DOI: 10.23883/IJRTER.2017.3277.6EJDQ 73 Climate Change, Industrial Cleaner Production Approaches and Some Best Practices in Turkey Burhan Davarcioglu 1 , Y. Ersin Koc 2 1 Department of Physics, Aksaray University, Aksaray, Turkey 2 Graduate School of Natural and Applied Science, Aksaray University, Aksaray, Turkey Abstract—Lately, new concepts emerged in manufacturing business including cleaner production, environmentally friendly technologies, and industrial ecology and thus essentiality of more efficient use of available potentials became imperious both for environmental quality and sustainability of production. Manufacturing sector causes majority of the global emissions. It is imperative to take precautions against elements and factors that will have direct adverse effect on production and competitiveness due to the imposed adaptation to the climate change. It appears that the use of environmentally friendly technologies which is considered to be the most vital method in management of effects resulted by the climate change could deliver substantial advantage for the corporation. National and international regulations on climate change initiated immense revolution process in industry. Climate change could well be the most severe challenge facing our planet during the 21st century. It is also a truly cross cutting issue connected to many sectors. Tackling the climate challenge therefore requires bridging gaps between scientific disciplines and between science and policy. Practice of cleaner production includes a wide range of opportunities from zero-cost simpler and better operations to high-cost and laborious equipment changes. The core objectives are to assist the industrial sectors of developing countries to produce in a sustainable manner, thus improving their competitive position. Cleaner production is thereby an approach that reduces environmental pollution with positive financial benefits for the enterprise. The purpose of this study is to identify some best practices potential of cleaner production and climate change in Turkey. The potential for establishment of cleaner production and climate change in Turkey shall be assessed, and some proposals for more sustainable cities shall be developed. Keywords—cleaner production, climate change, industrial, best practices, sustainable I. INTRODUCTION Industrialization has an important role within the attempts for development. Against the fact that it is indispensable, industrialization causes significant environmental problems. This progress, which is in disfavor of the natural areas and resources, can not be controlled with the existing industrial and environmental policies, and thus new approaches are needed. In the industrialized world, the importance of conservation of natural resources have been understood together with the increasing environmental problems and sustainability concept has been introduced by international organizations. Suggested as a solution to the conflict between urbanization and natural systems, sustainable development is defined by the United Nations (UN) as meeting the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs [1, 2]. Industry has an indispensable place in the development objectives of developing countries as much as it has for developed countries. However, it is common knowledge that development of the industry brings along a lot of negativities in terms of environment. Natural sources are consumed in the production process and energy sources based on fossil fuels which have polluting effects are used for the production to a great extent. Wastes are generated in various stages of production process; during the distribution of the products and presentation of the products to the consumers. Those products which get old and useless after their useful life are generally left to the nature. The introduction of industrial ecology approaches that are developed to fulfill this requirement, planning
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DOI: 10.23883/IJRTER.2017.3277.6EJDQ 73
Climate Change, Industrial Cleaner Production Approaches and
Some Best Practices in Turkey
Burhan Davarcioglu1, Y. Ersin Koc
2
1Department of Physics, Aksaray University, Aksaray, Turkey
2Graduate School of Natural and Applied Science, Aksaray University, Aksaray, Turkey
Abstract—Lately, new concepts emerged in manufacturing business including cleaner production,
environmentally friendly technologies, and industrial ecology and thus essentiality of more efficient
use of available potentials became imperious both for environmental quality and sustainability of
production. Manufacturing sector causes majority of the global emissions. It is imperative to take
precautions against elements and factors that will have direct adverse effect on production and
competitiveness due to the imposed adaptation to the climate change. It appears that the use of
environmentally friendly technologies which is considered to be the most vital method in
management of effects resulted by the climate change could deliver substantial advantage for the
corporation. National and international regulations on climate change initiated immense revolution
process in industry. Climate change could well be the most severe challenge facing our planet during
the 21st century. It is also a truly cross cutting issue connected to many sectors. Tackling the climate
challenge therefore requires bridging gaps between scientific disciplines and between science and
policy. Practice of cleaner production includes a wide range of opportunities from zero-cost simpler
and better operations to high-cost and laborious equipment changes. The core objectives are to assist
the industrial sectors of developing countries to produce in a sustainable manner, thus improving
their competitive position. Cleaner production is thereby an approach that reduces environmental
pollution with positive financial benefits for the enterprise. The purpose of this study is to identify
some best practices potential of cleaner production and climate change in Turkey. The potential for
establishment of cleaner production and climate change in Turkey shall be assessed, and some
proposals for more sustainable cities shall be developed.
Keywords—cleaner production, climate change, industrial, best practices, sustainable
I. INTRODUCTION
Industrialization has an important role within the attempts for development. Against the fact
that it is indispensable, industrialization causes significant environmental problems. This progress,
which is in disfavor of the natural areas and resources, can not be controlled with the existing
industrial and environmental policies, and thus new approaches are needed. In the industrialized
world, the importance of conservation of natural resources have been understood together with the
increasing environmental problems and sustainability concept has been introduced by international
organizations. Suggested as a solution to the conflict between urbanization and natural systems,
sustainable development is defined by the United Nations (UN) as meeting the needs of the present
without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs [1, 2].
Industry has an indispensable place in the development objectives of developing countries as
much as it has for developed countries. However, it is common knowledge that development of the
industry brings along a lot of negativities in terms of environment. Natural sources are consumed in
the production process and energy sources based on fossil fuels which have polluting effects are used
for the production to a great extent. Wastes are generated in various stages of production process;
during the distribution of the products and presentation of the products to the consumers. Those
products which get old and useless after their useful life are generally left to the nature. The
introduction of industrial ecology approaches that are developed to fulfill this requirement, planning
International Journal of Recent Trends in Engineering & Research (IJRTER)
Volume 03, Issue 06; June - 2017 [ISSN: 2455-1457]
@IJRTER-2017, All Rights Reserved 74
industrial areas by using life cycle approach has become a current practice. Within this context, eco-
industrial parks provide an opportunity to achieve a sustainable industry with their structure
compatible with natural systems, providing water and energy cycle, using renewable construction
materials, and including facilities that integrate the industry [2, 3].
There is a wide range of global threats that certainly require humanity’s urgent attention.
These global risks include for example; water, food and energy security, population growth,
infectious diseases, and international security. However, climate change is often regarded as one of
the most profound global problems. This is mainly due to the sheer scale of climate change impacts
both in terms of its global and temporal spread and of the variety of sectors affected by it that sets it
apart from other planetary challenges. Adaptation to the inevitable impacts and mitigation to reduce
their magnitude are both necessary. The international climate effort has focused predominantly on
mitigation. The next stage of the international effort must deal squarely with adaptation coping with
those impacts that cannot be avoided [4]. In order to establish the necessary strategies and enhance
institutional capacity for Turkey to combat and manage the effects of climate change, the UN Joint
Programme titled “Enhancing the Capacity of Turkey to Adapt to Climate Change” was carried out
between 2008 and 2011. The Joint Programme aimed at integrating the climate change adaptation
into national, regional and local policies within the framework of future development targets of
Turkey in terms of sustainability [5, 6].
Turkey, being conscious of the fact that climate change is a multidimensional and complex
challenge which poses serious environmental and socio-economic consequences and threatens
national securities and its range of potential impacts represents one of humanity’s most important
threats facing future generations, recognizes the importance of international cooperation to reduce
greenhouse gas emissions leading to climate change, and to combat climate change. Against this
background, Turkey has developed the “National Climate Change Strategy” in order to contribute to
global efforts to reduce the impacts of climate change, taking into account its own special
circumstances and capacity. The strategy includes a set of objectives to be implemented in the short-
term (within one year), the mid-term (under taken or completed within 1 to 3 years), and long-term
(under taken over a 10 year period). The strategy will guide the actions to tackle climate change
during the period 2010-2020 and will be updated as necessary, in light of emerging national or
international developments [7]. With this strategy, Turkey sets a goal of contributing to the global
efforts against climate change within its own capabilities and in line with the basic principle of the
UN “common but differentiated responsibilities” and presents its national mitigation, adaptation,
technology, finance and capacity building policies.
The recent research and growth of knowledge about sustainable development have increased
interest in sustainable development terminology, which has gained prominence over the past decade.
It embraces terms such as cleaner production, pollution prevention, pollution control, and
minimization of resource usage, eco-design and others. These terms are in common use in scientific
papers, monographs, textbooks, annual reports of companies, governmental policy usage, and the
media. Application of terms depends on their designation and recognition, rather than on domain
concept. Yet, some of the terms are specific, permitting differentiation from the others. Also,
differences amongst term usages, based upon geographical area, exist that often lead to imprecise
definitions of the terms and their usage [1]. The availability of various information sources increases
the spread of sustainability terms and their definitions, as employed by different authors and
organizations. As a consequence, numerous new terms are emerging, or the existing ones are being
extended in the sustainability field, but not enough critical attention has been given to the definitions
and their semantic meanings.
Turkey’s population growth rate, which was 1.24 percent in 2007, is quite the Organisation
for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) average population growth rate which is 0.68
percent. Turkey is one of the four countries with the highest population growth rates. Turkey ranks
81st in the Human Development Index among 180 countries according to 2007 data. Turkey has the
lowest values in per capita greenhouse gas emission, per capita primary energy consumption and
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historical responsibility among all OECD countries and the countries included in to the UN
Framework Convention on Climate Change. Based on 2007 data, while Turkey’s greenhouse gas
emissions per capita was 5.3 tons of CO2 equivalent, the average value of the 27 member states of
the European Union was 10.2 tons of CO2 equivalent and the average value of OECD countries was
15 tons of CO2 equivalent [8, 9]. While Turkey’s total greenhouse gas emission in 1990 was 170
million tons of CO2 equivalent, it increased to 372 million tons of CO2 in 2007. As for the
greenhouse gas sinks, although 44 million tons of CO2 equivalent greenhouse gas emission was
absorbed by the sinks in 1990; this value was approximately 77 million tons of CO2 equivalent in
2007 [10]. According to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
Change (IPCC), Turkey is located in the Mediterranean Basin that is especially vulnerable to the
adverse impacts of climate change [8].
Industrial production without adequate regard for environmental impacts has led to an
increase in water and air pollution, soil degradation, and large-scale global impacts such as acid rain,
global warming and ozone depletion. To create more sustainable means of production, there must be
a shift in attitudes towards proactive waste management practices moving away from control towards
prevention. A preventive approach must be applied in all industrial sectors. Used in complement with
other elements of sound environmental management, cleaner production is a practical method for
protecting human and environmental health and supporting the goal of sustainability [11, 12].
Moreover industries that invest in water saving and waste minimisation techniques could put
themselves in a better marketing position as people are becoming more concerned with the rational
use of natural resources and environmental degradation. Consumption of natural resources including
raw materials, water, energy, and commodities is fast increasing due to mining, industrial and
agricultural activities. Consequently; solid, liquid and gas wastes generated by these activities have
adverse effect on the environment.
While it is ultimately governments’ responsibility to meet the needs of poor and vulnerable
populations, the private sector has much to contribute to the development and implementation of
effective solutions, including sector specific expertise, new technology, significant levels of
financing, the need to be efficient and make cost effective choices, and an entrepreneurial
perspective. These case studies show how this potential can be harnessed to help address adaptation
challenges and promote the public good: Overall, business engagement in adaptation is still at an
early stage, particularly relative to mitigation; when it comes to climate change, the idea that
community risks are business risks is salient and persuasive; companies are experiencing a diverse
range of benefits from engaging in actions that increase climate resilience; companies point to a wide
range of success factors in designing and implementing climate change adaptation measures; climate
change adaptation and resilience building challenges present new opportunities for partnerships and
engagement with stakeholders [13].
There is tremendous scope for building climate resilient companies while building climate
resilient communities. Companies that rigorously assess climate change risks and opportunities and
implement creative solutions for long-term resilience will create business value while making
important contributions to sustainable development and equitable green growth. A concentration on
good housekeeping measures in particular has proven to be commercially non-viable, meeting only
partially the needs of enterprises and generating impacts with limited dissemination potential. The
more successful centers are business oriented ones working best as independent entities directed by
national and international stakeholders. Even with concerted efforts to curb global greenhouse gas
emissions to slow the rate of climate change, it is still necessary to prepare for and respond to the
adverse impacts that climate change will have on societies and economies across the globe [14].
While some uncertainty exists about the exact nature, timing, location, and magnitude of these
impacts, empirical scientific evidence clearly indicates the increasing likelihood and severity of
climate related threats, including: water shortages and droughts; flooding; extreme, unpredictable
weather patterns and events; declining agricultural yields; spread of disease and decline in human
health; and loss of biodiversity.
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Adaptation measures are needed to reduce vulnerability and increase human and
environmental resilience against the impact of current and future climate change. Governments in
both developed and developing countries have initiated comprehensive strategies to ensure that
citizens have the capacity to cope with changing climatic conditions at a meaningful (i.e., local)
level. Climate change adaptation requires enhanced disaster risk reduction and preparedness, and
new weather risk transfer solutions. New agricultural practices, such as drought and saline tolerant
crop varieties, need to be widely accessible and utilized; water and energy must be managed more
efficiently; health systems must be fortified to respond to emerging threats, and new medicines are
needed; biodiversity and ecosystem services must be preserved; and the livelihoods of poor people
strengthened [15].
The core objectives are to assist the industrial sectors of developing countries to produce in a
sustainable manner, thus improving their competitive position. Cleaner production is thereby an
approach that reduces environmental pollution with positive financial benefits for the enterprise.
Adapting to the impacts of climate change in order to minimize its human and environmental toll is a
significant challenge for all sectors. While some sectors are particularly at risk, all businesses face
the possibility of property damage, business interruption, and changes or delays in services provided
by public and private electricity and water utilities, and transport infrastructure. A more strategic and
long-term approach for managing climate change risks will be necessary for all sectors including
manufacturing industry. There are many adaptation options available to reduce the vulnerability of
sectors. Cleaner production which is based on the concept of creating more goods and services while
using fewer resources and creating less waste and pollution is one of these options that
manufacturing industry can apply for adaptation purposes.
In contrast to the industrial revolution the next world order, individual happiness and the
importance given to the individual, the importance given to production and capital have taken
precedence. Individual in life can the most important driving force of change as a result of “human
values to the fore”. However, individuals showed “emotion” is a result of changes in individual life.
Individual identities function in proportion to the changes, the changes in individual life can also
remarkably quick and intense [16]. Businesses have become increasingly aware of the critical role
they play in enabling effective, timely, and appropriate adaptation. They recognize the risks that
climate change poses, not only for their operations, but also to their suppliers, employees, customers,
and people living in the areas in which they operate. Businesses have also begun to recognize
opportunities to expand operations and increase their market share through developing climate
resilient products and services to help people, other businesses, and governments adapt [4, 8, 14].
Business contributions to climate change adaptation play a very important role in supporting
sustainable development and efforts to build the green economy, while also promoting a company’s
viability, profitability, and competitive edge.
Some international market leading businesses have started to analyze climate change risks
and opportunities, and important efforts are already underway to implement adaptation measures in
many of the world’s emerging economies and developing countries, which represent valuable
markets for new business opportunities. Business led adaptation interventions are particularly
important in developing countries, where poor communities have significant exposure to climate
change impacts [1, 14]. In addition, in sustainable development, various terms are used to describe
different strategies, actions, effects, phenomena, etc. Movement from usage of inappropriate terms
and unambiguous definitions can help us to make more rapid progress in sustainable development
science and engineering. The case studies examine companies’ motivations for action, and describe
where and how they are applying their technical expertise and capacity to innovate to address climate
change challenges, while at the same time improving their bottom line and maintaining their social
license to operate. While it may not yet be possible to identify the full suite of best practices in
private sector adaptation to climate change, the emerging approaches presented here show promise
based on results achieved to date [17-19]. They are examples of actions that will need to be expanded
and scaled-up for companies to reach their full potential as providers of effective climate change
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solutions. Many of these approaces have potential for replication in other country and sector contexts
to promote adaptation and resilience.
Cleaner production in industrial processes seeks to deal with the operations of an industrial
process in many levels at once. It is an integrated approach requiring cooperation from all and
commitment from the top tier of management to implement and sustain policies that aim to ensure
that production is carried out in a manner that is both cost-effective and environmentally sound.
Unlike end-of-pipe treatment systems, cleaner production in most industrial processes can be applied
to different stages of the process, and a project implemented by stages according to a company’s
needs and possibilities [20, 21]. Strategic climate integration refers to the organizational capability to
address and incorporate climate change into the continuous, long-term innovation process.
Continuous innovation can be defined as the ‘‘changing experiential base of organizational activities,
routines, and goals (targeting the long-term optimization of) technologies, processes, specifications,
inputs, and products’’.
The process of absorbing climate knowledge can be considered an essential condition for any
organizational adaptation to climate change related disruptions in the natural environment. In
situations in which the anomaly and significance of disruptions in the natural environment increase,
organizations need to internalize information about the dynamics, intensity, sources, consequences,
and future developments of these disruptions. This information internalization process is essential in
order to be able to prepare for adapting to climate related disruptions [22, 23]. As global warming
was acknowledged as a business issue rather recently, firms do not yet possess much knowledge of
how steady changes of mean temperatures and increasing frequency and intensity of extreme weather
events will affect their business. Similar to any critical knowledge, the process of climate knowledge
absorption is based on two knowledge sources, external and internal [24]. Based on these sources,
the climate knowledge absorption capability can be ascribed to two components: knowledge creation
and utilization [25].
This paper contributes to the literature on organizations and the natural environment. In this
study, comprehensive lists of opportunities for cleaner production assessment in a sector and national
market are prepared and a cleaner production assessment is done for some best practices by using
developed methodology and check lists. Selected opportunities are evaluated considering its
environmental benefits and economic feasibility.
II. INDUSTRIAL ECOLOGY AND CLIMATE CHANGE
The point of origin of industrial ecology is imitation of material cycles in ecology in
industrial areas. This approach resolves the conflict between industry and ecology, in a sense,
considering the industry a subcomponent of the ecologic system [3]. Industrial ecology concept
suggests a societal system where the responsibility of maintaining the continuity of production
together with conservation of the environment is undertaken by a wide basis including
manufacturers, public administrations, civil society organizations, researchers, and consumers. In
this system that is regarded as industrial ecosystem, energy, raw material usage and wastes are
optimized and hence industrial ecosystem becomes analogous to the biological ecosystem. In the
industrial ecology approach, it is asserted that in order for the industrialized world to maintain its life
standard and the developing countries to reach the same level of developed countries, consumers and
manufacturers should change their practices in a way that they resemble industrial ecosystem as
much as possible [15].
Natural systems have evolved in a few million years from open systems towards closed
systems which constitute a dynamic balance between organisms, plants, and various biological,
chemical and physical productions in nature . Term degradation could be understood as a biological,
chemical or physical process, which results in the loss of productive potential. From the biological
point of view, degradation can lead to the elimination and extinction of living organisms. It can also
refer to biological degradation of plant and animal residues, thereby making their elemental
components available for future generations of plants and animals [1, 12]. Like ecosystems, cities are
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also systems with material and energy inputs. In order to establish technologies and management
systems that will allow integration with natural systems, cities should be considered as a whole;
energy and raw materials should be analyzed; conservation of energy should be assured; wastes
should be recycled and used as raw material, and hence productivity in resource usage should be
provided [26].
Material flow defined in industrial ecology is a three stage process determined by raw
material producers, manufacturers, and consumers. Extracted raw materials go through several
operations to get prepared for production, later it is processed in the production stage, and then
delivered to the user. In order to control raw material flow, wastes and error points should be
determined at each stage and the materials should be brought back into the production process. A
material cycle can be obtained by offering old and used products to the market for other purposes,
decomposing the materials and reusing, and finally recycling them as raw materials [27].
Renewable resources are available in a continually renewing manner, supplying materials and
energy in more or less continuous ways. In other words, renewable resources do not rely on fossil
fuels of which there are finite stocks. The fact that natural resources will not last forever is leading to
widespread concerns about energy, raw materials and water supply. Therefore, a resource
minimization principle has been developed. The definition of the term has not been proposed, yet.
Therefore, the term encompasses not only raw materials, water, and energy, but also applies to
natural resources such as forestry, watersheds, other habitats, hunting, fishing, etc. All these
resources and processes which enable ecosystems to survive and are essential for helping societies to
make progress toward sustainability must be addressed. Thus, resources can be conserved, their
availability improved and maintained. Reduction in the usage of materials and energy can result in
dramatic cost savings [21, 27].
Industrial relations determined by the industrial ecology approach necessitate an industrial
symbiosis among the firms. Ecosystem principles of the industrial ecology complement the
relationships of this symbiosis. Recovery which is denoted by using renewable sources and material
cycles, is the first of the four ecosystem principles of the industrial ecology. The second principle,
which is diversity, means the diversity of cooperation when it is considered in terms of industrial
environment policies and management. The presence of diversity makes it possible to build systems
that involve actors using waste materials and energy in cooperation with each other. These actors are
not only large industrial enterprises but also public institutions, municipalities, waste management
companies, and consumers. The third principle which is locality requires the use of renewable
sources available in the local area and hence taking local constraints into consideration in regional
developments. The fourth principle is gradual change. It means developing by considering transfer
capacities of natural systems so that the ecosystem is able to survive [28].
Application of this approach on urban scale is related to the planning of industrial areas to a
large extent. Especially, the connections determined by the goods and services flows between the
firms define the usage of the place as well. Not only industry, but also other urban activities
complementing the industry are considered within the scope of eco-industrial parks. Preparation of
startup projects that will lead the design thought, conducting feasibility studies involving
environment, architecture, and engineering, acquiring the land, development of residences, and
finding a financial source to cover construction costs and operating costs of the project are required
in each eco-industrial park project.
We have seen that climate change is complex and variable both in space and time. The likely
impacts on human communities and ecosystems will also be complex. There is also much variability
in important factors relevant to climate change such as sensitivity (i.e. the degree to which a system
is affected either adversely or beneficially), adaptive capacity (i.e. the ability of a system to adjust)
and vulnerability (i.e. the degree to which a system is susceptible to or unable to cope with adverse
effects). Different ecosystems, for instance, will respond very differently to changes in temperature,
precipitation or other climate variables. For humans, it is the least developed countries that in general
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are most vulnerable; they are likely to experience more of the damaging climate extremes and also
have less capacity to adapt [29].
The greenhouse effect arises because of the presence of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere
that absorb solar radiation emitted by the Earth’s surface and, therefore, act as a blanket over the
surface (Figure 1). It is known as the greenhouse effect because the glass in a greenhouse possesses
similar properties to the greenhouse gases in that it absorbs infrared radiation while being transparent
to radiation in the visible part of the spectrum. If the amounts of greenhouse gases increase due to
human activities, the basic radiation balance is altered. Schematic diagram of an ideal smart window
reflecting infrared radiations in warm days (left) and allowing it to enter in cold days (right), while
remaining transparent in visible region in both climate conditions are illustrated in Figure 1.
Figure 1. A greenhouse has a similar effect to the atmosphere on the incoming solar radiation
Climate change is arguably the most severe challenge facing our planet during the 21st
century. Human interference with the climate system (mainly through the emission of greenhouse
gases and changes in land use) has increased the global and annual mean air temperature at the
Earth’s surface by roughly 0.8 °C since the 19th century. This trend of increasing temperatures will
continue into the future: by 2100, the globe could warm by another 4 °C or so if emissions are not
decisively reduced within the next decades [8]. There is broad agreement that a warming of this
magnitude would have profound impacts both on the environment and on human societies, and that
climate change mitigation via a transformation to decarbonized economies and societies has to be
achieved to prevent the worst of these impacts [9, 10].
A greenhouse is a structure where protected farming is carried out and it is partly separated
from its surroundings. The roof’s transparency is a link between the internal microclimate and
outdoor atmospheric conditions. The air exchange between the inside and outside establishes the
microclimate and atmospheric conditions. A microclimate is the local modification of the general
climate that is imposed by the special configuration of a small area. It is influenced by topography,
the ground surface and plant cover and man made forms such as greenhouse, houses and wind breaks
[27]. The basic goal of farmers that use greenhouse is to strive to provide environmental conditions
which allow photosynthesis and respiration to occur so that plants grow, and that the quality is good
and are marketable.
Air exchange rate is one of the most important parameters of ventilation systems in a
greenhouse. The ventilation systems serves the purpose of optimum control of greenhouse climatic
conditions for plant growth through supply of sufficient and uniform air exchange rate, between the
inside and the outside of greenhouse environments. A better air exchange rate helps reduce the
greenhouse air temperature and improves the evapo-transpiration processes for crops. Ventilation
and leakage rates are influenced by environmental factors such as wind speed, wind direction,
temperature difference between inside and outside and ventilator aperture [30]. The thermal
environment of the greenhouse arises from the complicated mass and heat exchanges between the
various components of the greenhouse and the fluctuating weather conditions which present a
dynamically changing greenhouse microclimate [31]. The conditions which define the microclimate
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of the greenhouse are the inflows and outflows and production of energy and mass as result of
interactions between the external and internal of the greenhouse. The radiation balance of Earth and
atmosphere is illustrated in Figure 2, which shows the components of the radiation that on average
enter or leave the Earth’s atmosphere and make up its radiation budget. The incoming solar radiation
must, on average, be balanced by thermal radiation leaving the atmosphere or the surface. Incident at
the top of the atmosphere on a surface of one square metre directly facing the sun is about 1370 W.
The average over the whole Earth’s surface is one quarter of this or 342 Wm-2
. About 30% of the
incoming solar radiation on average is reflected or scattered back to space from the Earth’s surface,
from clouds, small particles (known as aerosols) or by Rayleigh scattering from molecules.
Figure 2. The radiation balance of Earth and atmosphere
Observations of the climate system are based on direct measurements and remote sensing
from satellites and other platforms. Global scale observations from the instrumental era began in the
mid 19th century for temperature and other variables, with more comprehensive and diverse sets of
observations available for the period 1950 onwards. Paleoclimate reconstructions extend some
records back hundreds to millions of years. Together, they provide a comprehensive view of the
variability and long-term changes in the atmosphere, the ocean, the cryosphere, and the land surface.
Ocean warming dominates the increase in energy stored in the climate system, accounting for more
than 90% of the energy accumulated between 1971 and 2010 (high confidence). It is virtually certain
that the upper ocean (0-700 m) warmed from 1971 to 2010, and it likely warmed between the 1870s
and 1971. Proxy and instrumental sea-level data indicate a transition in the late 19th to the early 20th
century from relatively low mean rates of rise over the previous two millennia to higher rates of rise
(high confidence). It is likely that the rate of global mean sea-level rise has continued to increase
since the early 20th century.
Principles are fundamental concepts that serve as a basis for actions, and as an essential
framework for the establishment of a more complex system. Semantically, principles are narrow and
refer only to one activity or method. They provide guidance for further work and, therefore, occupy
the lowest position in the hierarchy [16]. We have positioned the principles within environmental
and ecological, economic, and societal dimensions. Environmental principles denominate those
terms that describe environmental performance, in order to minimize the use of hazardous or toxic
substances, resources and energy. These terms are: renewable resources, resource minimization,