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Neuromyelitis Optica Spectrum DisordersIt is critical to
maintain a high index of suspicion for these conditions when
evaluating a patient with demyelination to avoid delays in
treatment.
By Michael J. Bradshaw, MD and Dorlan Kimbrough, MD
Introduction Neuromyelitis optica (NMO)
and NMO spectrum disorders (NMOSD) are clinical syn-dromes
traditionally defined by the presence of myelitis and
optic neuritis (ON). Aquaporin-4 (AQP4) is a water chan-nel that
is heavily expressed on astrocyte foot processes in the optic
nerves, brainstem, and spinal cord. Antibodies to AQP4 are directly
pathogenic and serve as a highly specific diagnostic biomarker for
NMO, which is technically an auto-immune astrocytopathy.1 They are
detectable in 60% to 80% of patients with NMOSD. Lesions that are
positive for AQP4 antibodies (AQP4+), which have a prominent
perivascular complement deposition, are pathologically distinct
from lesions of multiple sclerosis (MS). Among patients with an
NMOSD phenotype who are seronegative for antibodies to AQP4
(AQP4-), as many as 42% have detectable serum anti-bodies to myelin
oligodendrocyte glycoprotein (MOG) (See Box p 78).3 The prevalence
of NMOSD is roughly 4 to 10 per 100,000, with higher rates among
those of African or Asian descent; onset occurs throughout the
lifespan and 5 to 10 times more often in women than men.4,5
Clinical ManifestationsMost patients with NMOSD have a relapsing
course with
attacks that have a temporal profile similar to a demyelinat-ing
episode of MS. Relapses in patients with AQP4+ NMOSD are more
likely to be severe and disabling compared with MS relapses. The
cardinal clinical features of NMOSD include episodes of optic
neuritis, acute myelitis, and brain-stem syndromes. Other core
clinical features that occur less often include symptomatic
narcolepsy, acute diencephalic syndrome, or acute cerebral
syndromes.6
Optic Neuritis Inflammatory ON typically presents as acute to
subacute
monocular vision loss with impaired visual acuity that may
be accompanied by color desaturation, a relative afferent
pupillary defect, and/or optic disc edema. Clinical features that
suggest NMOSD (or MOG antibody-associated disorder) include
simultaneously bilateral ON and severe vision loss (acuity 20/200
or worse).7,8
Brainstem Syndromes The area postrema (AP) is an emetic reflex
center located
in the floor of the fourth ventricle that modulates a number of
physiologic processes such as hiccups and emesis. The AP has been
proposed as the initial site of entry for pathogenic AQP4
antibodies because AP capillaries lack tight junctions and AP
astrocytes express an abundance of AQP4.9
Area postrema syndrome (APS) occurs commonly in AQP4+ NMOSD
consequent to inflammatory lesions in the AP.10 In contrast to ON
or myelitis, AP lesions lack demy-elination or necrosis, which may
in part explain the nearly universal complete remission of symptoms
after an attack. Proposed APS diagnostic criteria include acute or
subacute nausea, vomiting, or hiccups lasting for at least 48 hours
without response to treatment or evidence of other etiolo-gies (eg,
hyponatremia, CNS structural lesions, and gastroin-testinal or
migrainous phenomena).11 Dorsal medulla lesions on MRI can
facilitate early diagnosis. An attack of APS may serve as warning
of an impending attack of ON or myelitis as most occurrences
(58%-68%) precede inflammatory involve-ment elsewhere.11 Other
brainstem syndromes sometimes encountered in patients with NMOSD
include oculomotor abnormalities, hearing loss, nuclear facial
nerve palsy, ves-tibular dysfunction, and other cranial nerve
abnormalities.12
Myelitis Considered a hallmark of NMOSD, longitudinally
extensive
transverse myelitis (LETM) is defined as myelitis spanning at
least 3 spinal segments. Neurologists should be aware that
short-segment myelitis is also common in NMOSD; neglecting to
consider this is associated with delay in diagnosis and
treat-ment.13 The anterolateral cord syndrome with prominent
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weakness and spinothalamic tract deficits is a typical but not
exclusive pattern.
PregnancyRelapse rates in women with NMOSD do not change
during pregnancy in contrast to women with MS, who have a
reduced relapse rate during pregnancy;14 relapse risk increases
during the first 3 months postpartum in both women with NMOSD and
MS, however.15 The placenta expresses AQP4, which may in part
explain why preeclamp-sia, intrauterine growth restriction, and
miscarriage are more common in women with NMOSD. Antibodies to AQP4
are transferred across the placenta but do not appear to be
pathogenic to the fetus.
ChildrenAlthough median age of onset is 30 to 40 years, 3% to 5%
of
patients with NMOSD present as children, which can be
clini-cally challenging.16 The most common presenting features of
NMOSD in children include visual, motor, and constitutional
symptoms (ie, vomiting, fever, seizures). A single study report-ed
a mean annualized relapse rate (ARR) of 0.6 in pediatric-onset
NMOSD compared with 1.0 in adult-onset NMOSD; time to disability is
longer in patients with pediatric-onset, largely explained by the
severity of a first episode of myelitis in adults. Time to first
treatment was significantly longer in chil-dren compared with
adults (13.1 vs 3.4 years). Children with acute disseminated
encephalomyelitis (ADEM) frequently have LETM, which also occurs in
a substantial minority of chil-dren with MS and monophasic
myelitis. As in adults, antibodies to AQP4 are a critical
diagnostic biomarker.17
Coexisting Autoimmunity Systemic autoimmune disorders such as
systemic lupus
erythematosus (SLE), antiphospholipid antibody syndrome, and
Sjögren’s syndrome often coexist with NMOSD. Clinical episodes
concerning for APS, myelitis, or ON in patients with systemic
autoimmunity should prompt test-ing for serum AQP4 antibodies.18
Conversely, patients with NMOSD, especially if seronegative, should
be asked about systemic symptoms and have a rheumatologic workup
com-mensurate with the degree of clinical suspicion for Sjögren’s
syndrome, SLE, and related conditions.
DiagnosisThe International Panel for NMO Diagnosis (IPND)
updat-
ed diagnostic criteria for NMOSD are shown in the Table.10
Laboratory StudiesSerum samples rather than cerebrospinal fluid
(CSF) should
be used to test for AQP4 antibodies and cell-based assays (eg,
fluorescence-activated cell sorting or direct immunofluores-
TABLE. DIAGNOSTIC CRITERIA FOR NMOSD IN ADULTS
AQP4+ NMOSD
Positive test for AQP4-IgGa
Exclusion of alternate diagnoses
At least 1 of the following:
Optic neuritis
Acute myelitis
Area postrema syndrome
Acute brainstem syndrome
Symptomatic cerebral syndrome w/ NMOSD-typical brain lesion
Symptomatic narcolepsy OR acute diencephalic clinical syndrome
with NMOSD-typical diencephalic lesions.
AQP4- or AQP4 status unknown NMOSD
Negative or inconclusive test for AQP4-IgGa
Exclusion of alternative diagnoses
At least 1 of the following :
Optic neuritis
Acute myelitis with LETM
Area postrema syndrome
If only 1 of above present, then also 1 of following:
Acute brainstem syndrome
Symptomatic cerebral syndrome w/ NMOSD-typical brain lesion
Symptomatic narcolepsy OR acute diencephalic clinical syn-drome
WITH NMOSD-typical diencephalic lesions
PLUS THE FOLLOWING MRI FINDINGS
Acute optic neuritis
Brain MRI normal or with nonspecific white matter lesions OR
optic nerve hyperintense lesion or T1 Gd+ lesion extending over
more than half the optic nerve or involving optic chiasm
Acute myelitis Associated intramedullary lesion extending over 3
or more contigu-ous segments (LETM) OR focal spinal cord atrophy
over 3 or more contigu-ous segments and compatible history
Area postrema syndrome
Dorsal medulla/area postrema lesions
Acute brainstem lesion Periependymal brainstem lesions
Abbreviations: AQP4, aquaporin-4; Gd+, gadolinium positive; IgG,
immunoglobulin G; LETM, longitudinally extensive trans-verse
myelitis; NMOSD, neuromyelitis optica spectrum disor-ders. a
cell-based assay preferred for AQP4 antibody testing
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IntroductionMyelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein (MOG) is
expressed on the outermost surface of the myelin sheath and may
func-tion in cell adhesion, microtubule stability, and interactions
with the immune system. Antibodies targeting MOG have been
implicated in the rodent model of multiple sclerosis (MS),
experimental autoimmune encephalitis (EAE); identi-fied in a small
percentage of patients with MS; and reported in patients with
neuromyelitis optic spectrum disorders (NMOSD). Early studies were
limited by the use of older techniques that did not use the MOG
antigen in its human conformational, or native, state but with the
use of cell-based assays in which cells express native-state MOG,
presence of antibodies to MOG are a specific biomarker of a central
nervous system (CNS) immune-mediated disease that is distinct from
MS and AQP4 antibody seropositive (AQP4+) NMOSD.1 Pathologically,
lesions in anti-MOG disease are indistinguishable from type II MS
lesions and antibodies to MOG isolated from patients are pathogenic
when infused into the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) of rodents,
suggesting a pathogenic role of the antibody in at least some
cases, although this remains uncertain.2
There are few population-based epidemiologic studies of MOG
antibody-associated disease. In contrast to MS and NMOSD, the
increased incidence in women vs men seems lower.
Clinical FeaturesThe major clinical features of MOG
antibody-associated disease are optic neuritis (ON), myelitis,
acute disseminating encephalomyelitis (ADEM), and brainstem
encephalitis with a course typical of other inflammatory
demyelinated diseases.3,4 Patients can have either a monophasic or
relapsing course; higher titers of MOG antibodies as well as
persistent sero-positivity over time predict a relapsing
course.5,6
Often bilateral with disc edema and inflammation involving more
than half the length of the optic nerve, ON is associ-ated with
better outcomes than in AQP4+ NMOSD as is myelitis, which occurs in
approximately 50% of patients with MOG antibody-associated
disease.7-9
NeuroimagingRelapses of longitudinally extensive transverse
myelitis (LETM) are rare in MOG antibody-associated disease whereas
AQP4+ NMOSD accounts for 90% of relapsing LETM.10 Pontine and
thalamic lesions of the brainstem are more likely in MOG
antibody-associated disease than AQP4+ NMOSD, which more often
manifests with area postrema syndrome or medullary lesions.4 In a
small study of patients with an
ADEM-like presentation, 88% of both adults (7/8) and children
(8/9) with persistent seropositivity had a relapsing course,
compared with no children (0/4) and 25% of adults (1/4) with
transient seropositivity.5
Laboratory StudiesApproximately 40% of children with ADEM have
at least transient MOG antibodies11 and MOG-antibody
seroposi-tivity was associated with fewer emotional and behavioral
problems, higher CSF pleocytosis, more frequent LETM, and higher
relapse risk compared with patients with ADEM who were seronegative
for MOG antibodies.12
Diagnostic recommendations published in 2018 recom-mended
against testing for MOG antibodies in all patients with MS.13 The
overall specificity of MOG antibody detec-tion using a cell-based
assay is 98.5%, although the sensitiv-ity is lower. Testing should
be done on serum and not CSF. Analysis of CSF reveals lymphocytic
pleocytosis in approxi-mately half of patients with MOG
antibody-associated disease and only rarely oligoclonal bands or an
elevated IgG index (5.7 and 7.3% respectively in one large study),
in con-trast to CSF findings typical of MS.4
TreatmentTreatment of MOG antibody-associated disease consists
of managing acute relapses and reducing risk of further relapses.
Acute relapses are treated with intravenous methylpredniso-lone
(IVMP), plamapheresis (PLEX), and intravenous immu-noglobulins
(IVIG), and most patients respond well, although early relapses
tend to occur after treatment.14 We generally use IVMP as a
first-line treatment, with PLEX promptly for patients who do not
respond well to IVMP or who have responded best to PLEX in the
past. Either treatment can be followed by IVIG with or without a
prolonged oral predni-sone taper to minimize the risk of early
relapse.15,16
Identifying which patients to treat with long-term
immuno-therapy is not straightforward because approximately half of
patients with MOG antibodies may have a monophasic course. In a
large cohort, 36% of patients relapsed after a median of 16 months.
At 48 months, 47% of patients had permanent neurologic disability.3
With repeat testing, most patients remain seropositive for MOG
antibodies but those who seroconvert to negative status appear to
be at low risk for relapse; patients with simultaneous ON or
myelitis or ADEM-like illness appear to be less likely to remain
seroposi-tive over time.3,5 Repeat testing after 6 months is
valuable for prognostication.
Most clinicians use similar management strategies for patients
with MOG antibody-associated disease as for those
Box: Myelin Oligodendrocyte Glycoprotein-Antibody Associated
Disease
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cence) should be used.10 Although testing is more sensitive when
done prior to initiating immunotherapy, testing should not delay
acute treatment. Because even cell-based assays have sensitivity of
only 75% to 80%,19 it is prudent to repeat testing after a few
weeks or months if results were nega-tive and clinical suspicion is
high. Patients with suspected NMOSD should also be tested for serum
antibodies to MOG.
Analysis of CSF from patients with NMOSD shows normal to highly
inflammatory profiles, the latter being more typi-cal during an
episode of myelitis than ON. Pleocytosis (>50 leukocytes/mcL),
especially with neutrophilic or eosinophilic predominance, is
useful for distinguishing NMOSD from MS, although, most often, both
conditions have a lympho-cytic predominance. Oligoclonal bands
(OCBs) are found in approximately 30% of patients with NMOSD, most
often during an attack. In contrast, OCBs are present in more than
85% of patients with MS and pleocytosis of more than 50 leukocytes
per mcL is rare in patients with MS.20
Neuroimaging Neuroimaging features are useful for
distinguishing
among NMOSD, MS and MOG antibody-associated dis-eases (Figure
1).21
MRI. Inflammation involving more than half the length of the
optic nerve, simultaneous bilateral ON, or involvement of the optic
chiasm suggest NMOSD, and lesion length cor-relates with visual
prognosis.22 Myelitis in NMOSD tends to involve central gray matter
nonexclusively. Although LETM is a hallmark manifestation of NMOSD,
it has a broad dif-ferential diagnosis including but not limited to
infection, neurosarcoidosis, and SLE. Neurosarcoidosis, for
example, can produce LETM distinguishable from NMOSD by the
presence of constitutional symptoms, pulmonary or hilar adenopathy,
hypoglycorrhachia, elevated angiotensin converting enzyme levels,
and persistent subpial contrast enhancement.
Corpus callosum lesions occur in 12% to 40% of patients with
NMOSD and typically follow the ependymal lining; acute lesions are
often edematous and heterogeneous, creating a marbled pattern. The
complete thickness of the splenium may be involved, termed the arch
bridge pat-tern. Extensive hemispheric white matter lesions may
have a tumefactive appearance resembling Baló’s concentric
sclerosis, ADEM or posterior reversible encephalopathy syndrome
(PRES). Such large or confluent lesions are more common in
children. Lesions surrounding the third ven-tricle and cerebral
aqueduct (including the hypothalamus, ventral midbrain and near the
circumventricular organs in the dorsal medulla) are typical of
NMOSD. With gado-linium, lesions may appear poorly marginated,
subtle, and patchy, termed a cloud-like enhancement pattern.
Pencil-
with NMOSDs, favoring azathioprine (AZA), mycopheno-late mofetil
(MMF) and rituximab (RTX) (not necessarily in this order) over
disease-modifying treatments (DMTs) used for patients with MS. A
multinational study of 102 children with MOG antibody-associated
disease found that treatment with interferon β and glatiramer
acetate did not improve the annualized relapse rate (ARR), where-as
a significant reduction in ARR was seen with AZA (ARR: 1.84 to
1.0), MMF (ARR: 1.79 to 0.52) and RTX (ARR: 2.16 to 0.51).15 We
favor MMF or RTX,14,17 and research is need-ed to determine if
either is more efficacious. When using MMF, it is important to
provide additional immunother-apy (eg, oral prednisone or IVIG) for
3 to 6 months while titrating MMF and awaiting full efficacy.
Further studies are needed to help guide prognostication and
therapeutic decision-making in MOG antibody-associated disease.
1. Reindl M, Jarius S, Rostasy K, Berger T. Myelin
oligodendrocyte glycoprotein antibodies: How clinically
useful are they? Curr Opin Neurol. 2017;30:295-301.
2. Spadaro M, Winklmeier S, Beltran E, et al. Pathogenicity of
human antibodies against myelin oligodendro-
cyte glycoprotein. Ann Neurol. 2018;84:315-328.
3. Jurynczyk M, Messina S, Woodhall MR, et al. Clinical
presentation and prognosis in MOG-antibody disease:
a UK study. Brain. 2017;140:3128-3138.
4. Cobo-Calvo A, Ruiz A, Maillart E, et al. Clinical spectrum
and prognostic value of CNS MOG autoimmunity
in adults: The MOGADOR study. Neurology.
2018;90:e1858-e1869.
5. Lopez-Chiriboga AS, Majed M, Fryer J, et al. Association of
MOG-IgG serostatus with relapse after acute
disseminated encephalomyelitis and proposed diagnostic criteria
for MOG-IgG-associated disorders. JAMA
Neurol. 2018.
6. Hennes EM, Baumann M, Schanda K, et al. Prognostic relevance
of MOG antibodies in children with an
acquired demyelinating syndrome. Neurology. 2017;89:900-908.
7. Mariotto S, Ferrari S, Monaco S, et al. Clinical spectrum and
IgG subclass analysis of anti-myelin oligoden-
drocyte glycoprotein antibody-associated syndromes: a
multicenter study. J Neurol. 2017;264:2420-2430.
8. Chen JJ, Flanagan EP, Jitprapaikulsan J, et al. Myelin
oligodendrocyte glycoprotein antibody (MOG-
IgG)-positive optic neuritis: clinical characteristics,
radiologic clues and outcome. Am J Ophthalmol.
2018;195:8-15.
9. Kitley J, Waters P, Woodhall M, et al. Neuromyelitis optica
spectrum disorders with aquaporin-4 and
myelin-oligodendrocyte glycoprotein antibodies: a comparative
study. JAMA Neurol. 2014;71:276-283.
10. Jitprapaikulsan J, Lopez Chiriboga AS, Flanagan EP, et al.
Novel glial targets and recurrent longitudinally
extensive transverse myelitis. JAMA Neurol. 2018;75:892-895.
11. Brilot F, Dale RC, Selter RC, et al. Antibodies to native
myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein in children
with inflammatory demyelinating central nervous system disease.
Ann Neurol. 2009;66:833-842.
12. Baumann M, Sahin K, Lechner C, et al. Clinical and
neuroradiological differences of paediatric acute dis-
seminating encephalomyelitis with and without antibodies to the
myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein. J
Neurol Neuroimmunol Psychiatry. 2015;86:265-272.
13. Jarius S, Paul F, Aktas O, et al. MOG encephalomyelitis:
international recommendations on diagnosis and
antibody testing. J Neuroinflamm. 2018;15:134.
14. Narayan R, Simpson A, Fritsche K, et al. MOG antibody
disease: A review of MOG antibody seropositive
neuromyelitis optica spectrum disorder. Mult Scler Relat Disord.
2018;25:66-72.
15. Hacohen Y, Wong YY, Lechner C, et al. Disease course and
treatment responses in children with relapsing
myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein antibody-associated disease.
JAMA Neurol. 2018;75:478-487.
16. Ramanathan S, Mohammad S, Tantsis E, et al. Clinical course,
therapeutic responses and outcomes in
relapsing MOG antibody-associated demyelination. J Neurol
Neuroimmunol Psychiatry. 2018;89:127-137.
17. Montcuquet A, Collongues N, Papeix C, et al. Effectiveness
of mycophenolate mofetil as first-line
therapy in AQP4-IgG, MOG-IgG, and seronegative neuromyelitis
optica spectrum disorders. Mult Scler.
2017;23:1377-1384.
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thin enhancement of lateral ventricle ependymal surface has been
described, as have well-marginated nodular or menin-geal areas of
enhancement.17
Most lesions seen on MRI in patients with NMOSD are not typical
of MS, and only 10% to 20% of patients who have brain lesions will
meet Barkhof criteria for MS.17 In common practice across multiple
centers, classic MS brain lesions (eg, Dawson’s fingers or
subcortical u-fiber lesions) appear useful in distinguishing MS
from NMOSD and MOG antibody-associated disease.23,24 The
sensitivity and specificity of lesions for distinguishing between
MS and NMOSD at dis-ease onset was 79.8% and 87.5%, respectively in
a study.24
Optical Coherence Tomography. Widely used to characterize
structural injury to the retina in demyelinating diseases
(par-ticularly MS), optical coherence tomography (OCT) has shown
that ON episodes in patients with NMOSD cause a greater degree of
retinal damage than in patients with MS (Figure 2).25
Studies with OCT have also demonstrated that retinal damage in
NMOSD can occur independently of ON attacks, raising the
possibility that neurodegeneration may contribute to disabil-ity,
in addition to the relapse-driven disability most commonly
attributed to AQP4+ NMOSD.25,26
TreatmentTreatment of Acute Relapses
Because most disability in NMOSD accumulates as a direct
consequence of relapses that typically leave substantial residual
disability, a relapse can be considered an emergency, calling for
prompt neurologic examination and evaluation for occult infection
to identify pseudorelapses. Vision loss may be the only early
predictor of true relapse.27 Emergent spinal MRI may be necessary
for patients with new or changing symptoms and a prior episode of
myelitis, particularly when signs and symp-toms are not clearly
localizable to a new lesion. High clinical
Figure 1. A: Axial fluid-attenuated inversion recovery (FLAIR)
MRI of a patient with AQP4+ NMOSD and area postrema syndrome
demonstrating T2 hyperintensity in the dorsal medulla (image
courtesy of Dr. Divyanshu Dubey). B: Axial FLAIR MRI from a
patient
with AQP4+ NMOSD demonstrating an “arch bridge” lesion in the
splenium of the corpus callosum (arrow; Image courtesy of Dr.
Carlos Sollero). C: Coronal T1 postgadolinium MRI in a patient
with AQP4+ NMOSD demonstrating an enhancing linear brainstem
lesion in the right cerebral peduncle. D: Sagittal FLAIR MRI
from a patient with AQP4+ NMOSD demonstrating a marbled lesion
in
the corpus callosum following the ependymal lining (arrow). E:
Cervical spine sagittal STIR MRI of a patient with AQP4+ NMOSD
with
longitudinally extensive myelitis including F: an area of
contrast enhancement on T1 MRI post-gadolinium.
A
C
B E F
D
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suspicion, aggressive acute treatment, and prompt initiation of
preventative immunotherapy are critical.
Given our understanding of the pathophysiology of NMOSD, our
practice is to administer intravenous methyl-prednisolone (IVMP)
and plasma exchange (PLEX) as first-line acute therapy as quickly
as possible for most patients with NMOSD when the clinical
presentation is consistent with an exacerbation, especially those
with AQP4+ NMOSD.
Corticosteroids. Acute exacerbations of NMOSD are initially
treated with IVMP, typically 1 g daily for 3 to 5 days. Some
cli-nicians include an oral prednisone taper starting at up to 1 mg
per kg per day (usually 15-30 mg/day) and decreasing gradu-ally
over several weeks depending on individual factors such as timing
of disease modifying therapy, patient comorbidities, and tolerance
of oral glucocorticoids. Long-term oral gluco-corticoids are
associated with significant toxicity and are often avoided in favor
of steroid-sparing immunotherapy.
Apheresis therapy (plasma exchange or immunoadsorption). Because
antibodies to AQP4 activate the complement cascade leading to
demyelination and necrosis with loss of astrocytes, axons, and
oligodendrocytes, many clinicians, including the
authors, advocate for early PLEX rather than using it only as a
rescue therapy for patients who are not improving with IVMP. A
retrospective study demonstrated improved outcomes when patients
were treated with PLEX early in the course of an exacerbation.28
Probability of complete recovery decreased from 50% with PLEX
immediately (day 0), to 1% to 5% after day 20, emphasizing the
importance of early treatment. In another study, 51% of patients
treated with IVMP and PLEX at day 5 after presentation recovered to
prerelapse Expanded Disability Status Scale (EDSS) baseline
compared with only 16.6% of patients who received IVMP only.29
Retrospective analysis of 871 patients having NMOSD attacks found
the addition of PLEX to IVMP improved responder rates and that
first-line PLEX was superior to IVMP for myelitis.30 Immediate
initiation of apheresis (within 2 days of symptom onset) was
associated with a 40% rate of complete response compared with 3.2%
when started at 6 days after symptom onset, again emphasizing the
importance of early PLEX.31 Strong predictors of a complete
response were the use of apheresis as first-line therapy, time from
onset of attack to start of therapy in days, presence of antibodies
to AQP4, and monofocal attack. There was no significant difference
between PLEX and immunoad-sorption.
Intravenous Immunoglobulins. Data on the use of intrave-nous
immunoglobulin (IVIG) in patients with NMO relapses remain limited,
although small studies suggest that IVIG may be effective in
preventing relapses.32,33
Relapse Prevention We recommend prompt initiation of long-term
immu-
nosuppression once a diagnosis of NMOSD is made.34 No randomized
clinical trial investigating preventative therapy in NMOSD has had
final results published to date, there-fore treatment is based on
open-label prospective and retrospective studies. Given the
available data, we prefer rituximab (RTX) for most patients with
NMOSD. If there are contraindications to RTX, we typically use
mycopheno-late mofetil (MMF).
To date, the best-studied immunotherapies for NMOSD include RTX,
MMF, and azathioprine (AZA). Treatment with RTX or MMF, and to a
lesser degree, AZA, is associated with a decrease in relapse rates
in patients with NMOSD; retro-spective studies suggest that relapse
risk is significantly higher with AZA compared with MMF or
RTX.35,36 Treatment with RTX decreased relapse rate by up to 88%,
with 2 of 3 patients achieving complete remission during a 10-year
study period, whereas MMF reduced relapse rates by 87.4% with a 36%
failure rate and AZA reduced relapse rates by 72% with a 53%
failure rate even when used concurrently with prednisone.35 A
retrospective review of 116 patients found predictors of poor
response to AZA or MMF included pretreatment history of severe
attack and younger age. Among 40 patients with a poor
Figure 2. A: Axial T1 fat-saturated post-gadolinium MRI in a
patient with AQP4+ NMOSD demonstrates bilateral optic
neuritis
over more than 50% of the optic nerves (arrows). B: Optical
coherence tomography taken 1 year after bilateral optic
neuritis
demonstrates thinning of the right and left retinal nerve
fiber
layers (right 62 µm, left 54 µm; normal thickness on OCT is
more
than 80 µm; OCT images contributed by Dr. Sara Qureshi).
A
B
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response to oral agents, 29 were changed to RTX, and among
those, only 10% had a poor response to RTX.37
Adequate RTX dose is important in order to maintain remis-sion.
Although the optimal dosing regimen has yet to be deter-mined, we
agree with dosing protocols tailored to an individ-ual’s rate of
immune reconstitution. A target B-cell (CD19+ and CD20+) count less
than 0.05% of total lymphocytes in the first 2 years and less than
0.1% thereafter can be consid-ered.38 Some practices are monitoring
the number of CD27+ cells in isolation as there is evidence that
these are a marker for the return of disease activity.39 Because
RTX can produce hypogammaglobulinemia which may be associated with
sig-nificant infections, we monitor immunoglobulin levels prior to
initiation and maintenance doses of RTX.40 Patients must also be
counseled regarding the risk of infusion reactions and infections.
No studies of ocrelizumab (an anti-CD20 monoclonal antibody
approved for treating relapsing and primary progressive MS) for
NMOSD have been reported.
Breakthrough Disease If a relapse is confirmed while on
immunotherapy,
it is important to determine if the medication is being
optimally dosed. For RTX, B-cell reconstitution should be
investigated and dosing adjusted to optimize sup-pression of memory
B cells. Based on clinical experience, we consider PLEX just prior
to RTX infusions for patients with appropriately suppressed memory
B cells who have a breakthrough relapse. Ongoing clinical trials
will likely pro-vide additional options for such patients. For
patients on MMF, the lymphocyte count can be targeted to less than
1,500 per mcL and dose increased up to the maximum dose of 3 g per
day if necessary.
Treatment During PregnancyRisks of withholding acute treatment,
including irreversible
paralysis and blindness for the mother must be weighed
care-fully against risks of treating relapses during pregnancy.
Lower infant head circumference and birth weight have been
report-ed with corticosteroid exposure during pregnancy. Although
historical data suggested corticosteroid exposure increased risks
of cleft lip or palate, more recent studies have not repro-duced
this and suggest that the risk, if any, is very small.41 Plasma
exchange has been administered safely for pregnant women with NMOSD
relapse at various gestational stages.15
For preventative therapy, methotrexate and cyclophos-phamide are
contraindicated during pregnancy, whereas AZA and RTX appear to
have better safety profiles.15 Although listed by the Food and Drug
Administration (FDA) as pregnancy class D, in 3,124 women exposed
to AZA during pregnancy, there was no increased risk of preterm
birth, low birth weight, miscarriage, birth defects, major
congenital malformations or neoplasia compared
with that seen in unexposed mothers.15 Although RTX crosses the
placenta after gestational weeks 16 to 20 and depletes fetal B
cells, miscarriage and congenital malforma-tion rates in children
exposed prenatally are similar to that seen in the general
population and B-cell depletion was associated with serious
infection in only 1 of 153 offspring in a study.42 Given the
relative safety of RTX, patients can be treated with RTX well
before planned conception (eg, a few months) and again in the early
postpartum period. Monthly IVIG has also been used, although there
is less data regarding efficacy.32,33
Treatment in ChildrenTreatment of pediatric NMOSD is largely
similar to treat-
ment in adults,43 although pediatric patients treated with RTX
often require more frequent dosing as their B cells tend to
reconstitute more rapidly than in adults.
Medications to Avoid in NMOSDSeveral studies have suggested
inefficacy or worsening of
NMOSD associated with the use of some disease modifying agents
used to treat MS, including interferon β,44 natali-zumab,45 and
fingolimod.46 Therefore, we avoid these agents for NMOSD.
Future DirectionsSince 2014, clinical trials for several agents
with potential to
treat patients with NMOSD have been launched, including
tocilizumab, satralizumab, eculizumab, and inebilizumab.47
TocilizumabTwo open-label trials of tocilizumab, an
interleukin-6
(IL-6) receptor antagonist, demonstrated a reduction in relapse
rates in patients with AQP4+ NMOSD as adjunctive treatment or
monotherapy.48,49 In one of these, 7 patients had an ARR reduction
from 2.9 (despite background immu-notherapy, including AZA or
corticosteroids) to 0.4 with the addition of tocilizumab.49 In the
other, 8 patients who were refractory to RTX treatment had an ARR
reduction from 4.0 to 0.4 after treatment with tocilizumab.48 There
was significant reduction in neuropathic pain for patients who
received tocilizumab in both studies.
Satralizumab Based on the success of tocilizumab, which requires
dos-
ing every 1-2 weeks, satralizumab (SA237) was developed. It is a
humanized recycling monoclonal antibody targeting the IL-6 receptor
with extended dosing frequency of once per month or longer.
Preliminary results from a randomized, international, double blind
phase 3 trial of satralizumab as adjunctive therapy showed
satralizumab reduced the risk of relapse by 62% in patients with
NMOSD (n = 83); those who
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were AQP4+ (n = 53) had a 79% risk reduction and who were AQP4-
(n = 30) had a 34% risk reduction.50
EculizumabEculizumab is a monoclonal antibody that inhibits
activation of C5 complement protein, thereby disrupt-ing the
complement cascade. In an open-label pilot study, 12 of 14 patients
with AQP4+ NMOSD (6 who had failed prior immunotherapy) had no
attacks and 2 had possible minor single attacks while being treated
with eculizumab for 48 weeks. After the trial, when returned to
alternative immunotherapy (AZA, RTX, MMF, or prednisone), 5 had a
relapse in the subsequent year. Hemolytic complement activity
dropped from a mean of 88.5% to 0.4% after 6 weeks of treatment and
remained suppressed during the study.51
An open-label phase 3 double-blind placebo-controlled randomized
trial of eculizumab in patients with AQP4+ NMOSD that permits
patients to remain on certain back-ground immunosuppressants to
attenuate the placebo risk is ongoing. Eculizumab shows great
promise, including in treatment-resistant NMOSD. However, use is
associated with increased risk of infection by encapsulated
bacte-ria that includes more than a 1,000-fold increased risk of
meningococcal disease.52
InebilizumabInebilizumab (MEDI551) is a humanized monoclonal
anti-
body against CD19 that targets B cells, B-cell precursors, and
plasmablasts. The rationale for the considering inebilizumab is
based on observations with RTX. Inebilizumab is currently being
studied in a phase 3 clinical trial during which patients are
randomized in a 3:1 ratio (inebilizumab to placebo) and those
assigned placebo are transitioned to an open-label phase after 6.5
months. In results from the N-MOmentuma trial announced via press
release, inebilizumab treatment of patients with NMOSD reduced the
risk of relapse by 77% compared with treatment with placebo.
Primary and second-ary endpoints of the trial were reportedly
achieved.
Other Investigational DrugsAn open-label phase 1b trial of a
C1-esterase inhibitor
added to IVMP for patients with NMO/NMOSD relapses demonstrated
safety and preliminary evidence for improved outcomes.53 Bortezomib
is a proteasome inhibitor that depletes plasma cells and was given
as adjunctive therapy to 5 patients with AQP4+ NMOSD who were not
respon-sive to standard therapy. Clinical stability was seen in 5
of 5 patients and 80% of patients achieve relapse-free status.54 In
an open-label prospective pilot study of 16 patients with AQP4+
NMOSD, oral cetirizine (10 mg) daily added to cur-rent
immunotherapy was well-tolerated and associated with a marginal but
significant reduction in ARR.55
Conclusions The diagnostic criteria for NMOSD were updated in
2015
and account for both patients who are AQP4 seropositive and
seronegative. Treatment recommendations have been largely based on
retrospective studies and expert clini-cal experience with data
supporting RTX, MMF, or AZA. Ongoing clinical trials may offer more
evidence for using new therapies in the near future. It is critical
that neurolo-gists encountering patients with suspected
demyelinating disorders consider NMOSD in the differential
diagnosis, thereby avoiding delays in recognition and treatment.
n
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Michael J. Bradshaw, MDAssistant Professor of NeurologyMultiple
Sclerosis and Autoimmune Neurology Chicago Medical SchoolRosalind
Franklin University of Medicine and ScienceBillings ClinicBillings,
MT
Dorlan Kimbrough, MDDepartment of NeurologyBrigham and Women’s
Hospital Boston, MA
DisclosuresMJB serves on the editorial board of Continuum:
Lifelong Learning in Neurology. The authors have no financial
relationships relevant to this content to disclose.
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