Climate-Responsive Architecture in Rural Vernacular ...

Climate-Responsive Architecture in Rural Vernacular Dwellings: A Study in Composite Climate in Ranchi, Jharkhand, India.

Janmejoy Gupta1, Manjari Chakraborty2, Hema Sree Rallapalli3

& Nivedhitha.R4 1Associate Professor, Dept. of Architecture,

School of Planning and Architecture, Vijayawada, Andhra Pradesh, India. 2Professor, Department of Architecture, BIT Mesra, Ranchi, Jharkhand, India.

3Asst. Professor, GITAM (Deemed to be University), Hyderabad, Telangana, India, Ph.D. Student, School of Planning and Architecture, Vijayawada, Andhra Pradesh, India.

4 1st Year M. Arch (Sustainable Architecture) Student, School of Architecture, Vijayawada, Andhra Pradesh, India.

1 Email: [email protected]

Abstract: Understanding climate of a region is a pre-requisite for practicing climate-responsive architecture in that region. It provides information to optimize the dwelling design variables to create comfortable living conditions. This paper identifies options of integrating climatic considerations as an integral part of planning and design of climate-responsive rural vernacular dwellings in composite climate near Ranchi in the state of Jharkhand in the eastern part of India. Though mud architecture as practiced in villages near Ranchi is a form of vernacular architecture developed through the years by the local inhabitants which responds to the prevailing climate of Ranchi quite satisfactorily, it has been developed largely by random methods without an objective and scientific study of the climate. A proper study of the climatic conditions, based on the cycle of climate-biology-technology-architectural solutions, would have yielded better solutions for the already existing mud huts in terms of different passive design strategies. It is a characteristic of primitive and vernacular dwellings that they typically respond to climate very well. Also, in these type of dwellings, one can examine the influence of the key variable, climate, on the form and planning of the dwelling more clearly. For this study, long term averages of temperature, humidity, rainfall, sky condition data are retrieved from the website of the Indian Meteorological Department (IMD). Bio-Climatic analysis was done by using software such as Ecotect and Climate consultant. The study demonstrates, that with respect to the thermal performance and their ability to provide year-round thermal comfort in mud-built architecture with clay tile roofs in Ranchi District, Jharkhand (a state in eastern India), located very near to the Tropic of Cancer, moderately spread out plans with good access to natural ventilation work well, as well as giving architectural recommendations related to improvised cob and wattle-daub walls as an improvement on existing solutions used, using locally easily available vernacular materials

Keywords: Climatic data, Bio-climatic analysis, site-planning, house-forms, architectural-design strategies.

1. Introduction

Meir and Roaf (2006) states that many architectural publications advocate that

traditional and vernacular homes form the basis of environmentally conscious design. Passive means to achieve thermal comfort for buildings which can be of great significance to worldwide energy use in this age of ‘energy-crisis’. Walter B. Cannon (in Olgyay, 1963) stated, that “the development of a nearly thermo-stable state in our buildings should be regarded as one of the most valuable advances in the evolution of buildings”. As per Nicol (2001), in vernacular buildings, passive thermal strategies provide comfortable conditions. These passive thermal strategies are intimately tied to climate. Mud huts of Jharkhand form an integral part of vernacular architecture of Jharkhand. In the wake of concerns of global warming and fuel crisis, the amount of energy used to provide thermal comfort levels will become unsustainable. As per Meir & Roaf (2006), sustainable, ecological, and climate-adaptable architecture offers possible solutions to these challenges. Design lessons learned from traditional and vernacular architecture can help in designing an eco-friendly future. Vernacular architecture is the common building form of a particular region, produced by people, without Architects. Vernacular architecture of a place is also an outcome of the relation between socio-economic factors, local climate,

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culture as well as construction techniques employed by people of a given place. (Venkata Krishna Kumar Sadhu & Ramesh Srikonda, 2020).Ancient Indian buildings use the environment, climate-responsive design, and local and sustainable materials in their design and construction. As Jadhav (2007) put it, once built, these building forms embodied an important strategy of environmentally friendly homes with minimal use of energy. Climate, as it affects human comfort, is the outcome of air temperature, humidity, radiation, air movement and precipitation. In climatic terms, a building needs to respond to heat, cold, radiation, wind, humidity, and precipitation (Rapoport, 1969).

Nowadays, the trend of using mechanical means for fulfilling cooling needs of

occupants inside buildings in urban areas is on the rise in Indian tropical summer conditions. Today, this type of artificial cooling is considered harmful to the environment, although people who can afford them use them in the urban areas. However, little is being done for fulfilling the thermal comfort needs of the dwelling units in the rural areas, largely inhabited by villagers. The rural people living in mud huts cannot afford the mechanical means of cooling and heating, nor are they feasible in mud dwelling units. Rural housing in India in general, and in Jharkhand in particular, is a neglected aspect, with whatever that has been the traditional age old traditions of building continuing with very little modernisation and new additions in tune with passive design strategies, building science research and modern applications of vernacular technology. As per Lal(1990), housing scenario in rural India is more appalling than the urban agglomerations. The quality of housing observed in the rural area is indicative of abject poverty, tremendous socio-economic disparity, and extreme backwardness prevalent in the countryside. In Jharkhand, as per 2011 census, 75.9 % of total population lived in rural areas and 58.5 % of households in Jharkhand had mud walls and 53.4 % of total households had Clay-tiled roofs.

Over many centuries, various designs and building techniques have developed across

the world in different climatic zones, bringing forth structures that provide comfortable living conditions without the use of sophisticated mechanical devices. Although housing typologies are a result of multiple determinants, climate and culture are the two most important determinants. Without good information and understanding of the local climate, it is not possible to study and achieve optimal building designs. Most building technicians in the past were familiar with the climate in which they were building. They were aware of the ways they could benefit from certain climatic features and overcome those that were less favourable, by opting for appropriate building shapes, location, orientation, and the use of appropriate building materials. It is a characteristic of primitive and vernacular buildings that they respond to climate very well. (Rapoport, 1969)

2. Methodology

The objective of this paper is to understand the role of composite climate as occurring in tropical regions and its role in design of rural dwellings to make the dwellings climate-responsive. This paper identifies options of integrating climatic considerations as an integral part of planning and building design in rural mud dwellings in Ranchi, Jharkhand, India. Climatic data is obtained for Ranchi and analyzed to formulate design strategies. Climate information for this study has been accessed from the database of Indian Meteorological Department. This study has used comfort analysis tools such as psychrometric chart to identify necessary actions to be undertaken to achieve a comfortable living condition inside the rural dwellings. Wind roses corresponding to different times are used to understand the wind flow at different times and different seasons. These serve as guidelines to formulate elaborate strategies for planning and rural-dwelling design in villages around Ranchi.

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As Raman et al (2001) have observed, passive solar heating is a well-established

concept in cold climates. The techniques used for passive heating (Passive Solar Design Handbook, 1984) such as direct gain, trombe wall, transparent insulation, etc. are straightforward. However, passive cooling techniques, which are more relevant for larger part of the year in tropical regions like Ranchi, are not as standardized as the passive heating techniques, as they depend on judicious use of night ventilation, shading, evaporative cooling, careful planning of huts in terms of compactness of dwellings, and judicious placement of courtyards in hot areas. The mud huts are climate-responsive to some extent, due to inherent thermal properties of mud, but the extent of thermal responsiveness can be increased if a comprehensive study of the climate in which they stand is undertaken and specific passive-design responses are given for the different aspects borne out of the climatic study.

This paper is a small part of a larger study on ‘passive design strategies for rural mud

dwelling units in Jharkhand, considering architectural design parameters for thermal comfort’. The study would adopt a three-pronged method of climatic analysis (analysis of temperatures measured through data-loggers, as well as using software tools like Ecotect and Climate-Consultant, as illustrated in Fig.24: Revised Building Bio-Climatic Chart (BBCC) for Ranchi, Jharkhand coming later in the paper), biological response to prevailing climate and recommendations for modifications in rural building design and planning. It analyses the process of creating sustainable rural architecture, addressing issues at three levels: Climatic considerations (Climate), the human body’s response to the prevailing climatic conditions and desired conditions of thermal comfort (biology) and finally the passive design related technological and architectural solutions to achieve the desired comfort levels inside the dwellings, making the rural dwellings climate-responsive.

In climate analysis, measured climatic data measured by means of data-loggers and

climate data from the Indian Meteorological Department are arranged in a climatic summary sheet. Comfort condition is investigated using psychrometric charts and wind roses are prepared to understand the wind flow in different times across different seasons. Analysis of various climatic parameters was done using Ecotect and Climate-Consultant Software. Final design guidelines are based on detailed climatic analysis and the body’s desired comfort zone for the climate. The final design guidelines suggested also take into consideration the nature of construction techniques and building materials used for the rural mud huts. A broad overview of the local social norms and culture is kept in mind. This paper presents the case study of the rural areas near Ranchi, Jharkhand, India which comes under the Composite climatic condition.

3. Literature Review

Many of the studies done until now in the field of passive cooling are theoretical studies, concentrating on mathematical thermal models. The type of approach based on mathematical modelling is good in its own way, but its relevance in presenting practical implementable “Design guidelines” for passive space conditioning in composite climatic regions in Jharkhand is questionable, and as such, has not been dealt with before for the abovementioned region, i.e. Jharkhand. Over the past few years, individuals and research institutions in various countries have studied and developed numerous passive systems, but the results are not sufficiently known and hence their practical applications are few. Also as Bansal and Minke (1988) states, many of the passive concepts that exist in literature have practical limitations regarding workmanship, non-availability of certain building materials and economic considerations. Thus, they are not always adaptable to the given local conditions.

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Krishan et al (2001), states that in case of radiative gains or losses, the perimeter is a

crucial factor. Greater the Perimeter to Area ratio (P/A), greater the radiative heat gain during the day and the greater the heat loss at night. Similarly, smaller the P/A ratio, the lesser will the heat gain be during the day and the lesser the loss at night. In hot climates, the P/A ratio should be kept to a minimum to cause minimum heat gain. Bansal and Minke (1988) in their exhaustive study of rural dwelling units in the different climatic regions of India also states that in the composite climatic area, compact floor plans show better thermal performance. Szokolay (2004) also states that the three-dimensional extrapolation of perimeter-area ratio, i.e. the surface area-to-volume ratio should be kept to a minimum in severe climates, i.e. it is advisable to present the least surface-area for a given volume. He further states that in severe climates a compact plan is always better than a broken-up and spread out arrangement. As per Koenigsberger et al (1997) in composite climates moderately compact internal planning of houses will be of benefit for most of the year. Compact internal planning implies low perimeter by area ratio.

Again, Fathy (1973), Koenigsberger et al (1997), Bansal and Minke (1988), Yannas

(2001), Roaf (2001), Szokolay (2004) and others have suggested that the courtyard type dwelling units are a favourable solution in composite climatic regions for thermal comfort inside the dwellings if certain conditions are fulfilled. As per Das, (2006), courtyard homes in tropical areas use geometry to capitalize on shade and ventilation. Bansal and Minke (1988) in their study on traditional rural dwelling units in the composite climatic region, emphasizes on the courtyard as a buffer space and as a moderating influence on microclimate. Courtyard houses are generally the most preferred building form type in hot climates as they minimize the heat conducted from outdoors and provide shade for the dwellings in the summer.

4. Study Area

Jharkhand is a state in the eastern part of India, with its capital at Ranchi. As stated before, Jharkhand has, as per the 2011 census, most of its total population living in rural areas. It is in this context that the development of proper rural architecture is important. With the energy crisis deepening, the role of the built environment becomes more significant. Since the Iron Age, Jharkhand has been a land of thirty different tribes on the Chotanagpur plateau. Before British colonization in 1870, Jharkhand had an agrarian society. Huts made of mud walls and thatched roofs were the standard construction.

Fig. 1: Some huts with a noticeable plinth on a raised platform made of compacted earth.

(Source: Author)

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Fig. 2: Climatic Zones classification as per National Building Code 2005 classification and

Jharkhand and Ranchi’s location in that classification. (Source: National Building Code, 2005).

Studies have shown that these mud huts are thermally-responsive construction. (Gupta

and Chakraborty, 2016). As per available data, these buildings constituted 48% of the total residential construction until 1960 (Das & Pushplata, 2005).The houses are often on a raised platform made of compacted earth. (Fig.1).

As seen in the Fig. 2, above, the major portion of the state of Jharkhand, including

itscapital Ranchi, falls within the composite climatic zone and a small portion which includes southern parts of Jharkhand which falls under the warm-humid region. In Jharkhand, the study villages are in Ranchi District, in proximity to the district and state capital Ranchi, the capital of Jharkhand and lying in the Composite climatic zone. A few kilometres away from Ranchi pass the imaginary ‘Tropic of Cancer’ geographic line (23.5 degree north). Ranchi’s geographical location is 23.38 degrees’ north latitude and 85.33 degrees’ east longitude. Ranchi Plateau is at a moderately high altitude, located at an average altitude of 900 meters above sea-level. (Fig 3 and 4).

Fig. 3: Ranchi Plateau at an altitude of 900.Meters above Mean Sea Level.

(Source: National Atlas of Thematic Maps and Atlas, India.)

Fig. 4: The Imaginary Tropic of Cancer Line passing very near to Ranchi.(23.5 Degree

North Line) (Indicated-blue) (Source: National Atlas of Thematic Maps

and Atlas, India.)

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Fig. 5: The five studied villages in the composite climatic region.

(Source: National Atlas of Thematic Maps and Atlas, India.)

4.1. Micro Study Area in Ranchi District - Five Villages.

Three points are considered while selecting the appropriate study area in the composite

climate belt. They are: 1. Villages located within 100 kilometers of the Tropic of Cancer line. 2. Villages located at a similar altitude (900 meters above Mean Sea Level, at a radius

of 25 kms, 50 kms and 100 kms from the Central Business district of Ranchi, and falling within the Ranchi Plateau as discussed in point number 2 above, are considered.

The villages are uniformly distributed across the different blocks as indicated above in

Figure 5. Five villages viz. Angara, Nawatoli, Pancholi, Masu, and Edalhatu located at radius of 25 kms, 50 kms and 100 kms radius of Ranchi and the Tropic of Cancerline passing through Ranchi and situated on the Ranchi Plateau have been chosen as the Study areas, representative of the composite climate region. (Fig. 5) Nawatoli, Pancholi and Angara are located around 25 kms from main Ranchi city. Masu is located around 50 kms from Ranchi City Limits whereas; Edalhatu is about 100 kms from Ranchi.

4.2. Brief Overview of Villages i.Angara:

It is a village which is further away from Namkom, a military cantonment outside of Ranchi. Angara has a total population of five hundred and fifteen (550). 90 families in this village are BPL (Below Poverty Level), as per latest Census Records. It is spread over an area of 64 acres. It has approximately 100 dwellings units, out of which around 70 are mud dwelling units. Layout of huts in the village are given in (Fig. 6 and 7) below.

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Fig. 6: Layout of huts in Angara

village (Source: Author) Fig. 7: View of sample hut in studied village.

(Source: Author).

ii.Nawatoli

The village is located near Mesra. Nawatoli has 30 mud dwelling units. Nawatoli, off NH-33, is located on the road towards BIT, Mesra Campus. The village, Nawatoli, has an area of 5.43 Acres (21,988.54 sq. meters). (Fig 8 and 9)

Fig. 8: Layout of huts in Nawatoli village.

(Source: Author). Fig. 9: View of sample hut in studied village.

(Source: Author).

iii. Pancholi

Pancholi is located on the outskirts of the BIT, Mesra campus. It occupies a total area of 17.7 Acres (71,645 square meters). A few mud huts are isolated, scattered singly or in pairs. The remaining mud houses in this village are grouped together in clusters, with considerable open spaces in between the huts. Pancholi also has around 30 mud dwelling units.(Fig.10 and 11)

Fig. 10: Layout of huts in Pancholi

village. (Source:Author) Fig. 11: View of sample hut in studied village.

(Source: Author).

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iv. Masu. Masu is a village located by the side of river Subarnarekha. Masu has 30 mud dwelling

units which are evenly scattered. (Fig 12 and 13)

Fig. 12: Layout of huts in Masu village. (Source: Author).

Fig.13 : View of sample hut in studied village. (Source: Author).

v. Edalhatu. This is a small village near Bundu, 100 kms from Ranchi’s Central Business District.

The huts here are arranged linearly along the road. (Fig.14 and 15)

Fig. 14: Layout of huts in Edalhatu. (Source: Author).

Fig. 15: View of sample hut in studied village. (Source: Author).

Fig. 16: Special mud lumps left with vegetable waste and crushed pebbles matter to mature for wall-construction. (Source: Gautam, 2008)

The high thermal mass helps to keep the house cool in the evenings in summer which

makes it pleasant for people in the evenings. The huts normally have minimal openings. Often, the only opening on the external walls is the main door. Some houses have windows, but they are small and placed high to ventilate the indoors. The small windows also help to keep the hot summer sun and cold winter winds out. The hutments were

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originally built of special mud lumps mixed with vegetable waste to mature for wall-construction. (Source: Gautam, 2008) (Fig. 16)

These houses were mostly self-built by family members, sometimes aided by

neighbours. Traditional architecture developed its individuality by tapping nearby resources and exploiting them to confront problems posed by the local environment (Cooper & Dawson, 1998). The huts were made of local materials. Timber, bamboo, clay, straw, cow dung, and a special variety of grass were used to build houses (Dhar, 1992). The walls were made of a special type of mud obtained by souring earth by adding vegetable waste and leaving it to mature. (Cooper & Dawson, 1998). 5. Process of building climate-balanced dwelling unit.

According to Olgyay (1963), the process of building a climate-balanced house can be divided into four steps, of which the last is architectural expression. Architectural expression must be preceded by study of the variables in climate, biology, and technology.

The first step towards environmental adjustment is a survey of climatic elements at a

given location. However, each element has a different impact and presents a different problem. Since Man is the fundamental measure in architecture and the shelter is designed to fulfil his biological needs, the second step is to evaluate each climatic impact in physiological terms. As a third step, the technological solutions must be applied to each climate-comfort problem. At the final stage, these solutions should be combined, as per their importance, in architectural unity. (Olgyay, 1963).

The steps of the method comprise: 1. Climate Data of a specific region should be analysed with the yearly characteristics

of their constituent elements, such as temperature, relative humidity, radiation, and wind effects. The data should be adapted to the living level. The modified effects of the microclimatic conditions should be considered.

2. Biological Evaluation should be based on human comfort sensations calculated by

means of means of thermal comfort calculation through plotting on psychrometric chart (climate-consultant) based human comfort plotting , as first carried out by Givoni in 1969. Plotting the climate data on the bioclimatic chart or psychrometric chart at regular intervals will show a ‘diagnosis’ of the region with the relative importance of the various climatic elements. The result of the above process can be tabulated on a yearly time-table, from which measures needed to restore comfort conditions can be obtained for any date.

3. Technological solutions may be sought, after the requirements are stated, to intercept

the adverse and utilize the advantageous impacts at the right time and in adequate amount. Analytical methods should analyse this necessary function of a balanced shelter.

4. Architectural Application of the findings of the first three steps must be developed

and balanced as per the importance of the different elements. Climate balance begins at the site, and should be taken into consideration at the housing layouts with similar careful consideration given to individual dwelling units. Details of architectural applications in this particular study following above general approach stated are provided in Section 7.2 later in the paper i.e. Architectural application of arrangement of dwelling units on site. 6. Data and Analysis.

In this section, the three components- climate, human biological response to climate

and technological inputs to finally create architecturally climate-responsive rural

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dwellings in the study-area are analysed with respect to their role in climate-responsive architecture. 6.1. Climate related Design Information.

The process of identifying, understanding, and controlling the climatic influences at

site level is perhaps the most critical part of a dwelling design. (Madhumati et al, 2014). The way the dwellings are arranged on site to ensure adequate ventilation, least exposure to summer sun and optimal amount of winter sunshine, in tropical conditions with hot and sometimes humid conditions, should be guided by the above-mentioned aspect. Not all meteorological data are of use for building energy analysis. The ones which are relevant are those climatic elements that affect indoor comfort, ventilation, and heat transfer through building skin. The climatic elements crucial for building thermal design include:

a. Site information. (Such as latitude, longitude, and altitude) b. Temperature Data (dry-bulb temperature) c. Humidity Data (wet-bulb temperature and relative humidity) d. Solar Radiation data. e. Wind Data (wind speed and wind direction)

Climatic data for Ranchi obtained from Indian Meteorological Department (Source:

World Meteorological Organization) data of all climatic variables are recorded at various meteorological stations by the Indian Meteorological Department.

a. Site information.

Ranchi’s geographical location is 23.38 degrees’ north latitude and 85.33 degrees’ east longitude. Study-area is located at an altitude of 900 meters above Mean Sea Level, placed on the Ranchi Plateau. The study area Ranchi, Jharkhand falls under the composite climate zone. b. Temperature Data.

Fig. 17: Average maximum temperature data for 1986, 1987, 1996, 1997, 2006, 2007, 2012 & 2013. (Temperature in degree Celsius in Y-Axis)

(Source: LATAMOS Laboratory, Birla Institute, Mesra.)

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Fig. 18: Average minimum temperature data for 1986, 1987, 1996, 1997, 2006, 2007, 2012 & 2013. (Temperature in degree Celsius in Y-Axis)


Fig. 19: Average maximum monthly relative humidity of Ranchi for 1986, 1987, 1996, 1997, 2006, 2007, 2012 & 2013. (In percentage along y-axis)


The following charts show the temperature and humidity for eight years over a 26-year period. These charts help explain the climate of Ranchi and changes in the last few years.

It is observed in the above graph that average maximum temperatures in 2012-2013 have increased considerably, from what was recorded in 1986-87 and in the intervening decades. Temperatures in peak summer (May, June and July) go up to 40 degrees Celsius and more. (Fig. 17). Similarly, average minimum temperatures in 2012-2013 have decreased for all the months from the values recorded in 1986-1987 and in the intervening decades. Over the last few years, the temperatures have gone down to 2-3 degree Celsius in peak of winter (Fig. 18). c. Humidity.

Maximum relative humidity levels have been constantly high through the decades for the majority of months except for February, March, April, May and June where max RH values have decreased slightly. Maximum values reach as high as 93%. (July, August) (Fig. 19).

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Average minimum relative humidity over the years has shown no clear pattern, with the minimum relative humidity (RH) through the years fluctuating. For the months, July and August, minimum relative humidity levels have stayed constant, at uniformly high values right through 1986/87 to 2012/13. In general, minimum RH values are increasing except for October, November, and December.

Fig. 20: Average minimum monthly relative humidity of Ranchi for 1987, 1996, 1997, 2006, 2007, 2012 and 2013. (In percentage)

(Source: LATAMOS Laboratory, Birla Institute, Mesra)

Minimum recorded values are 20% (March, April) (Fig. 20). A study of Ranchi

district’s climate from 1986/87 to 2012/2013 shows that the average maximum monthly temperatures have increased from 1986/87 to 2012/13 and the average minimum monthly temperatures have decreased from 1986/87 to 2012/13. Thus, the climate has become hotter in summer and colder in winter. However, it could have been classified under the hot-dry climatic zone, but for the high humidity levels prevalent then and now, which gives Ranchi its place amongst the composite climatic belt. Some part of the year is warm and quite humid (July, August and September).

d. Solar Radiation data.

High levels of solar radiation are present even in winter, which can be utilised for winter time heating. (Table 1)

Table 1: High levels of solar radiation available throughout the year.

(Source: World Meteorological Organisation data)

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e. Air Movements

Summer Night Summer Evening Winter NORTH

Fig. 21: Prevailing wind direction in Ranchi. (Source: Generated by Author in Ecotect Autodesk Software.)

Table 2: Moderately high wind speeds prevailing throughout the year. (Source: Author)

White portions show predominant wind direction. Prevailing wind direction in Ranchi is from South/South-West side in summer & from North side in winter in Ranchi. (Fig. 21) The average monthly wind speeds through the year are recorded in Table 2 above.

6.2. Biological evaluation: Human biological response to climate and the ensuing concept of Building Bio-Climatic Chart.

Fig. 22: Olgyay’s Bio-climatic chart (Source: Koenigsberger et al, 1997)

Biological evaluation consists of human responses to the climatic conditions of a place.

When applied to human comfort, it may be encapsulated as, ‘Comfort zone indicated in bioclimatic chart for men at sedentary work in warm climates: originally by V Olgyay and how the concept of Building Bio-Climatic Chart (BBCC) developed from that’, a brief description of which follows hereunder. Olgyay’s bioclimatic chart describes the human-climate relationship to ensure comfort and can be extended to relate these requirements to the given climate by plotting temperature and relative humidity. The position of these conditions relative to the comfort zone in the chart indicates the control strategy and

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suggests some solutions. (Fig. 22) Olgyay (1969) lays down the comfort conditions for outside comfort in tropical conditions in a simplified form as below:

Fig.23: Revised Building Bio-Climatic Chart (BBCC) for Ranchi, Jharkhand.

(Source: Author, calculated from Climate Consultant Software)

The problem with Olgyay’s chart is that it does not account for differences between low mass and high mass buildings. It assumes that the outdoor conditions, plotted on the graph, would be very close to the indoor conditions and can thus be used as guidelines for building design. As per Givoni (1969), this is only close to the truth in naturally ventilated sometimes only. In buildings, because of internal gains, indoor temperatures in the winter could be slightly higher than outdoor temperatures, leading to an over-estimation in the need for heating. Also, guidelines based on outdoor values would recommend that the building be ventilated during the daytime and heated during the night, which would only overheat a high mass building in the desert.

Givoni (1969) developed the Building Bio-Climatic Chart (BBCC) to address the problems associated with Olgyay’s charts. This chart is based on the temperatures inside buildings (expected based on experience or calculations) instead of the outdoor temperatures. Givoni used the psychrometric chart to graphically represent the interrelation of air temperature and moisture content and is a basic design tool for building engineers and designers. For example, in a building having high-massed thick walls, the temperature inside the house is considerably lower during daytime in summer than the outside temperatures. In that case, calculating the comfort levels of the occupants using outside temperatures will be erroneous.Fig.23 above, i.e. Revised Building Bio-Climatic Chart (BBCC) for Ranchi, Jharkhand shows how building design strategies cause adjustments in comfort zones, showing that the limits of comfort in the hotter part of the year in Ranchi’s prevailing climate can be extended by using high mass building materials along with plentiful nocturnal ventilative cooling and sun-shading of windows.

6.3. Technological Pointers towards Climate-Responsive Rural dwelling design in Study-Area as guided by Bio-climatic chart.

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Olgyay (1963) lists the technological solutions for any dwelling design, devised keeping in mind the biological comfort considerations. The various technological solutions can be summarised as follows: 6.3.1. Site selection and consequent arrangement of dwelling units on site.

Olgyay theorizes that in the cold months, to maximize the sun’s radiation, occupants should use the south-east part of the site, as during the winter, the maximum radiant gain is from the east of south. Conversely, in summer when heat gain is unwanted, the biggest sun gain is from the south-westerly direction on a site. Most sites in the studied villages are randomly chosen, without really paying attention to these nuances. The typically followed clustering is that of four dwelling units arranged around a common courtyard as shown in Fig.24 below.

Fig. 24: Existing typically followed arrangements of dwelling units in Study-Area.

(Source: Author)

6.3.2. Orientation.

Howard (1979) states that in ordinary circumstances, an east-west alignment of a rectangular house provides the maximum gain of solar energy in winter and minimum in summer. By varying the ground plan from the traditional rectangle, it is possible to obtain considerably more sun control for various rooms. Its orientation can increase shading if so desired. The optimum orientation for Ranchi is the longer side of the rectangle oriented along east-west axis. (Fig. 25)

Fig. 25: Optimum Orientation for least possible exposure to sun in summer and maximum possible exposure to sun in winter

(Source: Author, in Ecotect Autodesk Software after inputting Ranchi’s detailed climate file)

6.3.3. Shading Calculations.

As Olgyay (1963) states, parts of dwelling unit falling within overheated period requires more shading and parts falling within under-heated period require lesser shading and exposure to the sun rays in winter. By provision of proper sun shading devices, 10-

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20 % savings in energy required for cooling can be brought about. Krishan et al, states that in case of a composite climate, one would need to design shades that cut off the sun in summer but allows the sun in the under-heated period. Further, the window section should enhance air velocity while still acting as a shade. This could be achieved either by introducing a planter at the window sill or else by adding smaller shades at the glazing. 6.3.4. Housing Forms.

Krishan et al (2001), states that in case of radiative gains or losses, the perimeter is a crucial factor. Greater the perimeter to area ratio (P/A), greater the radiative heat gain during the day and the greater the heat loss at night. Similarly, smaller the P/A ratio, the lesser will the heat gain during the day and the lesser the loss at night. In hot climates, the P/A ratio should be kept to a minimum to cause minimum heat gain.

Bansal and Minke (1988) in their exhaustive study of rural dwelling units in the different climatic regions of India also states that in the composite climatic area, compact floor plans show better thermal performance. Szokolay (2004) also states that the three-dimensional extrapolation of perimeter-area ratio, i.e. the surface area-to-volume ratio should be kept to a minimum in severe climates, i.e. it is advisable to present the least surface-area for a given volume. He further states that in severe climates, a compact plan is always better than a broken-up and spread out arrangement. As per Koenigsberger et al (1997) in composite climates, moderately compact internal planning of houses will be of benefit for most of the year. Compact internal planning implies low perimeter by area ratio.

Again, Fathy (1973), Koenigsberger et al (1997), Bansal and Minke (1988), Yannas (2001), Roaf (2001), Szokolay (2004) and others have suggested that the courtyard type dwelling units are a favourable solution in composite climatic regions for thermal comfort inside the dwellings if certain conditions are fulfilled. Bansal and Minke (1988) in their study on traditional rural dwelling units in the composite climatic region, emphasizes on the courtyard as a buffer space and as a moderating influence on micro-climate. Studies in villages near Ranchi have shown that moderately compact huts with adequate ventilation in summer perform best from a thermal comfort point of view through the year. (Gupta and Chakraborty, 2016). Courtyard houses are generally the most preferred building type in hot climates as they minimize the heat conducted from outdoors and provide shade for the dwellings. 6.3.5. Appropriate Air Movement.

Fig. 26: Increased airflow through the home ispossible by substituting the simple “box” design for one with more corners.

(Source: http://www.yourhome.gov.au/technical)

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Fig. 27: Wing walls can significantly increase ventilation through windows on the same wall. (Source: Farshchi et al, 2010).

Appropriate Air Movement is vital for thermal comfort with Krishan et. al. (2001), stating that the inlet and outlet should not be in a straight line, to maximize airflow. Available literature suggests increased airflow through the home is possible by substituting the simple “box” design for one with more corners in it. This will allow greater airflow through the home (Fig. 26). Farshchi (2010) in his study on wing walls stated that using wing walls can help the buildings develop positive and negative pressures. A wing wall is usually used to aid single-sided ventilation on windward facing windows. When wing walls are used, the average air velocity in the room is 40% of the outside incident wind velocity (Fig. 27).

6.3.6. Use of appropriate building materials.

Indoor temperature balance can be achieved to a certain degree with careful use of materials. Both time-lag and insulation characteristics of materials can be utilized for improved indoor conditions. In view of the prevailing climate of Ranchi, the high thermal capacity of mud walls, though beneficial in the daytime creates a problem during the night time when the stored heat in the mud walls is radiated inside, creating hotter thermal conditions inside the hut than cooler outside temperatures (Fig. 28). As per Keshtkaran (2011), the best indoor heat balance can be gained by using heavy construction materials in the living areas, which are used during the day, and light construction materials in the bedrooms where people sleep at night.

Fig. 28: Temperature variation over 24-hour cycle, both outside temperature and temperature inside the hut, in peak of summer. Outside temperatures lower at night-time but due to

thermal lag the inside temperatures remain high. (Source: Author, Temperature recorded on 05/06/2016 in square mud hut with clay tiled roof

and two openings, one each on opposite walls)

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Madhumati et al (2014) states that a rammed earth wall of 300 mm thickness when built with 4 inch of rigid insulation inserted in the centre of the wall, results in reduction of the U value to as low as 0.65 watt/square meter Kelvin. Stone et al (2013) states that to increase the thermal performance of rammed earth walls without increasing the dimensions of the envelope, an insulating layer can be sandwiched in the centre of the wall. The U Values of such sandwiched walls can be brought down to 0.335 watt/square meter Kelvin by using 50 mm thick insulation and to 0.245 watt/square meter Kelvin by using 75 mm thick insulation. 7. Discussion.

Architectural Applications for creating Climate Responsive rural dwellings in Jharkhand are discussed in the ensuing section. 7.1. Commonly accepted solutions for the composite climate in tropical regions.

As per Brown and DeKay (2001), the main strategies to create comfort in this composite climate include:

Summers:

Use evaporative cooling. Protect against summer heat gain. Keep the sun out in summers to reduce heat gain and glare. Flatten day-to-night temperature swings to reduce cooling in summers. Use vegetative cover to prevent reflected radiation and glare. Expand use of outdoor spaces during the night. Night time flush ventilation to cool thermal mass.

Winter: Let the winter sun in to reduce heating needs. Protect from cool winter winds to reduce heating. Expand use of outdoor spaces during the day.

Fig. 29: Wind flow simulation Analysis in Autodesk Software showing existing typical arrangement of rural dwellings not allowing for all huts to receive adequate

ventilation.(Source: Author)

7.2. Architectural application of arrangement of dwelling units on site.

The existing arrangement of huts typically followed in studied huts does not result in the

individual dwellings getting adequate ventilation as indicated in Fig. 29 above. The existing clustering can be slightly modified as shown in Fig. 30 below. A typical small cluster for

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adequate ventilation in tropical zones with moderate to high humidity levels is as below in figure (the basic intention is that each block should have access to wind-flow, and that one block should not block the other block’s air flow, hence the staggered layout.

Fig. 30: Probable arrangement of huts in a slight variation of the already existing courtyard type planning to channelize cooling breezes in summer. (Source: author)

7.3. Architectural Application of compactness of dwelling units and its effect on climate responsiveness of dwellings.

Fathy (1973) used the stack effect to good effect in his designed dwellings, with intelligently placed courtyards and proper openings at different levels for 3000 families in New Gourna Village, Egypt. Yannas (2001) writes that in warm climates, outdoor spaces adjacent to buildings are as important as, and at times more important than, indoor spaces. Natural and man-made materials can be combined to provide shading and to cool surfaces and adjacent air. Roaf (2001) illustrates how an internal courtyard can be used as a source of ventilation air. At the hottest times of day and year, in still summer afternoons, air inside a small courtyard may move very little, and when most needed, be a poor source of breeze for single sided ventilation. Traditionally in some hot regions, corridors were built between courtyard spaces that enable cross ventilation through the corridor to draw air from the courtyard, through the adjacent rooms via a side door. (Fig. 31).

Fig. 31: Diagram depicting some aspects of wind flow in and around Courtyards when adjacent corridor is provided. (Original)

(Source: Roaf, 2001 Redrawn by Author.)

A study was done by Gupta and Chakraborty (2016) about the three different types of dwelling units commonly found in the studied villages around Ranchi, all having a courtyard style of planning and varying in their degree of compactness of planning. The three types of mud huts with courtyards, with varying perimeter-area ratios ranging from 0.3 to 0.8, were studied in detail through temperature measurements in the south-side

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rooms, in addition to detailed software simulations of year-round total number of discomfort hours due to excess heat and excess cold respectively, with their thermal performance during the peak of summer and winter months being observed. (Fig. 32& 33)

The temperatures in the rooms with respect to outside recorded temperatures during peak of summer and peak of winter were plotted graphically over twenty-four hour periods.The most compact dwelling of the three studied dwellings, the sample hut sub-type 1, with a perimeter-area ratio of 0.3, recorded the highest temperatures during summer and showed the greatest number of discomfort hours due to excess heat. On the contrary, dwellings with greater perimeter-area ratios (0.8 and 0.65) showed better thermal performance in summer based on simulations and measured data. Thus, compactly planned dwelling units do not necessarily show better thermal performance than less compactly planned dwellings in Ranchi’s prevailing climate.

The best thermal performance in summer was shown by Sample Hut 3, with a perimeter area ratio of 0.65. (Fig. 32 & 33) Thus neither does having a compact plan, nor does having a courtyard guarantee good thermal performance in summer. In Ranchi’s prevailing climate, moderately spread out plans with good access to natural ventilation work best as exemplified by the comparatively better thermal performance of the U-shaped Sample dwelling Unit 3 with a perimeter-area ratio of 0.65.

Fig. 32: Description of three Sample huts studied (Source: Author)

SAMPLE HUT SUB-TYPE 1 Village: Nawatoli.

SAMPLE HUT SUB-TYPE 2 Village: Pancholi.

SAMPLE HUT SUB-TYPE 3 Village: Angara.

Approx. Area=128 square Meters. Perimeter by Area Ratio=0.3.

Approx. Area= 100 square Meters. Perimeter by Area Ratio=0.8.

Approx. Area= 80 square Meters. Perimeter by Area Ratio=0.65.

N

N N

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Fig. 33: Recorded average temperatures in week from 29th May to 4th June 2016 during hottest period of year. (Source: Author)

7.4. Architectural recommendation related to building fabric and materials.

Wall Fabric: The U-Value for a 300mm thick rammed earth wall is approximately 1.9 Watt/ sq. metre Kelvin) (Minke, G., 2006). It can be further reduced, if proper insulation isused. This insulation can be in the form of a thin layer of cow dung slurry inside the wall cavity as suggested by Sanjay Kumar et al (1994). It is better than solid walls and air cavity walls. It can be employed in the studied mud huts. Another form of insulation that can be used is interlinked bamboo framework covered by mud layers on both sides.

Wattle-and-daub construction technologies using bamboo framework inside mud can be used, resulting in higher thermal insulation and strength of walls. (Fig. 34 and 35).The climate of Ranchi has changed over the years. So much of thermal mass (450 mm or 500 mm walls which have been generally used) is not needed, given the increase in humidity levels and higher minimum temperatures recorded in summer now, as compared to twenty years back. Also, as was seen in all the studied mud huts, the night-time temperatures inside the mud hut remained quite high as compared to the decreased night-time temperatures outside.

One major reason behind this was the high thermal capacity of the 450 mm / 500 mm walls which stored the heat inside its walls through the day, and after a time lag of about 12 hours, dissipated the heat inside the living area, thereby increasing the temperatures inside when the outside temperatures had in fact decreased considerably. One way to lessen this phenomenon is using 300 mm walls (preferably with insulation) which have a lower U value and henceforth have more insulation property and lesser thermal capacity. Additional insulation can also be provided in these walls to further keep the temperatures warmer in winter inside. For night-time dwelling units in summer, wattle and daub walls of 150 mm/200 mm can be used to allow for night-time ventilative-heat flushing.

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Fig. 34: Cob Wall Section. (Source: Author) Fig. 35: Wattle and Daub Wall Section. (Source: Author)

8. Conclusion.

Based on the detailed study of the four pronged attributes of climate, biology, technology and architectural applications as relevant to the composite climate of Ranchi, following design strategies can be concluded for the rural mud huts of Ranchi:

Fig. 36: Typical suggested dwelling unit showing wing-walls for enhanced ventilation and shading. (Source: Author)

1. Separate summer-time and winter-time rooms can be used. The summer-time rooms and winter-time rooms can have different dimensions, materials and methods of construction as mentioned above and illustrated in Figures 34 and 35.

2. To capture natural ventilation, wind direction can be changed up to 45 degrees towards the dwelling by appropriately placed exterior wing-walls. (Fig. 36)

3. Night time flush ventilation is required to cool thermal mass. For better night-time flushing of heat in summer, wattle, and daub walls of 150 mm/200 mm can be used for the summer time sleeping rooms. For the winter time rooms, using 300 mm walls (preferably with insulation) which have a lower U value and henceforth have more insulation property instead of the presently used 500 mm thick walls can be an option.

4. Arrangement of huts in a slightly staggered variation of the already existing courtyard type planning to channel cooling breezes in summer is needed, ensuring each

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individual mud hut has access to the wind-flow, and that the huts do not block air flow of each other hut. The Wind flow simulation Analysis in Autodesk Software (Fig 29 above) under Sub-Section 7.2 showing existing typical arrangement of rural dwellings not allowing for all huts to receive adequate ventilation proves.

5. Moderately compact and optimally spread out plans with good access to natural ventilation work well. The reasoning for this conclusion is given in Sub-Section 7.3 (Architectural Application of compactness of dwelling units and its effect on climate responsiveness of dwellings) which discusses the work done to same effect by first Author and first Co-Author. [Gupta and Chakraborty (2016)] about the three different types of dwelling units commonly found in the studied villages around Ranchi, all having a courtyard style of planning and varying in their degree of compactness of planning.

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[30] Kumar ,S.(1994) , Tiwari, G.N. and Bhagat, N.C. (1994).Amalgamation of traditional and modern cooling techniques in a passive solar house: A design analysis. Elsevier’s Science Direct. Energy Conversion and Management. Volume 35, Issue 8, pp. 671-682.

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[33] Venkata Krishna Kumar Sadhu, Ramesh Srikonda ( 2020). People’s Acceptance of Vernacular Houses: The case of Ghantasala, Andhra Pradesh, India. Journal of the International Society for the Study of Vernacular Settlements, ISVS e-journal, Vol. 7, April 2020, Issue no.2.

[34] World Meteorological Organization, in collaboration with ISHRAE (Indian Society of Heating Refrigerating and Air-conditioning Engineers) [online] available at http://www.wmo.int/pages/index_en.html (Accessed on 06/06/2017)

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