. Oncethe shaping is completed, cover the entire pad-ded surface with a nal layer of silky fabric sothat the rest of the costume can move over iteasily.

b) Lower Body/Crinolines & Bustles: Makeankle-length petticoats from calico, cutting pan-

els wider at the bottom than at the waist. Toprepare to x the stiff steel or nylon hoops tothe petticoat, sew at regular intervals horizontalbands of tape wider than the hoops themselves.Sew the tape to the petticoat at both the upperand lower edges, leaving an opening at each

using the weave of the fabric diagonally. To

achieve a symmetrical garment that needs toow softly, when the warp and weft threads areuneven in weight, cut the garment on the biasor diagonal with a center seam.

make a cardboard template of the design and

paint randomly through it onto the fabric.Appliqué: To create an embroidered effect, sewfabric scraps onto the costume or scene panel.Paint over the fabric to enrich and harmonizethe design. Add braiding and beading toheighten the effect of the appliqué.Breaking Down: As with set pieces and fabrics,all costumes, even ones that need to look new,need to be broken down to give garments aused look. The fabric can be broken down at

two moments: before cutting and after the cos-tumes are completed. To break down a cos-tume, spray it or splash it with paint or dye. Cutholes and fray edges with scissors and sandpa-per to create a rustic effect. Spray a darkershade of the base color into the folds, to createhem and sweat marks. For crowds or groups,break down one costume with colors from itsneighboring costumes so that they blend.

3. COSTUME BUILDING

Assessing the Cloth: The grain or weave of anycloth is made up of threads woven in two direc-tions: those running lengthwise are the warp-threads, and those running width-wise theweft-threads. The warp-threads, the stronger ofthe two, are stretched on the loom; the weft-threads, woven across the warp, have greaterelasticity and are therefore less able to hold the

neck to carry the weight of the fabric while pin-ning. When the opening is at the back, align thefolded edge of the fabric to the front of thebody along the center line and pin into place onthe tape at the neck and on the undergarments.When the opening is at the front, use the instruc-tions below that apply to the front for the back.

2. PREPARING

Have all the tools ready to hand: sharp scissors,a full pin cushion, ideally xed to the wrist, plentyof tape and a piece of tailor’s chalk or pencil.When cutting on a body, ask the actor to wearthe undergarments that the costume requires,such as a T-shirt corset or body padding Fold

end of the tape so that the hoops can beinserted. Slide the hoops into the bands. Attachthe bustle or crinoline to an undergarment like ashort petticoat that ts rmly around the hips,to which the crinoline or bustle can be attachedwith tapes. Balance the two garments togetherto ensure that the main weight of the crinolineor bustle hangs at the back Sew a frill around



103

3. CUTTING THE FRONT

When cutting on the body, leaving a seamallowance double the standard width meansthat alterations are still possible later. Experi-ment with how the fabric moves: Does it wantto fall smoothly across to the shoulder or bedraped loosely? Can the fabric be coaxed intoobeying the demands of the style of the pro-duction? Pin the fabric into position along what

will become the sewing line, starting at the baseof the neck center front. Cut away excess fabricaround one quarter of the neck, from centerfront to the position of the shoulder seam,allowing for a seam double the standard width.Smooth the fabric along and over the shoulder

such as a T shirt, corset or body padding. Fold

the cloth in half along its length. Pin along thefolded edge to make a center crease, so that thecostume can be cut in two layers of fabric at thesame time hanging on one side of the body.Select whether the costume’s main opening willbe at the center front or center back. (Sideopenings make for slower costume changes thatcan smudge makeup and disturb hair or wigs.)To create the opening at the center front orcenter back—the usual opening is at the back—measure a seam allowance of 2" (5cm) from theselvedge(s) of the fabric and draw a line withpencil for calico or tailor’s chalk for other fab-rics to mark the center. Use this unusually broadseam allowance to later x the fastening to. Measure, cut and t a length of tape around the

or bustle hangs at the back. Sew a frill around

the petticoat hem just above the bottom hoopto ensure there is no ridge visible through theoverdress or skirt.

CUTTING

Cut any costume cloth on a table, tailor’sdummy or human body. Where possible, drapethe fabric on a dummy or human body so that

the cloth behaves as realistically as possible. Tolearn the skills required for cutting on thedummy or human body, practice with an oldsheet or spare piece of cloth. Unless the designstipulates otherwise, cut fabrics using the warp-thread vertically, starting at the shoulder andworking down the body. When working withdelicate fabrics, cut a calico under-bodice andthen build the fabric onto this base.

1. CUTTING ON THE BODY OR DUMMY

This technique requires courage, but oncelearned and practiced, it saves a lot of timebecause it keeps problems and ttings to a min-imum. It is an organic, human-scale approach tocostume-building and has the advantage ofinvolving the actor in the creative process fromthe outset.

Join the fabric along the shoulder to the front ofthe garment. Cut the sleeve hole. Pin the backfabric to the front fabric down along the sideseam, allowing a seam double the standardwidth. Cut the hem length for the back at alength that corresponds with the front and theoverall style of the costume.

width. If the costume is to have no further fabricattached to it, or is a tunic or full-length gar-ment that hangs freely from the shoulder to theknee or the oor, cut away excess fabric downthe side of the body and then well below thehem level.

4. CUTTING THE BACK

to where the sleeve will be attached. Mold thecloth down the body. Pin darts along the sewingline in places where the body shape and cos-tume style require them. Cut away excess fabricin a curve from the shoulder down to the arm-pit, allowing for a seam double the standardwidth. Continue cutting away excess fabricdown the side of the body, leaving a seam

PRACTICAL ISSUES : COSTUMES



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5. CUTTING THE SLEEVES

Before unpinning the costume from the body,drape and pin the double fabric for the sleeve to

4

Repeat the above stages, starting by aligningthe marks for the opening down the center backand attaching the fabric at the neck center back.

y, g

allowance double the standard width. If the cos-tume has a seam at, above or below the waist,cut away excess fabric below this seam line,leaving a seam allowance double the standard

corrections made with pencil. Cut the backingin calico, following the instructions above. Cutthe outer cloth in exactly the same way, ensur-ing that the grain direction is identical. Tack thetwo fabrics together along the sewing lines andfrom this point on treat them as one.

3. LINING

1. MARKING THE SEWING LINES

Remove the garment from the body, leaving thepins in place. Mark all the sewing lines eitherwith pencil, tailor’s chalk or thread, stitching thethread on the top layer of the fabric only. Makealignment or balance marks, again with pencil,chalk or thread, along the major seams. Remove

one shoulder, and arrange any folds or gathersas required. Cut away excess cloth. If the designdoes not allow the sleeve to be cut on the body,cut at on a table.

SEWING & FITTING



105

3

Linings are made of satins and other soft fabricsand create a smooth inner surface for roughfabrics. The lining is cut and sewn independ-ently, after the outer garment has been cut andtted. They are best sewn into the garment byhand, because machine seams can alter theoverall shape. Lay out the lining fabric on thetable and use the pieces of costume already cutas a pattern. Before cutting, add an extra fold offabric at the center back so that movement inthe garment is easier. Transfer any adjustmentsto the lining after the garment has been tted,adjusted and sewn. After sewing, place the‘wrong’ sides of both garment and liningtogether, covering the rough edges of each. Pintogether and sew into the garment by hand.

g j

all pins and lay the cut cloth at on a table.Using pins, transfer the sewing lines and align-ment or balance marks to the other half of thegarment that lies below. Turn the garment over,mark all sewing lines again on the second halfof the garment and remove the pins. Alterna-tively, sew through both layers with loosestitches, gently pull the two halves of the gar-ment apart and cut the threads to leave littletufts marking the sewing lines.

2. BACKING

A costume backing, conventionally made of cal-ico, gives delicate fabrics rmness and holdsthem in place. If calico is used to make a cos-tume pattern, sewing lines can be marked and

Stage costumes should be durable and mostaudiences do not see them at close quarters, sothe following practical tips can make the sewingfaster and costumes more hard-wearing.

5. CLEANING & LAUNDERING

Give actors a ne jersey T-shirt to wear insideor underneath the costume, with sweat-pads forthe physically active and those prone to per-spire. Wash the T-shirts daily. Regularly washcotton garments, such as shirts, blouses andtights, during the run of the production. Dry

making a dress with a seam at the waist, sewthe bodice and the skirt separately and thenhand-stitch the bodice to the skirt at the sides.Skirts & Trousers: To build a skirt or trouserswith folds or gathers at the waist, make a stiffbelt with buckram and attach the fabric. Beforedraping skirt fabrics over bustles and crinolines,sew tapes to the inside of the waistband at the

4. GENERAL SEWING & BUILDING

Sew the seams still to be tted and altered withlarge tacking stitches on the machine. If thecloth is robust, they can later be pulled apartand resewn in smaller stitching. After tting,double-stitch tight-tting bodice and jacketseams. Sew seams on the machine as fast as

PRACTICAL ISSUES :MASKS & PUPPETS



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clean heavy and delicate garments when neces-sary and at the end of the run. Return onlyclean garments to the wardrobe at the end ofthe production.

MASKS & PUPPETS

1. MODELLING THE BASE OR MOLD

Masks are built on a base on a horizontal board,and puppet heads are modelled in the handand then placed on a vertical rod. Model thebase for a single mask or puppet head in clay orplasticine. (Clay works fast, is wet and cold anddries quickly if not covered; plasticine is rm,needs to be warmed before it is pliable and canbe remodelled easily.) Keep clay or plasticinecovered if it is to be reused. Make a template ofthe actor’s face before modelling the base of a

sides and attach folds at different levels asrequired.Gowns & Cloaks: To sew cloaks and gowns thathave loose, full drapes, make a calico yoke andattach the cloak or gown to it, using hiddenhand-stitches between the folds. To keep cloaksin place, x tapes of approx. 1m length insidethe garment at the top of the shoulders, bringthem over the shoulders and under the arms tothe middle of the back and tie together.Hems: Keep costume hems at the front clear ofthe actor’s feet to prevent tripping. Make hemslonger at the back for dignied and elderly char-acters; they can slow the pace of walking.Finishing: Finishing touches need to be gener-ous, as details are difcult to see from the backof the auditorium. Mixing the above materialsand techniques gives depth and richness to cos-tumes under the lights. Use dyes and/or oilpaints to heighten particular features. Add em-broidery, ribbon, lace and/or beads and sequins

as required. Finish the costumes with furtheruse of oil paint where necessary.Shortcuts: If building every costume in detail isnot possible, focus on the central charactersand indicate the supporting roles by alterationsto second-hand costumes.

possible so that they are as straight as possi-ble. Once a seam is completed, trim awaythread ends immediately. Avoid zippers becausethey stick at awkward moments. Use hooks andeyes instead, sewing them into the center backor front of the costume and giving them anunderlay so that the wearer does not noticethem. Test a corner of the fabric before ironingthe whole garment. When ironing a heavy cos-tume that pulls away from the board, either pinit to the ironing board with safety pins or placea table close enough to carry its weight. Whenironing delicate fabrics, use a damp cloth. Toprevent stains from excess moisture, wet onehalf of the cloth, squeeze it out, roll it into thedry half and squeeze again.

Fitting: Fittings are valuable for two reasons:They clarify what alterations are needed andgive actors the opportunity to get to know theircostumes. Request an exaggerated demonstra-

tion of the character’s movements. Fit sleevesand other close-tting parts of the costume sothat the actors can move freely and comfortably.Bodices & Jackets: Finish the open edges ofthe bodice (neck, hem, etc.) with bias binding.Use boning or stays on the calico undergarmentto make a close-tting and wrinkle-free bodice.Cover the stays or bone with protective tapeand sew in by hand along the dart seams. When

Seven stages of puppet head modelling

ened, remove it from its mold and paint or sprayit with metallic acrylic paint. Darken any dentsor other uneven surfaces. Polish the armor withfurniture polish to create a burnished look.

2. DECORATION

A small decoration can round off a prop, cos-

puppeteer or cut and sew it into a shape resem-bling a costume.Puppets with Feet: Make the body from stripsof leather or from pieces of wood hinged at the

joints. Cover the wood or leather with paddingso that the pieces resemble three-dimensionallimbs. Attach a piece of lead to the hips to cre-ate a counter-balance to the head. Place a small

mask. Ensure that the eye holes or slits are in aposition that enables the wearer to see and that thewhole mask ts comfortably. Ensure that the pro-le is compatible with the image of the front ofeither a mask or a puppet head. To make severalidentical masks (for a chorus) or puppet heads(with different costumes), model a base out ofplaster that makes frequent reuse possible.



107

tume or piece of set; in excess, however, deco-ration can eliminate the object’s denition anddepth. Make a sample of any piece of decora-tion and test its effect under colored lightsbefore making the full-scale article.

3. JEWELRY & MIRRORS

Caution is recommended when using jewelry ormirrors on stage because they frequently catchthe light and blind the audience. Apply a smallamount of grease to the surface of either a mirroror piece of jewelry; this will dull the glare withoutdetracting from the overall effect of the prop.

FINAL THOUGHT

These chapters are intended, not as a xedmethod, but to assist and enliven the imaginationand offer possibilities of how to realize it into

practicalities. They aim to engage the capacitiesof heart, head and hands of each participant toarrive at what best serves the whole. It is myhope that they will bring a measure of joy tothis work such as I have been privileged toshare with my students over the years.

weight in each shoe to facilitate walking. Coverthe body with fabric in such a way that the pup-pet can move freely.Painting: Painting a mask or a puppet’s head issimilar to applying makeup to an actor’s face.Color masks and puppet heads with acrylic craftpaints. Exaggerate the shading and highlightingso that this creates a balance to the stillness ofthe features.Costume: Find the colors, textures and style inthe same way as for an actor’s costume. Choosefabrics that have enough weight to make thepuppet’s movements believable. Ensure that thecostume does not control or limit the puppet’smovements. Instead of changing a puppet’s cos-tume between appearances, make several iden-tical puppets and dress them in their differentcostumes.

PROPS AND ACCESSORIES

1. ARMOR

Armor made as follows is light and comfortableto wear: Cut out a piece of heavy felt and makeholes at those points where straps or ties willlater be attached. Soak the felt in slightly dilutedPVA glue and press into a mold. Cut away anyexcess fabric. Once the felt has dried and hard-

2. PUPPET BODY MAKING

Face or Head Making: Faces and heads can bemade from a variety of materials: Cloth orpapier-mâché, rubber solutions, felt or cardedsheep’s wool soaked in PVA (polyvinyl acetate)and many other malleable substances that setrm when dry can be used to cover the base ormold. Cover the modelled base with cling lmor petroleum jelly before applying any of theabove materials. Decide how the mask is to beattached to the head, or the puppet head joinedto the body, and incorporate this into the mask-or head-making.Hand Making: Make hands from felt or papier-mâché. (Other substances, such as hard-settingclay, eventually crumble.) To give additionalstrength to the hand, build papier-mâché onto aglove for the masked actor’s hand or a wirestructure for a puppet’s hands. To make the

hand itself, sculpt felt soaked in PVA. Attach awire loop or felt extension at the wrist to jointhe hand to the puppet’s arm.Puppets without Feet: Make the body of largerrod puppets with heads and hands from a cos-tume of soft fabric that ows from the neck.Make the body of a hand-controlled puppetfrom a piece of fabric that conceals the hands.Drape the fabric over the hands and arms of the

INDEX OF CHARACTERS

“We are such stuff as dreams are made on;

and our little life is rounded with a sleep.”



108

Hamlet: Hamlet, Prince of Denmark, son to themurdered king and nephew to the new king.

Hermione: The Winter’s Tale, Queen to Leonteswho suffers banishment.

Jaques: As You Like It , Lord to the banished Duke,a melancholy spectator of unfolding events.

Jessica: The Merchant of Venice, daughter to Shy-lock and in love with a Christian.

King Antiochus & Daughter: Pericles, Prince of

Tyre, an incestuous King of Antioch who tries tomarry off his daughter to Pericles.

Lady Macbeth: Macbeth, who incites her husbandto commit murder.

Launcelo Gobbo: The Merchant of Venice, a Clown,servant to Shylock who struggles with his con-science.

Lear: King Lear, King of Britain who misguidedlygives away his kingdom to his two eldest andfalse-hearted daughters.

Leontes: The Winter’s Tale, King of Sicilia whose jealous nature causes great tragedy.

Clown: The Winter’s Tale, a shepherd’s son andsimple country lad.

Cordelia: King Lear, third and youngest daughterto Lear who cares for her father in his greatestneed.

Cymbeline: Cymbeline, King of Britain who hasneglected his royal duties to Rome.

Dionyza: Pericles, Prince of Tyre, wife to Cleon anda jealous step-mother.

Dogberry: Much Ado about Nothing, a Constablewho muddles the meanings of his words.

Edmund: King Lear, ‘Bastard’ son of Gloucesterwho plots mischief.

Feste: Twelfth Night , a clown and servant to Oliviawho participates in ridiculing Malvolio.

Gertrude: Hamlet, Prince of Denmark, Queen ofDenmark and mother to Hamlet who married thenew king.

Gloucester: King Lear, a courtier allied to theking, whose eyes are cruelly gouged out by Lear’selder daughter.

Ariel: The Tempest , a Spirit who serves Prosperoin deeds of magic until he is released.

Autolycus: The Winter’s Tale, a rogue and trick-ster.

Beatrice: Much Ado about Nothing, niece to theGovernor of Messina, a ery lady who scorns allmen.

Benedick: Much Ado about Nothing , a young Lordof Padua who is minded to tame Beatrice and wedher.

Bottom: A Midsummer Night’s Dream, a Weaverand one of the ‘Mechanicals’ who has an Ass’shead placed upon his shoulders.

Caius Lucius: Cymbeline, general of the RomanForces who has come to declare war on Britain.

Caliban: The Tempest , a savage and deformedslave, bound to serve Prospero.

Celia: As You Like It , Rosalind’s cousin whochooses to be banished with Rosalind.

Cleon: Pericles, Prince of Tyre, governor of Tarsus,weak ruler unable to curb his wife’s cruelty.

The Tempest, Act IV, scene 1

Theseus: A Midsummer Night’s Dream, Duke ofAthens, whose marriage to Hippolyta will be cele-brated in four days time at new moon.

Titania: A Midsummer Night’s Dream, queen of theFairies who, under a spell, falls in love with an ass.

Vincentio: Measure for Measure, the Duke ofVienna who disguises himself in order to discover

Pericles: Pericles, Prince of Tyre, a Prince whotravels to nd a wife and meets with many ad-ventures.

Polonius: Hamlet, Prince of Denmark, Lord Cham-berlain, a pompous busybody whose advice leadsto his own death.

Portia: The Merchant of Venice, a rich Heiress who

Lucio: Measure for Measure, a ‘Fantastic’ whobusies himself with other people’s affairs.

Macbeth: Macbeth, general of the King’s Armywho covets the crown.

Malvolio: Twelfth Night , steward to the lady ofthe house and victim of ridicule.

Mamillius: The Winter’s Tale young Prince of



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the truth about his people.disguises herself to preside in court as judge.

Prospero: The Tempest , the rightful Duke of Milan,banished by his wicked brother to a distant island.

Puck/Robin Goodfellow: A Midsummer Night’s

Dream, a Fairy and servant to Oberon, distribut-ing a magic love potion to the mortals.

Rosalind: As You Like It , daughter to the banishedDuke.

Shylock: The Merchant of Venice, a rich Jew who iswronged and demands a pound of his adversary’sesh.

Sir Andrew Aguecheek: Twelfth Night , a weakparticipant in ridiculing Malvolio.

Sir Toby Belch: Twelfth Night , uncle to the lady ofthe house who masterminds a cruel plot to ridi-cule Malvolio.

Stephano: The Tempest , a drunken butler.

The ‘Mechanicals’: A Midsummer Night’s Dream,simple craftsmen who rehearse and enact a playin honor of Theseus’ and Hippolyta’s marriage.

The Queen: Cymbeline, wife to Cymbeline whodrugs her king to further her own ends.

The Three Witches: Macbeth, foretellers of thedoom that will befall Macbeth.

Mamillius: The Winter s Tale, young Prince ofSicilia who dies young.

Maria: Twelfth Night , maid to Olivia and co-conspirator to ridicule Malvolio.

Mariana: Measure for Measure, betrothed to theLord Deputy and grieving at his faithlessness.

Marina: Pericles, Prince of Tyre, daughter to Peri-cles and Thaisa whose gentle purity is able to cureher father’s depression.

Miranda: The Tempest , daughter to Prospero whogrows up on the island to become a beautiful andtruthful girl.

Oberon: A Midsummer Night’s Dream, king of theFairies who casts a spell on his queen and variousmortals.

Old Shepherd: The Winter’s Tale, who nds thebaby princess and raises her.

Ophelia: Hamlet, Prince of Denmark, daughter toPolonius and in love with Hamlet, but is rejectedand loses her mind.

Othello: Othello, the Moor of Venice, a nobleMoor;,in the service of the Venetian State who isincited to mistrust his lady.

Paulina: The Winter’s Tale, lady-in-waiting whocares for her queen.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

“What do you read, my lord?”

“Words, words, words.”



110

________. Speech and Drama, London: Anthropo-sophical Publishing Co., 1960.

________. Study of Man, London: Rudolf SteinerPress, 1960.

Taymor, Julie. Playing with Fire, London: Harry N.

Abrams, Inc., 2007.Thomas, Terry. Create Your Own Stage Sets, Lon-don: A & C Black, 1985.

Wilsher, Toby. The Mask Handbook, A Practical

Guide, New York: Routledge Taylor & FrancisGroup, 2006.

Lloyd, Seton & Others. World Architecture, An Il-

lustrated History, Paul Hamlyn Ltd., Reprint Society,Italy 1964.

Reid, Francis. The Stage Lighting Handbook, Lon-don: A & C Black, 2001.

Steiner, Rudolf. The Arts and Their Mission, NewYork: Anthroposophic Press, 1964.

________. Colour, London: Rudolf Steiner Publish-ing Co., 1935.

________. Egyptian Myths and Mysteries, NewYork: Anthroposophic Press, 1971.

Bradeld, Nancy. Historical Costumes of England,London: George G. Harrap & Co., 1997.

Bruhn/Tilke, Wolfgang/Max. A Pictorial History of

Costume, London: A. Zwemmer Ltd., 1941.

Craig, W.J. The Complete Works of William Shake-

speare, London: Oxford University Press, 1905.Gale, Elizabeth. From Fibres to Fabric, London:Mills & Boon /Allman & Son, 1971.

Goethe, Johann Wolfgang von. Theory of Colours,Bibliolife, LLC, USA, 2010.

Govier, Jaquie. Create Your Own Stage Costumes,London: A & C Black, 1900.

Harwood, A.C. Shakespeare’s Prophetic Mind, Lon-don: Rudolf Steiner Press, 1964.

Hoggett, Cris. Stage Crafts, London: A & C Black,2000.

Kleist, Heinrich von. About Marionettes, translat-ed by Michael Lebeck , Mindelheim: Three KingsPress, 1970.

Laver, James. Costume through the Ages, London:Thames & Hudson, 1964.

Hamlet, Prince of Denmark, Act II, scene 2

Acknowledgements



111

First and foremost I wish to acknowledge and pay tribute to the

remarkable writing skills of my co-writer and editor Sarah Kane, quite

especially for her commitment, tenacity and glorious bullying with this

project. She has spent countless hours with me and with her computer

and is responsible for my work’s nding itself in print. Her pertinent

questions and care to get the sentences to express what I really wished to

say and say correctly I appreciate beyond measure, and for this I shall be

always grateful.

Deep gratitude to Francis and Elizabeth Edmunds who, as my teachers,

inspired me throughout my life, quite especially in offering me a deeper

understanding of Shakespeare’s plays.

Huge thanks to Dawn Langman for

all she has taught me about directing

a play and to John Watson for his

brilliant lighting skil ls and tuition on

light ing techniques. A special thank you

to Heather Goodwin for the endless

hours helping me talk things through,for the years of colleagueship and for an

enduring friendship.

Warm thanks to Charlot te Fischer for her art istry in photography and

to Magdalena Gadaj for her talented graphic design of the book sample.

Many thanks for costume modelling charm and pertinent comments by

Brigitte Allgood, Lara Gardner and Matt Blissett.

Thank you to my publisher, David Mitchell of AWSNA Publications, who

has believed in my work and offered me friendship over many years.

My thanks also to many friends, colleagues and students who have

supported me in my work, both in conversation and with generous

nancial donations, without which I could not have achieved this book.

Their interest and enthusiasm have been important to me and wonderful.

Lastly, to my husband Michael Spence,

a thank you far beyond what those words

can say, for his belief in me and in my

commitment to the arts and crafts and

for his uncomplaining patience with my

computer questions and endless struggles

with this project.



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