Photo: Jeanne Moore, Sustainable Forest CURA, University of New Brunswick Climate change and the FSC Canadian Maritimes Standard: A literature review of proposed climate change strategies in forestry and an analysis of their consistency with FSC Principles and Criteria Nicole Lisa Klenk, PhD Faculty of Forestry and Environmental Management University of New Brunswick Email: [email protected]
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Photo: Jeanne Moore, Sustainable Forest CURA, University of New Brunswick
Literature Cited............................................................................................................................................ 72
“The Sustainable Forest CURA at the faculty of Forestry and Environmental Management at the
University of New Brunswick (http://www.unb.ca/fredericton/forestry/forestcura/) would like to
acknowledge the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council (SSHRC) for funding this report as a
component of the suite of projects and activities undertaken by this community-university research
alliance (CURA) to increase the capabilities of New Brunswick's province-wide forest community to
resolve conflict and cooperatively implement strategies for sustainable forest management.”
maintain or restore fire to fire-adapted ecosystems,
maintain and restore diversity of native tree species)
1,2,3 1
11,12,13,18,
22,30,31,
33-36, 39-41
13. Practice intensive management to secure populations
of high value 1 3 32,41
14. Enhance forest growth through forest fertilization 3 3 39,41
15. Employ vegetation control techniques to offset
drought 3 3 18,22,39,41
16. Focus on high productivity sites rather than poor sites 1 2 22
17. Assist transitions, population adjustments, range
shifts, and other natural adaptations (e.g., Facilitate
transition from forests to grasslands on shallow and sandy
soils)
3 2 13,16,22,36-
39,41
18. Increase the colonization capacity in the areas
between existing habitat and areas of potential new
habitat
3 1 41
19. Avoid land use conversion 1,4 1 11,31,39,41
20. Incorporate climate change into land use plans and
consider the possibility of land use change at specific
locales (forest to agriculture and vice versa)
3 1 1,12,22,32,
37
23
The most frequently cited
recommendation is to deactivate and
rehabilitate roads to maximize
productive forest area and forest sinks.
Billy Humphries, Forest Resource Consultants, Inc., Bugwood.org
1.3.7 Carbon Management
The recommendations on “carbon management” are mitigation measures that are mostly
focused on the operational level of planning
and decision-making (Table 8).
The recommendations refer to increasing
carbon storage, fire management, and
greenhouse gas emissions reduction.
Table 8. Recommended climate change measures broadly related to carbon management
Recommendations Strategy
1= Resist
2= Resilience
3= Response
4=Mitigation
Level1= Strategic
2= Tactical
3=Operational
Citing Articles
1. Deactivate and rehabilitate roads to maximize
productive forest area and forest sinks 4 3 13,18,39,41
2. Reduce emissions 4 3 13
3. Decrease impact of natural disturbances on carbon
stocks through fire management and pest management 4 2 39,41
4. Increase the use of forests or biomass energy 4 1 39,41
5. Fire suppression to enhance carbon storage 4 3 39
6. Assessment of GHG emissions from operations 4 3 39,41
7. Fuels management and community protection 4 3 18,39
Dale Wade, Rx Fire Doctor, Bugwood.org
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The most highly cited recommend-
ations are in line with a resistance
strategy: increase reserves to
protect ecosystem diversity and
protect the most acutely
threatened species ex situ.
1.3.8 Protected areas
The recommendations in this category refer to biodiversity conservation and managing
habitats, corridors and reserves (Table 9).
These recommendations span the three climate
change strategies, but some fit in a single
strategy (e.g., increase reserves to protect
ecosystem diversity).
Most of the recommendations are at the
strategic level of planning and decision-making.
Table 9. Recommended climate change measures related to protected areas
Recommendations Strategy
1= Resist
2= Resilience
3= Response
4= Mitigation
Level
1= Strategic
2= Tactical
3=Operational
Citing
articles
1. Adapt reserves to climate change (e.g., expand reserve
network, establish artificial reserves for at-risk and
displaced species)
1,2 1 31
2. Increase reserves to protect ecosystem diversity 1 1 34,37,38,41
3. Protect the most acutely threatened species ex situ 1 3 11,22,39,41
4. Increased regional cooperation in species
management and protected areas management 1,2,3 1 41
5. Manage habitats over a range of sites and conditions,
expand the boundaries of reserves to increase diversity 2,3 1 34
6. Maintain and create habitat corridors through
reforestation or restoration 3 2 34,35,41
Jeanne Moore, Sustainable Forest CURA, University
of New Brunswick
25
Michelle Bowman, Bugwood.org
1.3.9 Infrastructure
The recommendations on “infrastructure” refer to forest engineering concerns with the
impacts of roads on forest hydrology and water quality, culvert sizing and revising
infrastructure guidelines to take into account climate change (Table 10).
Most of the recommendations span the three climate change strategies and the three levels of
planning and decision-making.
Table 10. Recommended climate change measures broadly related to forest infrastructure
Recommendations Strategy
1= Resist
2= Resilience
3= Response
4=Mitigation
Level 1= Strategic
2= Tactical
3= Operational
Citing
Articles
1. Minimize road networks 1 2 17,39,41
2. Adjust culvert size requirements and road design for
changes in peak flow 1,2,3 3
12,15,18,
39,41
3. Develop guidelines under which restoration projects
or rebuilding of human structures should occur after
climate disturbances
1,2,3 1 36
4. Avoid constructing roads in landslide-prone terrain
where increased precipitation and melting of permafrost
may increase the hazard of slope failure
1,2,3 3 39,41
5. Maintain, decommission, and rehabilitate roads to
minimize sediment runoff due to increased precipitation
and melting of permafrost
1,2,3 3 12,39,41
6. Ensure that infrastructure investments do not
interrupt conservation or riparian corridors 1 1 41
The most cited recommendation
is at the operational level and
concerns adjusting culvert size
requirements and road design for
changes in peak flow.
26
This recommendation seeks to
enable the forest sector to take
advantage of changing wood quality
and tree species composition under
climate change.
Doug Page, USDI Bureau of Land Management, Bugwood.org
1.3.10 Wood processing
The last category only contains one recommendation on wood processing technology (Table
11).
Table 11. Recommended climate change measure related to wood processing
Recommendations Strategy
1= Resist
2=Resilience
3=Response
4=Mitigation
Level
1= Strategic
2= Tactical
3=Operational
Citing
articles
1. Develop technology to use altered wood quality and tree
species composition, modify wood processing technology 3 1
12,22,39-
41
In order to grasp the significance of the climate change adaptation and mitigation
recommendations summarized above for revising the FSC Canadian Maritimes Standards, it is
helpful to take a closer look at recent initiatives that have sought to consider and/or integrate
climate change considerations in forest and environmental management certification
standards.
In the following sections three “special cases” are described and are meant to serve as
“food for thought”.
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1.4 Special case: A recent assessment of the CCFM Criteria & Indicators
In a recent study, experts were asked to assess the Canadian Council of Forest Ministers Criteria
and Indicators of sustainable forest management with regards to the extent to which the C&I
are influenced by climate change and whether the C&I should integrate climate change
considerations (42).
The 2003 CCFM C&I contain 6 criteria: biological diversity; ecosystem condition and
productivity; soil and water; role in global ecological cycles; economic and social benefits;
society’s responsibility.
Out of the 46 indicators reviewed, 34 indicators were judged “influenced by climate change”
and of these, 11 were targeted for significant revision. New indicators were proposed for 4
criteria (Table 12).
Table 12. New sustainable forest management indicators for the CCFM C&I. Adapted from (42).
Biodiversity Conservation
Extent of connectivity between protected areas
Proportion of tenured forest area with seed transfer guidelines that account for climate change
Ecosystem Condition and Productivity
Average, minimum, and maximum temperature
Area of Crown forest with assisted migration
initiatives
Soil and Water Rate and form of precipitation
Role in Global Ecological Cycles Carbon emissions avoided through product
substitution
In addition, there were proposed modifications to current indicators. The suggested revisions
varied in nature, as described here.
1) Providing more precision with regards to targeted species such as in (italicized):
“population levels of selected species” (e.g., species unaffected by climate
change or for which there is a sound understanding of population dynamics
in a changing climate)
“area of forest disturbed by native and alien invasive forest-associated
species”
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2) Adding issues to current indicators (italicized):
“investment in forest research, timber products industry research and
development, and education, and climate change adaptation and mitigation”
3) Changing the way the indicator is measured, such as in:
“total growing stock of both merchantable and non-merchantable tree species on
forest lands”
“area of forest disturbed, by cause”
“net change in forest ecosystem carbon”
“forest ecosystem carbon storage by forest type and age class”
“contribution of timber products to the gross domestic product”
“contribution of non-timber forest products and forest-based services to the gross
domestic product”
“forest area by timber tenure”
“Status of new or updated forest management guidelines and standards related to
ecological issues”
Many of the new indicators proposed by the team of experts seem to assume and implicitly
support a pro-active “response” climate change strategy in forest management.
For instance, they refer to measuring the degree of landscape connectivity which facilitates the
movement of species, changes in seed transfer guidelines that take into account climate
change, area of Crown forest with assisted migration initiatives and carbon emissions avoided
through product substitution. These indicators are in line with particular “response” strategy
recommendations for forest composition, regeneration, landscape management and carbon
management listed above.
However, the majority of CCFM indicators were retained as is and these explicitly support
resistance to climate change and to a lesser extent a resilience strategy by monitoring the
extent to which forest composition, structure and processes are maintained in relation to a
historic benchmarks.
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“This Standard sets a level of performance to be met using a prescribed management system. Performance is dealt with at three levels. First, a set of SFM elements and core indicators is required. Second, the public has the opportunity to assist in setting specific values, objectives, additional indicators, and targets at the local forest level for each of the SFM elements, as well as to participate in effectiveness monitoring. This Standard requires a public participation process to establish and monitor locally appropriate targets (including thresholds and limits). Moreover, this Standard identifies specific requirements for the public participation process. This approach to performance not only respects government‐recognized criteria for SFM but also allows the public to participate in the interpretation of the criteria and elements for local application. The third level is the assessment of actual changes in the forest as related to forecasts and results of management practices.”
CAN/CSA‐Z809‐08, p. 2
1.5 Special Case: CSA Standards for sustainable forest management
The most recent version of the Canadian Standards Association National Standards for Sustainable Forest Management (43) has to a certain extent integrated climate change adaptation and mitigation considerations (10). This standard involves a combination of public participation, performance and management system requirements and uses the CCFM C&I as the basis of its sustainable forest management performance requirements.
Climate change considerations are found in the performance requirements, under the SFM criteria of “Ecosystem condition and productivity” and “Role in global ecological cycles”. In the former criterion, the public participation process must include discussion of climate change impacts and adaptation to establish forest values and choose appropriate indicators. In the latter criterion, the public participation process must include discussion of carbon emissions from fossil fuels used in forest operations and the performance requirement must use as a core indicator “net carbon uptake”.
Although climate change considerations have been integrated in the newest CSA Sustainable Forest Management Standard, its reliance on the current CCFM C&I means that the standard mostly supports a resistance strategy to climate change and to a lesser extent a resilience strategy (as pointed out in the previous section).
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1.6 Special Case: The Sustainable Forestry Initiative Standard
As of the end of 2011, in Canada SFI certified area (55,074,441 ha) is less than CSA certified area
(57,103,722) but greater than FSC certified area (46,272,411 ha) (46).
Likewise, in the USA, SFI certified area (56 million acres) is greater than FSC certified area (34
million acres) (47).
In its most recent Standard (2010-2014), the SFI has begun to consider climate change
adaptation and mitigation.
Their climate change adaptation and mitigation objectives seem to represent a resilience
strategy by focusing on best practices in sustainable forest management already present in the
standard: “SFI certified forests result in healthy growing forests that absorb more carbon and
are less susceptive to fire, insects and disease, when compared to poorly managed forest”
(48: p.1).
Provisions related to climate change are tempered by the recognition that the science and
regulatory framework for climate change mitigation and adaptation are still evolving.
Climate change related provisions are found in:
“Performance Measure 15.3 Program Participants shall individually and/or through
cooperative efforts involving SFI Implementation Committees, associations or other
partners broaden the awareness of climate change impacts on forests, wildlife and
biological diversity.
Indicators:
1. Where available, monitor information generated from
regional climate models on long-term forest health,
productivity and economic viability.
2. Program Participants are knowledgeable about climate
change impacts on wildlife, wildlife habitats and conservation
of biological diversity through international, national, regional
or local programs.” (49: p. 15).
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CCBA members include
Conservation International,
CARE, Rainforest Alliance,
The Nature Conservancy,
Wildlife Conservation
Society, BP, GFA Envest,
Intel, SC Johnson,
Sustainable Forestry
Management LTD.,
Weyerhaeuser, and
advising institutions.
1.7 Special Case: The Climate, Community & Biodiversity Alliance Standard
The social and environmental standards generated by the Climate, Community & Biodiversity
Alliance (CCBA) provide an interesting example of how to integrate climate change into the
development of forest protection, restoration and agroforestry initiatives (44).
The CCBA is a global partnership of companies and non-
governmental organizations created in 2003. It aims to
leverage policies and markets to promote climate
change adaptation and mitigation best practices in
forestry through carbon-based projects.
As of May 2011, 37 projects have completed validation,
14 projects have initiated the validation process and 2
projects have achieved verification.
Half of these projects are focused on afforestation,
reforestation and regeneration, one third of the
projects are focused on REDD (reducing emission from
deforestation and degradation), 7% of projects are focused
on improved forest management and 18% of projects combined different aims (44).
Of these projects, 42% are in Latin America, 26% in Africa, 17% in Asia, 9% in the U.S.A. and
Canada, 4% in Oceana and 2% in Europe.
Planned projects represent over 9 million ha of conservation and over 450,000 ha of restoration
of native forests with total estimated annual emissions reductions of over 17 million tons
annually (45).
The CCBA Standards “identify land-based projects that are designed to deliver robust and
credible greenhouse gas reductions while also delivering net positive benefits to local
communities and biodiversity” (44,p.7).
The “climate section” of the requirements focuses on measuring and monitoring carbon stocks,
The “Gold Standard” requirements reflect both the resistance and response strategies in
forestry, seeking to protect the most vulnerable populations of species and people (note the
“pro-poor” orientation of the Gold Standard “exceptional community benefits”) while at the
same time assisting their adaptation to climate change.
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1.8 Summary
Out of the 92 climate change adaptation and mitigation recommendations extracted from the
forestry literature and summarized above, approximately one third (n=32) of these are
applicable to the three climate change adaptation strategies (e.g., resistance, resilience and
response). These recommendations provide a useful starting point for revising the FSC
Canadian Maritimes Standard as they reflect a common potential line of action for climate
change planning and management.
The other 60 recommendations reviewed above belong to one or two of the strategies and
therefore are useful in thinking about what climate change strategies are encompassed within
the FSC Standards. By comparing these 60 recommendations to the FSC C&I, one can get a
better understanding of the extent to which FSC certification favors a resistance, resilience,
response or mitigation strategies to climate change.
Moreover, the categorization of the 92 recommendations according to the three tiers of forest
planning and management provides additional material with which to deliberate on potential
revisions to current FSC Canadian Maritimes Standards.
In addition, four illustrative examples of certification standards were described because they
integrated to some extent climate change considerations within their social and environmental
C&I: CCFM C&I of SFM, the CSA and SFI Standards and the Climate, Community & Biodiversity
Alliance Standards. The “special cases” exemplify different levels of engagement with climate
change and provide additional fodder for thought about how the FSC Standards might assist or
constrain climate change adaptation and mitigation.
Part 2 of the report will pick up on these lines of thought by describing how the FSC Inter-national
Standard has engaged with climate change and by discussing the reviewed adaptation and
mitigation recommendations for forestry in relation to the FSC Canadian Maritimes Standard.
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Part 2. Climate Change Considerations and FSC Certification_____________
2.1 FSC Exploration and Engagement with Climate Change There is no explicit climate change adaptation strategy promoted by the FSC, but it has initiated
a climate change mitigation strategy (50).
In response to a Policy Motion at the 2008 General Assembly, the FSC put into place a member-
constituted panel to discuss the opportunities, necessities and risks for FSC to develop a clearer
‘climate profile’ with regards to carbon management. The output of the FSC Forest Carbon
Working Group are described in the 2011 Strategic Framework for an FSC Climate Change
Engagement and consists of 4 broad objectives and 16 specific goals (Table 17).
The objectives refer to the recognition of carbon stocks as an environmental value, safe-
guarding the multiple values and benefits of forest management including carbon stocks, the
involvement of FSC operations in carbon accounting frameworks and building the FSC’s
institutional capacity to keep abreast of significant development in carbon management (e.g.,
policy, research, evolving carbon markets).
The goals specify in what ways the FSC, intends to engage with climate change mitigation:
safeguarding values attached to forests; responsible stewardship of carbon stocks; monitoring
the impacts of management practices on forest carbon resources; and quantifying carbon
sequestration or emission reduction accounting.
Table 17. FSC’s Strategic Framework on Climate Change Mitigation. Adapted from (50).
Objectives Goals
1. FSC forest management certification requires the management and assessment of the carbon stock as environmental value.
1. The FSC Principles & Criteria recognize the carbon stock as environmental value that needs to be maintained and/or restored over the long term.
2. FSC operations assess the qualitative and quantitative impacts of their management practices on the carbon stock, ensuring that these practices maintain and/or restore the carbon stock over the long term.
3. FSC demonstrates its contribution to reduce deforestation and forest degradation by maintaining ecosystem functions and high conservation values in natural forests.
4. FSC explores and promotes the important role that ecosystem based adaptation to climate change has for responsible forest management.
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2. FSC is widely recognized as benchmark and leading certification scheme, including the carbon stewardship in forests, plantations and forest protected areas, thereby contributing to the growth of forest area under FSC certified management.
1. FSC’s leadership in ensuring social and environmental safeguards is recognized and promoted in the context of forest carbon financing.
2. FSC is applicable for management and maintenance of the carbon stock in the context of forest conservation and forest protected areas.
3. FSC has systems in place assessing the social and environmental safeguards of forest carbon projects and programmes at their design stage.
4. FSC is recognized by credible forest carbon schemes in order to facilitate and lead participants towards FSC certification.
5. FSC Network Partners play an active role in the architecture and implementation of REDD+ programmes in key countries.
6. National FSC forest stewardship standards are approved in key countries with REDD+ programmes and interlinked with REDD+ standards.
3. Involvement of FSC operations in carbon claims and reward mechanisms contributes to enhancing FSC’s reputation as a leader in forest stewardship.
1. FSC operations generating rewardable carbon claims comply with a defensible and credible carbon accounting standard
2. FSC standards constrain the use of FSC trademarks related to carbon claims by certificate holders and other parties.
3. FSC fosters multiple mechanisms to reward stewardship of forest carbon storage / sequestration and other ecosystem services.
4. FSC has the institutional capacity to keep up with the rapidly evolving policy framework and financing mechanisms for ecosystem services, to collaborate in research as necessary, and to implement strategic actions as resulting from this strategic framework.
1. The FSC Secretariat actively implements the actions and research resulting from this strategic framework and provides capacity building to the FSC network.
2. FSC establishes a Consultative Forum of experts, practitioners and researchers that discusses, analyzes and proposes strategic options for FSC’s future engagement in frameworks and initiatives related to the mitigation of or adaptation to climate change.
3. FSC establishes specialist advisory panels for reviews of the FSC Principles & Criteria, e.g. on how to address stewardship of ecosystem services.
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2.2 FSC Maritimes Standard in relation to Climate Change Recommendations for SFM
The approach taken here is to relate the current FSC Maritimes Standard to the climate change
strategies and recommendations reviewed in Part I of the report (Tables 2-11). This analysis is
designed to guide a systematic reflection on climate change and the revision of the FSC
Maritimes Standard.
Of the 10 principles in the FSC Maritimes Standard, only Principle 2 (Tenure and Use Rights and
Responsibilities) was not considered relevant to climate change planning (Table 18).
For each of the other 9 Principles, Criteria and specifications were extracted when they were
deemed relevant to climate change planning (Table 19). I’ve indicated if the criterion reflects
one or more of the climate change strategies (resistance, resilience, response and/or
mitigation). I have also indicated which category of recommendations (forest composition,
forest regeneration, preparing for disturbance, etc.) and which recommendations are most
relevant to each of the Criteria and specifications of the FSC Maritimes Standard.
Recommendations that may be problematic or inconsistent with the current FSC Maritimes
Standard are italicized (Table 19).
Table 18. Climate Change Related FSC Principles
Generic FSC Principle Relevant to climate change
1. Compliance with laws and FSC Principles
2. Tenure and use rights and responsibilities
3. Indigenous people’s rights
4. Community relations and worker’s rights
5. Benefits from the forest
6. Environmental impact
7. Management plan
8. Monitoring and assessment
9. Maintenance of high conservation value forests
10. Plantations
43
Most criteria support more than one climate change strategy (15 out of 25 criteria).
Several criteria and specifications enabled all climate change strategies (10 out of 25 criteria
included in Table 19). These latter criteria and specifications are situated within Principles 1, 3,
4, 5, 6 and 7.
The majority of associated recommendations for these criteria are not problematic, although
some are:
shorten or lengthen rotation lengths;
realign management targets to recognize significantly disrupted conditions,
rather than continuing to manage for restoration to a reference condition
that is no longer realistic given climate change;
incorporate climate change into land use plans and consider the possibility
of land use change at specific locales (forest to agriculture and vice versa);
plant genetically modified species, and
identify more suitable genotypes.
A number of the criteria seem to support solely a Resistance strategy to climate change (7 out
of 25 criteria). These criteria and specifications are situated within Principles 3, 6, 9 and 10.
Associated recommendations that may be problematic include:
consider loss of species’ population on warm range margins and do not
attempt restoration there;
translocate species;
rather than focusing only on historic distributions, spread species over a
range of environments according to modeled future conditions;
assist transitions, population adjustments, range shifts, and other natural
adaptations;
practice high-intensity plantation forestry in selected areas to promote
growth of commercial tree species, and
diversify risk by spreading habitats or plantations over a range of
environments rather than strictly within the historic distribution.
44
Jason Sharman, Vitalitree, Bugwood.org
Only 3 out of 25 criteria seem to support solely a Resilience strategy and they are situated
within principles 6 and 10. Associated recommendations that may be problematic are the same
as those presented above.
There are 3 instances in which criteria or their specification may be interpreted as supporting a
Mitigation strategy and these are situated in Principles 5 and 6. No criterion seems to support a
solely Response strategy.
All the problematic recommendations are associated with Principles 5, 6, 7 and 10.
More detailed information on FSC criteria and specifications and their associated
recommendations are found in Table 19.
The significance of this analysis for the revision of the FSC Maritimes Standard is discussed in
Part 3 of the report.
45
Table 19: Principles and Criteria of the FSC Maritimes Standard Relevant to Climate Change Strategies and Recommendations
Principle 1. Compliance with Laws and FSC Principles
1.6 Forest managers shall demonstrate a long‐term commitment to adhere to the FSC Principles and Criteria.
1.6.2 The manager demonstrates a long‐term commitment to adhere to the FSC Principles and Criteria. Management planning based on ecological time frames of at least 100 years.
All Preparing for disturbance (Table 3) 3. Modify objectives for sustainable forestmanagement and the means we use to achieve them 4. Include climate variables in growth and yieldmodels and incorporate climate change effects into long term timber supply analysis and forest management plans
Landscape management (Table 7) 20. Incorporate climate change into land useplans and consider the possibility of land use change at specific locales (forest to agriculture and vice versa)
Principle 3. Indigenous People’s Rights
3.1 Indigenous peoples shall control forest management on their lands and territories unless they delegate control with free and informed consent to other agencies.
3.1.2 The applicant applies best efforts towards obtaining agreement from each affected Aboriginal community verifying that their interests and concerns are clearly incorporated into the management plan.
All Forest Values (Table 2) 4. Engage the public in a dialogue on values andmanagement under a changing climate 5. Provide alternative coping mechanisms forvulnerable communities 7. Enhance local welfare through the promotionof community‐based forest management and restoration 8. Improve community wellbeing throughpartnerships 9. Increase public participation in decision‐making and planning
3.3 Sites of special cultural, ecological, economic or religious significance to Indigenous People(s) shall be clearly Indigenous People(s)
Resistance
46
shall be clearly identified in cooperation with such Peoples, and recognized and protected by forest managers.
Principle 4. Community Relations and Worker’s Rights
4.4 Management and planning operations shall incorporate the results of evaluations of social impact. Consultations shall be maintained with people and groups (both men and women) directly affected by management operations .
4.4.2 Local communities and community organizations directly affected by forestry activities must be given an opportunity to participate in the setting of forest management goals and in forest management planning.
All Forest Values (Table 2) 4. Engage the public in a dialogue on values andmanagement under a changing climate 8. Improve community wellbeing throughpartnerships 9. Increase public participation in decision‐making and planning
Principle 5. Benefits from the Forest
5.1 Forest management should strive toward economic viability while taking into account the full environmental, social and operational costs of production, and ensuring investments necessary to maintain the ecological productivity of the forest.
5.1.3 The owner/manager shall demonstrate that the acquisition and maintenance of new large equipment considers fuel efficiency, pollution and other environmental impacts.
Mitigation Forest Values (Table 2) 2. Redesign and or implement institutions thatfacilitate cost effective and economically efficient adaptation and that provide forest managers with the tools necessary to achieve forest management objectives
5.4 Forest management should strive to strengthen and diversify the local economy,
5. 4.1 A diversity of timber andnon‐timber forest products, compatible with site conditions and local economic
All Forest Values (Table 2) 1. Diversify society's portfolio of forest assets5. Provide alternative copingmechanisms for vulnerable communities
47
avoiding dependence on a single forest product.
objectives for strengthening and diversifying the local economy over time, are produced at present, and predicted to continue under management plan forecasts. Adjustments to forest management practices to accommodate strengthening and diversifying the management unit’s contribution to the local economy from non‐timber forest uses, fish and wildlife
Landscape management (Table 7) 12. Maintain forest health and diversity duringtransition (e.g., maintain stand vigor, maintain or restore soil quality and nutrient cycling, maintain or restore hydrology, maintain or restore riparian areas, restore habitat and system dynamics, maintain species and structural diversity, realign significantly disrupted conditions, maintain or restore fire to fire‐adapted ecosystems, maintain and restore diversity of native tree species)
5.5 Forest management operations shall recognize, maintain and, where appropriate, enhance the forest services and resources such as water‐sheds and fisheries.
5.5.1 The manager identifies forest services provided by the management unit including, but not necessarily limited to, watersheds, fisheries and recreation, drawing on existing information (relevant assessments, inventories, studies) and public consultation as applicable.
All
5.6 The rate of harvest of forest products shall not exceed levels which can be permanently sustained.
5.6.2 Rates of harvest of any forest product shall be sustainable within ecological limits, and harvest levels shall be set within a justifiable growth period and growth area.
All Harvesting (Table 6) 1. Be prepared to increase the amount ofsalvage logging 2. Prepare for variable timber supply3. Plan for seasonal operational limitations (e.g.,prepare for reduced winter harvest) 4. Develop alternative harvesting systems andimplement alternative harvesting practices (e.g.,
48
reduced winter‐harvest opportunities may result in the need for more roads or the use of different types of harvesting equipment on sensitive sites, older stem retention and group selection openings, low impact logging techniques) 5. Shorten rotation lengths (increasedflexibility) 6. Extended rotation lengths (carbonmitigation)
Principle 6. Environ‐ mental Impact
6.1 Assessment of environmental impact shall be completed ‐‐ appropriate to the scale, intensity of forest management and the uniqueness of the affected resources ‐‐ and adequately integrated into management systems.
6.1.1 Environmental impacts shall be assessed prior to and following the commencement of site‐disturbance operations. Assessments shall include landscape level considerations as well as the impacts of onsite processing facilities.
All Preparing for disturbance (Table 3) 9. Minimize or mitigate other threats or stresses(e.g., the spread of insects and diseases, herbivory, alter forest structure or composition to reduce risk or severity of fire, establish fuelbreaks to slow the spread of catastrophic fire, alter forest structure to reduce severity or extent of wind damage)
Landscape management (Table 7) 12. Maintain forest health and diversity duringtransition (e.g., maintain stand vigor, maintain or restore soil quality and nutrient cycling, maintain or restore hydrology, maintain or restore riparian areas, restore habitat and system dynamics, maintain species and structural diversity, realign significantly disrupted conditions, maintain or restore fire to fire adapted ecosystems, maintain and restore diversity of native tree species)
exist which protect rare, threatened and endangered species and their habitats (e.g., nesting and feeding areas). Conservation zones and protection areas shall be established, appropriate to the scale and intensity of forest management and the uniqueness of the affected resources. Inappropriate hunting, fishing, trapping and collecting shall be controlled.
endangered species (as listed by provincial and federal bodies) and their habitat shall be protected or managed in accordance with approved recovery plans. Where recovery plans are not yet approved, a precautionary approach should be taken to avoid disturbance and protect the species and their habitats.
3. Anticipate and respond to species decline7. Prioritize and protect existing populations onunique sites (may require active management for conifer species lowlands) 9. Identify and protect functional groups andkeystone species 10. Consider loss of species’ population onwarm range margins and do not attempt restoration there 11. Translocate species12. Study response of species to climatechange (e.g., physiological, behavioral, demographic changes)
Protected areas (Table 9) 1. Adapt reserves to climate change ( e.g.,expand reserve network, establish artificial reserves for at‐risk and displaced species) 3. Protect the most acutely threatened speciesex situ 4. Increased regional cooperation in speciesmanagement and protected areas management and protected areas management 5. Manage habitats over a range of sites andconditions, expand the boundaries of reserves to increase diversity 6. Maintain and create habitat corridorsthrough reforestation or restoration
Landscape Management (Table 7)
2. Realign management targets to recognizesignificantly disrupted conditions, rather than continuing to manage for restoration to a
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reference condition that is no longer realistic given climate change
6.2.2 Forest owner/managers shall identify and implement measures within their sphere of influence to reduce the threat (from both timber and non‐timber activities) to species that are rare, vulnerable or under investigation by COSEWIC or their provincial equivalents.
All Preparing for disturbance (Table 3) 9. Minimize or mitigate other threats or stresses, (e.g., the spread of insects and diseases, herbivory, alter forest structure or composition to reduce risk or severity of fire, establish fuelbreaks to slow the spread of catastrophic fire, alter forest structure to reduce severity or extent of wind damage).
6.2.3 Primordial forests, where such forests exist on the management unit, shall be included in the High Conservation Value Forest assessment described in Principle 9.
Resistance Forest composition (Table 4) 2. Rather than focusing only on historic distributions, spread species over a range of environments according to modeled future conditions. 7. Prioritize and protect existing populations on unique sites (may require active management for conifer species lowlands)
Landscape management (Table 7) 5. Manage for refugia (e.g., identify and manage refugia for species that may otherwise be lost, try uneven‐aged management to add landscape heterogeneity and "lifeboat" residual species, protect potential refugial habitats, retain biological legacies) 11. Maintain large areas of old growth forests
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Protected areas (Table 9) 2. Increase reserves to protect ecosystem diversity 5. Manage habitats over a range of sites and conditions, expand the boundaries of reserves to increase diversity
6.3 Ecological functions and values shall be maintained intact, enhanced or restored, including: a) Forest regeneration and succession;
b) Genetic, species and ecosystem diversity; and
c) Natural cycles that affect the productivity of the forest ecosystem.
6.3.1 The present and projected silviculture, harvest and regeneration methods shall result in a mix of tree species, stand types, landscape ecology and stand structures that mimic the natural variability and historic local pattern of the Acadian Forest.
Resistance, resilience
Forest composition (Table 4) 1. Adjust species composition 2. Rather than focusing only on historic distributions, spread species over a range of environments according to modeled future conditions
4. Expand genetic diversity guidelines
Forest regeneration (Table 5) 1. Revise site regeneration objectives 3. Modify seed transfer zones/seed provenances 5. Enrichment sowing and supplemental regeneration 7. Establish or encourage new mixes of native species ("neo‐native forests") 8. Use variable density thinning in dense young stands to provide more resources to surviving individuals and promote resilience and species and structural diversity 9. Facilitate natural selection and evolution by managing the natural regeneration process to enhance disturbances that initiate increased seedling development and genetic mixing 11. Plant genetically modified species and identify more suitable genotypes 12. Breed for pest resistance and for a wider
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tolerance to a range of climate stresses and extremes in specific genotypes
Harvesting (Table 6) 1. Be prepared to increase the amount ofsalvage logging 4. Develop alternative harvesting systems andimplement alternative harvesting practices 5. Shorten rotation length6.Extended rotations
6.3.2 Silvicultural and harvesting practices shall result in canopy closure levels that are consistent with the natural disturbance pattern on the eco‐site.
Resistance, resilience
Preparing for Disturbance (Table 3) 3. Agree on standardized climate scenarios foranalysis 6. Anticipate variability and change and conductvulnerability assessment 8. Prepare for changes in disturbance regimes(e.g., increased wildfire activity, higher‐elevation insect outbreaks, species mortality events, altered fire regimes)
6.3.3 Silviculture practices result in age, diameter, species and height class distributions that are within the range of natural variability.
Resistance, resilience
Landscape management (Table 7) 2. Realign management targets to recognizesignificantly disrupted conditions, rather than continuing to manage for restoration to a reference condition that is no longer realistic given climate change 8. Promote diverse age classes9. Represent forest types10. Increase redundancy and buffers (e.g.,planting with mixed species and age classes, increasing locations, sizes and range of habitats for landscape‐ scale vegetation treatments; increase the number of rare plant populations
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targeted for restoration) 13. Practice intensive management to secure populations of high value 14. Enhance forest growth through forest fertilization 15. Employ vegetation control techniques to offset drought 16. Focus on high productivity sites rather than poor sites
6.3.6 The rationale for all decisions to plant tree seedlings (instead of relying on natural regeneration) shall be well defended and documented in the management plan. Where planting occurs, use of seed sources that are genetically appropriate to the site.
Resistance, resilience
Forest regeneration (Table 5) 1. Revise site regeneration objectives 2. Practice high‐intensity plantation forestry in selected areas to promote growth of commercial tree species 3. Modify seed transfer zones/seed provenances 4. Maintain seed or nursery stock of desired species for use following severe disturbance 7. Establish or encourage new mixes of native species ("neo‐native forests") 8. Use variable density thinning in dense young stands to provide more resources to surviving individuals and promote resilience and species and structural diversity 9. Facilitate natural selection and evolution by managing the natural regeneration 11. Plant genetically modified species and identify more suitable genotypes 12. Breed for pest resistance and for a wider tolerance to a range of climate stresses and extremes in specific genotypes
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6.3.7 The owner/manager shall strive to approximate spatial patterns and distributions of forest communities representative of natural forest characteristics for the landscape level.
Resistance, resilience
Forest composition (Table 4) 1. Adjust species composition2. Rather than focusing only on historicdistributions, spread species over a range of environments according to modeled future conditions 4. Expand genetic diversity guidelines
6.3.8 Forest fragmentation is minimized and connectivity is maintained or restored between important wildlife habitats and key landscape features such as HCVFs, late seral stage forests and protected areas.
Resilience Landscape management (Table 7) 1. Maintain connectivity in a varied, dynamiclandscape 2. Realign management targets to recognizesignificantly disrupted conditions, rather than continuing to manage for restoration to a reference condition that is no longer realistic given climate change 3. Diversify risk by spreading habitats orplantations over a range of environments rather than strictly within the historic distribution 4. Use landscape‐scale planning and partnershipsto reduce fragmentation and enhance connectivity 17. Assist transitions, population adjustments,range shifts, and other natural adaptations (e.g., Facilitate transition from forests to grasslands on shallow and sandy soils) 18. Increase the colonization capacity in theareas between existing habitat and areas of potential new habitat
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6.3.9 Local seed sources shall be maintained by ensuring that viable populations remain at the landscape level. Evidence of consideration of the population dynamics of tree species (viable population size, frequency of good seed years, seed dispersal characteristics, germination/ uptake conditions, etc.) in silvicultural and harvesting prescriptions
Resilience and response
Forest regeneration (Table 5) 3. Modify seed transfer zones/seed provenances11. Plant genetically modified species andidentify more suitable genotypes 12. Breed for pest resistance and for a widertolerance to a range of climate stresses and extremes in specific genotypes
6.3.11 Management plans are in place and are implemented to protect water quality in watersheds and to prevent unnatural fluctuations in water temperature and discharge.
Resistance, resilience
Landscape management (Table 7) 12. Maintain forest health and diversity duringtransition (e.g., maintain stand vigor, maintain or restore soil quality and nutrient cycling, maintain or restore hydrology, maintain or restore riparian areas, restore habitat and system dynamics, maintain species and structural diversity, realign significantly disrupted conditions, maintain or restore fire to fire‐adapted ecosystems, maintain and restore diversity of native tree species)
Infrastructure (Table 10) 2. Adjust culvert size requirements and roaddesign for changes in peak flow 3. Develop guidelines under which restorationprojects or rebuilding of human structures should occur after climate disturbances 6. Ensure that infrastructure investments do notinterrupt conservation or riparian corridors
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6.4 Representative samples of existing ecosystems within the landscape shall be protected in their natural state and recorded on maps, appropriate to the scale and intensity of operations and the uniqueness of the affected resources.
6.4.2 Representative samples of ecosystems that are present on the management unit and underrepresented in protected areas on the landscape are designated in the management plan and on maps and protected in their natural state.
Resistance Landscape management (Table 7) 3. Diversify risk by spreading habitats orplantations over a range of environments rather than strictly within the historic distribution 9. Represent forest types10. Increase redundancy and buffers (e.g.,planting with mixed species and age classes, increasing locations, sizes and range of habitats for landscape‐scale vegetation treatments; increase the number of rare plant populations targeted for restoration 17. Assist transitions, population adjustments,range shifts, and other natural adaptations (e.g., Facilitate transition from forests to grasslands on shallow and sandy soils) 20. Incorporate climate change into land useplans and consider the possibility of land use change at specific locales (forest to agriculture and vice versa)
Protected areas (Table 9) 1. Adapt reserves to climate change (e.g., expandreserve network, establish artificial reserves for at‐risk and displaced species) 2. Increase reserves to protect ecosystemdiversity 4. Increased regional cooperation in speciesmanagement and protected areas management 5. Manage habitats over a range of sites andconditions, expand the boundaries of reserves to increase diversity 6. Maintain and create habitat corridors throughreforestation or restoration
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6.5 Written guidelines shall be prepared and implemented to control erosion; minimize forest damage during harvesting, road construction and all other mechanical disturbances; and protect water resources.
6.5.1 Road construction and maintenance must be conducted so as to minimize damage to the forest and water areas.
Resilience, response and mitigation
Carbon management (Table 8) 1. Minimize road networks4. Avoid constructing roads in landslide‐proneterrain where increased precipitation and melting of permafrost may increase the hazard of slope failure 5. Maintain, decommission, and rehabilitateroads to minimize sediment runoff due to increased precipitation and melting of permafrost
6.8 Use of biological control agents shall be documented, minimized, monitored, and strictly controlled in accordance with national laws and internationally accepted scientific protocols. Use of genetically modified organisms shall be prohibited.
6.8.3 Genetically modified organisms shall not be used.
Resistance Forest regeneration (Table 5) 11. Plant genetically modified species andidentify more suitable genotypes 12. Breed for pest resistance and for a widertolerance to a range of climate stresses and extremes in specific genotypes
6.9 The use of exotic species shall be carefully controlled and actively monitored to avoid adverse ecological impacts.
6.9.1 Exotic tree species shall not be introduced unless the owner/manager provides clear evidence that: a) there is a known risk andlow risk of invasion or adverse effects on surrounding habitat; b) it is not introduced intoareas identified as of High Conservation Value under Principle 9; c) it is limited to no more than5% of the management unit;
Resistance, resilience
Forest regeneration (Table 5) 1. Revise site regeneration objectives2. Practice high‐intensity plantation forestry inselected areas to promote growth of commercial tree species 3. Modify seed transfer zones/seed provenances7. Establish or encourage new mixes of nativespecies ("neo‐native forests") 9. Facilitate natural selection and evolution bymanaging the natural regeneration process to enhance disturbances that initiate increased seedling development and genetic mixing
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d) there is not more than 50haof contiguous area of exotic species within an age class; and e) the exotic species are notconcentrated in a particular eco‐site type.
6.10 Forest conversion to plantations or non‐forest land uses shall not occur, except in circumstances where conversion: a) entails a very limitedportion of the forest management unit; and b) does not occur onhigh conservation value forest areas; and c) will enable clear,sustainable, additional, secure long‐term conservation benefits across the forest management unit.
6.10.1 Forest conversion to plantations or non‐forest land uses shall not occur, except in circumstances where conversion: a) does not take place in areasidentified as of High Conservation Value Forests under Principle 9; b) is limited to no more than5% of the management unit; c) is limited to no more than50ha of contiguous area of plantation conversions within an age class; and d) is not concentrated in asingle eco‐site type.
Resistance, resilience
Forest Regeneration (Table 5) 2. Practice high‐intensity plantation forestry inselected areas to promote growth of commercial tree species
Landscape management (Table 7) 3. Diversify risk by spreading habitats orplantations over a range of environments rather than strictly within the historic distribution 17. Assist transitions, population adjustments,range shifts, and other natural adaptations (e.g., Facilitate transition from forests to grasslands on shallow and sandy soils) 19. Avoid land use conversion20. Incorporate climate change into land useplans and consider the possibility of land use change at specific locales (forest to agriculture and vice versa)
6.10.2 Management actions are undertaken to convert unused non‐forest areas (landings, gravel pits, camps, roads, trails, former agricultural lands) back to forest.
Resilience and mitigation
Carbon management (Table 8) 1. Deactivate and rehabilitate roads tomaximize productive forest area and forest
sinks
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Principle 7. Management Plan
7.1 The management plan and supporting documents shall provide:a) Managementobjectives; b) Description of theforest resources to be managed, environmental limitations, land use and ownership status, socio‐ economic conditions, and a profile of adjacent lands; c) Description ofsilvicultural and/ or other management system, based on the ecology of the forest in question and information gathered through resource inventories; d) Rationale for rate ofannual harvest and species selection; e) Provisions formonitoring of forest growth and dynamics; f)Environmental safe
7.1.6 For all lands which do not have the physical or functional characteristics of the natural forest for that site (see references in the Glossary definition of “eco‐site”), a restoration plan shall be included in the management plan which considers various options and which moves the site toward a condition more characteristic of an appropriate natural forest type.
All Landscape management (Table 7) 2. Realign management targets to recognizesignificantly disrupted conditions, rather than continuing to manage for restoration to a reference condition that is no longer realistic given climate change
7.1.8 On management units larger than 500 hectares the management plan shall include a landscape level plan which the owner/manager has initiated or participated in, in accordance with the requirements of Criterion 4.4.
All Landscape management (Table 7) 20. Incorporate climate change into land useplans and consider the possibility of land use change at specific locales (forest to agriculture and vice versa)
7.1.10 The predictable future influence of pests, pathogens and non‐commercial species on allowable harvests, timber values, stocking etc. shall be taken into account and prepared for in the management plan.
All Preparing for disturbance (Table 3) 8. Prepare for changes in disturbance regimes(e.g., increased wildfire activity, higher‐elevation insect outbreaks, species mortality events, altered fire regimes) 9. Minimize or mitigate other threats or stresses(e.g., the spread of insects and diseases, herbivory, alter forest structure or composition to reduce risk or severity of fire, establish fuelbreaks to slow the spread of catastrophic fire, alter forest structure to reduce severity or
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guards based on environmental assessments; g) Plans for theidentification and protection of rare, threatened and endangered species; h) Maps describing theforest resource base including protected areas, planned management activities and land ownership; and i) Description andjustification of harvesting techniques and equipment to be used.
extent of wind damage) 10. Actively manage forest disturbances(e.g.,pest)
7.1.12 The management plan shall include a strategy for monitoring forest changes and assessing the environmental and social impacts of forest management.
All Preparing for disturbance (Table 3) 1. Monitor to determine when and what changesare occurring 2. Adopt risk assessment and adaptivemanagement principles 3. Agree on standardized climate scenarios foranalysis
7.2 The management plan shall be periodically revised to incorporate the results of monitoring or new scientific and technical information, as well as to respond to changing environmental, social and economic circumstances.
7.2.1 Indicators of progress relative to objectives shall be identified and an effective and thorough plan for monitoring these indicators shall be in place.
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Principle 8. Monitoring and Assessment
8.2 Forest management should include the research and data collection needed to monitor, at a minimum, the following indicators: (a) yield of all forest products harvested; (b) growth rates, regeneration and condition of the forest; (c) composition and observed change in the flora and fauna; (d) environmental and social impacts of harvesting and other operations; (e) costs, productivity, and efficiency of forest management.
8.2.2 Forest management should include the research and data collection needed to monitor species at risk, protected areas and other indicators of high biodiversity appropriate to scale.
Resistance
Preparing for disturbance (Table 3) 5. Anticipate surprises and threshold effects 6. Anticipate variability and change and conduct vulnerability assessment 7. Foster learning and innovation
Principle 9. Maintenance of High Conservation Value Forests
9.3 The management plan shall include and implement specific measures that ensure the maintenance and/or enhancement of the applicable conservation attributes consistent with the precautionary approach. These measures shall be specifically included in
9.3.1 The management plan and supporting documents include specific strategies to ensure the maintenance and/or enhancement of the High Conservation Values identified in 9.1.1.
Resistance
Forest Composition (Table 4) 7. Prioritize and protect existing populations on unique sites (may require active management for conifer species lowlands)
Protected Areas (Table 9) 5. Manage habitats over a range of sites and conditions, expand the boundaries of reserves to increase diversity
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the publicly available management plan summary.
Principle 10. Plantations
10.2 The design and layout of plantations should promote the protection, restoration and conservation of natural forests, and not increase pressures on natural forests. Wildlife corridors, streamside zones and a mosaic of stands of different ages and rotation periods shall be used in the layout of the plantation, consistent with the scale of the operation. The scale and layout of plantation blocks shall be consistent with the patterns of forest stands found within the natural landscape.
10.2.2 In proportion to the scale of operations, plantation blocks contain features that enhance ecological values, including but not limited to, shoreline and riparian areas, and, if applicable, wildlife corridors and a range of age classes and tree species.
Resilience, response
Forest Composition (Table 4) 5. Increase species and genetic diversity in plantations
Landscape management (Table 7) 6. Avoid planting new forests in area likely to be subject to natural disturbance (e.g., flood) 13. Practice intensive management to secure populations of high value 17. Assist transitions, population adjustments, range shifts, and other natural adaptations (e.g., Facilitate transition from forests to grasslands on shallow and sandy soils) 18. Increase the colonization capacity in the areas between existing habitat and areas of potential new habitat 19. Avoid land use conversion 20. Incorporate climate change into land use plans and consider the possibility of land use change at specific locales (forest to agriculture and vice versa)
10.3 Diversity in the composition of plantations is preferred, so as to enhance economic, ecological and social stability. Such diversity may include the
10.3.1 Plantation areas shall be planned and managed in a manner that contributes to site level and landscape level diversity.
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size and spatial distribution of management units within the landscape, number and genetic composition of species, age classes and structures.
10.4 The selection of species for planting shall be based on their overall suitability for the site and their appropriateness to the management objectives. In order to enhance the conservation of biological diversity, native species are preferred over exotic species in the establishment of plantations and the restoration of degraded ecosystems. Exotic species, which shall be used only when their performance is greater than that of native species, shall be carefully monitored to detect unusual mortality, disease, or insect
10.4.1 The management plan shall include a rationale for the selection of all species used in plantations, including their overall site suitability and a justification for the use of any non‐native species.
Resistance Forest Regeneration (Table 5) 2. Practice high‐intensity plantation forestry in selected areas to promote growth of commercial tree species Landscape management (Table 7) 3. Diversify risk by spreading habitats or plantations over a range of environments rather than strictly within the historic distribution 17. Assist transitions, population adjustments, range shifts, and other natural adaptations (e.g., Facilitate transition from forests to grasslands on shallow and sandy soils) 19. Avoid land use conversion 20. Incorporate climate change into land use plans and consider the possibility of land use change at specific locales (forest to agriculture and vice versa)
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outbreaks and adverse ecological impacts.
10.5 A proportion of the overall forest management area, appropriate to the scale of the plantation and to be determined in regional standards, shall be managed so as to restore the site to a natural forest cover.
10.5.1 The total area of plantations shall not exceed 10% of the management unit.
10.7 Measures shall be taken to prevent and minimize outbreaks of pests, diseases, fire and invasive plant introductions.
10.7.1 The risk of damage to plantations by wind, fire, pests, and disease should be minimized through measures that include management for a diverse forest across the management unit in terms of age/height, species, structure and genetics.
Resilience Preparing for disturbance (Table 3) 9. Minimize or mitigate other threats or stresses(e.g., the spread of insects and diseases, herbivory, alter forest structure or composition to reduce risk or severity of fire, establish fuelbreaks to slow the spread of catastrophic fire, alter forest structure to reduce severity or extent of wind damage) 10. Actively manage forest disturbances(e.g.,pests)
10.8 No species should be planted on a large scale until local trials and/or experience have shown that they are ecologically well‐adapted to the site, are not invasive, and do not have significant negative
10.8.2 On management units where the total area of plantations is greater than 1000 hectares, a monitoring program shall include a specific focus on the impacts of the plantation(s) on:
a) natural regeneration;b) water resources;
Resilience Landscape management (Table 7) 20. Incorporate climate change into land useplans and consider the possibility of land use change at specific locales (forest to agriculture and vice versa)
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ecological impacts on other ecosystems. Special attention will be paid to social issues of land acquisition for plantations, especially the protection of local rights of ownership, use, or access.
c) soil fertility;d) local welfare; ande) social wellbeing.
10.8.3 Before exotic species are planted on an operational basis the owner/manager ensures that field trials have been conducted in the region, sufficient to ensure full compliance with all aspects of Indicator 10.4.1.
Resilience Preparing for disturbance (Table 3) 1. Monitor to determine when and what changesare occurring 2. Adopt risk assessment and adaptivemanagement principles 3. Agree on standardized climate scenarios foranalysis
Forest Regeneration (Table 5) 2. Practice high‐intensity plantation forestry inselected areas to promote growth of commercial tree species
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Part 3. Key Questions and Challenges Ahead for the FSC Maritimes Standard
3.1 How to adapt forests (FSC certification) to a changing climate? The analysis in Part 2 of this report suggests that the majority of the criteria in the current FSC Maritimes Standard support a Resistance and/or Resilience approach to climate change in sustainable forest management. Three criteria may be interpreted to support carbon management and thus climate change mitigation. Several criteria may support a response strategy although such a strategy is in many ways inconsistent with the general direction of the FSC Principles. For example, several problematic recommendations that exemplify a Response strategy were indicated in relation to Principles 5, 6, 7 and 10. These problematic recommendations refer to pro‐ actively assisting forest transition either with regards to species composition, structure and function, but also ecosystem type and land‐use conversion (e.g., forest to non‐forest ecosystem). Other problematic recommendations refer to disregarding historic conditions and limiting restoration efforts that seek to recreate past ecosystem conditions. Among perhaps the most inconsistent recommendations with FSC Principles and Criteria are the use of genetically modified organisms, the use of intensive plantation forestry and the active translocation of species (i.e., assisted migration). It appears that some of the ecological ideas structuring the FSC Maritimes Standard (both the Maritimes and generic Standard) such as the emulation of natural disturbance, relying of historic ecological benchmarks and favoring natural regeneration may require some thought in the context of climate change. Each of these topics is complex and defies an easy solution with regards to how one would integrate it with climate change planning. However, there are questions one should probably ask with regards to each of these topics to at least begin thinking and debating the issue of climate change (Table 20).
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Table 20. Key questions for the FSC Maritimes Standard in relation to climate change planning
Idea Questions
Emulating Natural Disturbances How are disturbance regimes expected to change under climate change scenarios?
Is emulating past disturbance regimes in forest management increasing the adaptive capacity of New Brunswick’s forests?
What range of variation in natural disturbance is appropriate to emulate given the other stresses New Brunswick forests are likely to confront because of climate change?
Restoring the Acadian forest to historic benchmark
What are the benefits and risks of trying to maintain the Acadian forest as it has been over the last 200 years?
What is the most sensible historic benchmark to use in restoring the Acadian forest given climate change projections (e.g., last glacial maximum, pre‐Aboriginal colonization, pre‐European colonization)?
Favoring natural regeneration How will one judge whether a current species or migrating species is native to New Brunswick (i.e., how long does a species need to be present within its current range to be native)?
Should regeneration practices target the adaptive capacity of species to respond to climate change or some other criteria? To what extent are these criteria consistent?
To what extent will natural regeneration facilitate climate change adaptation of species in New Brunswick’s forests?
Another important challenge to customary thinking in sustainable forest management and embodied in the FSC Standard which may need reconsideration because of climate change is the belief (or hope that) it is possible to achieve the multiple benefits and values of forests using current best practices in sustainable forest management. However, the values of carbon management, biodiversity conservation and maximizing forest products may require different and conflicting landscape management strategies (e.g., should
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A pivotal idea that may shed some light as to how to integrate more‐or‐less pro‐active adaptation options for sustainable forest management is illustrated in current policy developments with regards to the assisted migration of species in Canada.
Howard F. Schwartz, Colorado State University, Bugwood.org
plantation forestry become a more prominent practice in forest management if it entails greater carbon sequestration, increased production of forest products and the ability to assist the migration of species)?
The current FSC Maritimes Standard offers little guidance for how to resolve conflicting values and goals in forest management with regards to climate change adaptation and mitigation.
As it stands the FSC Maritimes Standard has not broached the issues of the vulnerability of forests to climate change and the need to assess the risks involved in a business‐as‐usual versus a pro‐active climate change strategy in forest certification.
A short description of what is assisted migration and how it may provide some means of adapting forests to climate change while being mindful of maintaining genetic diversity and working within historic benchmarks are discussed next.
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For instance, recent policy changes in British Colombia allow forest practitioners to plant western larch beyond its range (assisted range expansion) based on its likely future suitable habitat given climate change projections.
3.2 Assisted Migration of Species
The assisted migration of species was proposed several decades ago as a means of addressing the impacts of climate change on species populations within protected areas (51). While its risks and benefits have been debated in the conservation biology and forestry research communities, and suggestions for planning and management given, there is little consensus within the academic literature over whether to adopt it or not as a policy option (52). The use of assisted migration in forestry, however, appears to be less contentious than in conservation biology, in which assisted migration has been proposed as a species rescue strategy in response to climate change impacts and projections. The translocation of threatened species beyond their historic range in an effort to avoid their extinction has generated a lot of debate due to risks of species invasiveness and other potential degradation of the recipient community, among other arguments (52). In forest management the practice of moving populations of species within their historic range or slightly beyond their current range is not new (53). Seed (provenance and transfer) and species selection policy across Canada already address the suitability of species to current ecological conditions and in some jurisdictions, seed policies are being adjusted to improve the adaptive capacity of 43 populations of widespread commercial forestry tree species. In forestry the potential use of assisted migration mainly targets widespread commercial tree species and seeks to change forest regeneration practices to protect the genetic diversity of these trees by moving populations of species within their historic range or slightly beyond this range. The determination of a species’ range is somewhat different than that customarily used in current forest management. Rather than look to the near past (i.e., pre‐European colonization about 300 years ago), proponents of the assisted migration of species in forestry tend to look at the more distant past (i.e., recent glacial maximum about 20 000 years ago) to determine the extent of species range.
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Thus, depending on which time scale you base your historic benchmark, the determination of native species may vary.
These Response strategies are consistent with the “spirit” of the FSC Maritimes Standard. However, they may not be entirely consistent with the current FSC Maritimes Standard, depending on which historic benchmark is chosen.
The choice of which historic baseline, however, involves value judgments that are not entirely encompassed within evolutionary genetics and ecology (e.g., while there may be some ecological value in envisioning a scenario in which large mammals are translocated to North America, this “re‐wilding” of our ecosystems is unlikely to get a social license even if rigorous evolutionary reasoning may support the idea (54)).
A more contentious approach to the assisted migration of species is the translocation of exotic tree species. However, the meaning of exotic can be ambiguous. Are species (composition and abundance) that may have occurred in New Brunswick 10 000 years ago (in)consistent with the identity of the Acadian forest of the last 300 years (e.g., is Salix nigra found along the St‐John river a native or non‐native species)?
Species translocated from other continents are more clearly understood as exotics and while this kind of translocation for forestry purposes is not new (e.g., Pinus radiata, Douglas fir) it is not generally considered a climate change adaptation option because the genetic diversity and productivity of native commercial tree species is deemed sufficient. Thus the assisted migration of populations of commercial tree species and assisted range expansion are potential Response strategies that take future suitable habitat of species into consideration given climate change projections.
These adaptation options would also require reconsidering the role of plantation forestry in adapting forests to future climate as well as discussing the merits of current ideas about the appropriate composition of the Acadian Forest and landscape scale planning objectives integrating new environmental values (e.g., carbon management). Indeed, the idea of the assisted migration of species in its different forms can help clarify the kinds of issues requiring deliberation in the revision of the FSC Maritimes Standard.
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Joseph O'Brien, USDA Forest Service, Bugwood.org
The results of this literature review and analysis of the (in)consistencies of climate change recommendations for sustainable forest management in relation to the FSC Maritimes Standard suggests that in many respects, the current Standard supports a Resistance and Resilience climate change strategy. Underlying these strategies is the hope that current best practices in sustainable forest management in accordance to the FSC certification standards should allow forests to adapt to climate change naturally and without need to incorporate an overly pro‐active Response strategy in the FSC Principles and Criteria.
Nevertheless, fundamental questions about the utility and appropriateness of some of the ecological assumptions structuring the FSC Principles and Criteria such as the emulation of natural disturbance, historic benchmarks and the (passive) role of humans in assisting the migration of species in forests requires much greater thought in the context of climate change. These are questions that straddle ecology, environmental ethics and environmental policy and cannot be answered by science alone, e.g., the best available science cannot tell us whether we should or should not seek to recreate the Acadian forest as it has been in the last 300 years. These are questions for which greater public debate is required to inform decision‐making processes and certification standards that will determine the nature of future forests in New Brunswick.
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3. Ayres, M. and Lombardero, M. 2000. Assessing the consequences of global change for forest disturbance from herbivores and pathogens. Science of the Total Environment 262: 263‐286.
4. Loo, J. and Ives, N. 2003. The Acadian forest: historical condition and human impacts. Forestry Chronicle 79(3): 462‐474.
5. Iverson, L., Prasad, A. and Matthews, s. 2008. Modeling potential climate change impacts on the trees of the northeastern US. Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies for Global Climate Change 13: 487‐516.
6. Zhu, K., Woodall, C.W., and Clark, J.S. 2012. Failure to migrate: lack of tree range expansion in response to climate change. Global Change Biology 18: 1042‐1052.
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