Cleft sentences in the history of French and English Cleft sentences in the history of French and English: A critical review of compensation and contact theories Achim Stein Carola Trips [email protected][email protected]Going Romance, Leuven, December 8, 2012 1
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Cleft sentences in the history of French and English
Cleft sentences in the history of French andEnglish:
A critical review of compensation and contacttheories
Cleft sentences in the history of French and English
Contents
Introduction
The development of French cleftsAmbiguityTypes of cleftsCorpus studies
Language contactThe historical backgroundClefts in the language contact situationZooming out: predicative constructions
Conclusion
2
Cleft sentences in the history of French and English
Introduction
Corpora and periods
I Syntactically annotated corpora:I MCVF (Martineau, 2009) for Old and Middle French (OF, MF).
Modéliser le changement: les voies du français (Ottawa)I SRCMF (Prévost and Stein, 2012) for Old French (OF)
Syntactic Reference Corpus of Medieval French (Stuttgart/Lyon)I YCOE (Taylor et al., 2003) for Old English (OE)
The York-Toronto-Helsinki Parsed Corpus of Old English ProseI PPCME2 (Kroch and Taylor, 2000) for Middle English (ME)
The Penn-Helsinki Parsed Corpus of Middle English
English time span French time spanOE up until 1150ME-m1 1150-1250 OF 842–ca.1320ME-m2 1250-1350ME-m3 1350-1420 MF ca.1320–1500ME-m4 1420-1500
3
Cleft sentences in the history of French and English
Introduction
A definition of cleft constructions
DefinitionA CLEFT CONSTRUCTION (CC) is a complex sentencestructure consisting of a matrix clause headed by a copulaand a relative or relative-like clause whose relativized argu-ment is coindexed with the predicative argument of the cop-ula. Taken together, the matrix and the relative express alogically simple proposition, which can also be expressed inthe form of a single clause without a change in truth condi-tions.(Lambrecht, 2001, 467)
4
Cleft sentences in the history of French and English
The development of French clefts
Ambiguity
Ambiguity in Modern French
I In written French (modern and medieval), cleft constructions areambiguous (Prévost, 2009, 3):
(1) C’estis it
PaulPaul
quiwho
esthas
tombé?fallen?
Nonno
c’estthis is
LucLuc
quiwho
esthas
tombé.fallen.
(2) Qu’est-cewhat is it
quithat
seREFL
passe?happens?
C’estthis is
LucLuc
quiwho
esthas
tombé.fallen.
I Only (1) is a focus as defined by Rooth (1985):I The focus on Luc indicates possible alternatives (hence the con-
trastive reading)I Only Luc in (1) is prosodically marked (by an H* accent).
⇒ Still more problematic is the interpretation in Medieval French.
5
Cleft sentences in the history of French and English
The development of French clefts
Ambiguity
Controversial opinions about the development
1. Marchello-Nizia (1999) and Combettes (1999):I starting in the 13c., favoured by the loss of V2I accelerating in the 14c.
2. Bouchard et al. (2007):I clefts appear as early as the 12c.
but: ce is more often predicate than subject.
I Many Latin constructions were ambiguous between determina-tive and cleft constructions (Löfstedt, 1966, 263): determinativephrases were the origin of cleft constructions.
(3) nonnot
egoI
sum,am
quiwho
teyou.ACC
dudumrecently
conduxihired
(Plaut. Merc. 758) a. I am
not the one who. . . [cf. non ego is sum]b. It is not me who. . .
6
Cleft sentences in the history of French and English
The development of French clefts
Types of clefts
Types of clefts
1. Stressed-focus clefts (Prince, 1978)I the prototypical CCsI classified as “unmarked” by Collins (1991, 111)
2. The status of the “marked” (ibid) cases is more controversialI This is due to variation
I of the form, e.g. pronouns other than English it or French ce;I of the information structure, e.g. XP is not focus
7
Cleft sentences in the history of French and English
The development of French clefts
Types of clefts
Types of clefts
Type 1 in PDE:Subject Verb XP subordinate clauseexpletive / nulldemonstrativeanaphoric
’be’’have’
argumentnon-argumentfocustopic
relativeadverbialnewgiven
(4) Thankfully, it is not the politicians who can lay claim to the distinction ofhaving caused the greater loss of life. It is the earthquake that merits thisdubious honour. (Collins, 1991, 113)
8
Cleft sentences in the history of French and English
The development of French clefts
Types of clefts
Types of clefts
Type 1 in OF: stressed focus on subjectSubject Verb XP subordinate clauseexpletive / nulldemonstrativeanaphoric
’be’’have’
argumentnon-argumentfocustopic
relativeadverbialnewgiven
(5) “Beausbeautiful
fiz,son
fetsays
ele,she
avezhave-[you]
oïheard
//Cumhow
DeusGod
nusus
adhas
menezguided
ici?here?
//C’estthis is
vostreyour
perefather
kiwho
cihere
gistlies
//Quewhich
cistthis
villarzvillain
ahas
tortwrongly
ocist.killed
(MARIEF_LAIS,.2411-2, MCVF, ca. 1165)
I Focus elements (31% of the CP-CLF annotations in MCVF):I subjects and adverbials since 12c., objects since 15c.
9
Cleft sentences in the history of French and English
The development of French clefts
Types of clefts
Types of clefts
Type 1 in OF: stressed focus on indirect objectSubject Verb XP subordinate clauseexpletive / nulldemonstrativeanaphoric
’be’’have’
argumentnon-argumentfocustopic
relativeadverbialnewgiven
(6) CeThis
n’estnot is
pasNEG
atotoy,you,
ditsays
elleshe
aussi,also,
quethat
defirst
prinsaultof all
cethis
doulxsweet
messagemessage
s’REFL
adresse,addresses,
combienhow much
qu’that
ilitteyou
toucheCONJ-touch
beaucoup.much
(CNN,99.2004, MCVF, ca. 1450)
I A clear case of contrastive focus.I First occurrences of direct and indirect object foci in Cent nou-
velles nouvelles, ca. 1450.10
Cleft sentences in the history of French and English
The development of French clefts
Types of clefts
Types of clefts
Type 1 in OF: stressed focus on adverbialSubject Verb XP subordinate clauseexpletive / nulldemonstrativeanaphoric
’be’’have’
argumentnon-argumentfocustopic
relativeadverbialnewgiven
(7) ParBy
Dieu,God,
faitsays
ele,she,
cethis
fuwas
parby
poorfear
deof
mortdeath
quethat
jeI
m’RFL
enof-it
afoïfled
çahere
(QUESTE,80.2824)
I Problematic: function of the subordinate clauseI adverbial or relative modifying ce (Muller, 2003)
11
Cleft sentences in the history of French and English
The development of French clefts
Types of clefts
Types of clefts
Type 2 in PDE:Subject Verb XP subordinate clauseexpletive / nulldemonstrativeanaphoric
’be’’have’
argumentnon-argumentfocustopic
relativeadverbialnewgiven
(8) Another city to suffer the terrible vicissitudes of fortune in 1985 was Mex-ico City. It was here that an earthquake of unrivalled intensity struckduring the month of September. (Collins, 1991, 114)
I Prince (1978): “informative-presupposition cleft”
12
Cleft sentences in the history of French and English
The development of French clefts
Types of clefts
Types of clefts
Type 2 in OF: (anaphoric)Subject Verb XP subordinate clauseexpletive / nulldemonstrativeanaphoric
’be’’have’
argumentnon-argumentfocustopic
relativeadverbialnewgiven
(9) CesThese
nouvellesnews
vinrentcame
atolathe
roinequeen
etand
atomessiresir
JehanJohn
deof
HainnauHainnau
quethat
lithe
roisking
etand
lithe
EspensiersEspensiers
estoientwere
priscaught
,,etand
quethat
cethis
estoientwere
chilthose
quiwho
waucroienterred
parover
mersea
enin
lathe
bargeship
.
(FROISSART,89.1085)
I Such clear anaphoric cases mostly don’t have a cleft tag (CP-CLF) in the MCVF corpus (but: no clear criteria)
13
Cleft sentences in the history of French and English
The development of French clefts
Types of clefts
Types of clefts
Type 3 in PDE:Subject Verb XP subordinate clauseexpletive / nulldemonstrativeanaphoric
’be’’have’
argumentnon-argumentfocustopic
relativeadverbialnewgiven
(10) It was in mid-September that a natural disaster of unrivalled intensitystruck the capital city of Mexico. Thousands of people were killed andlarge sections of the city reduced to rubble. (Collins, 1991, 114)
14
Cleft sentences in the history of French and English
The development of French clefts
Types of clefts
Types of clefts
Type 2 or 3 in OF: anaphoric or all focusSubject Verb XP subordinate clauseexpletive / nulldemonstrativeanaphoric
’be’’have’
argumentnon-argumentfocustopic
relativeadverbialnewgiven
(11) Si acoillirent leur chemin tuit troi ensemble, si ont tant chevauchié qu’ilvindrent vers le chastel as puceles,‘They started their journey, they rode so far that they arrived at Pucelles castle.’
etand
cethis
fuwas
celuithat
jorday
meïsmessame
quethat
lithe
chastiauxcastle
fuwas
conquisconquered
(QUESTE,53.1893)
I subordinate = focus, cleft = ambiguous
15
Cleft sentences in the history of French and English
I Our analysis of cleft-tagged constructions(CP-CLF*) in the MCVFcorpus (Martineau, 2009)indicate
I a decrease between1100 and 1500
I an increase in the 15c
I These frequencies differfrom Dufter’s, who con-sidered surface structures(dem.pronoun + être +XP + rel.pronoun)
16
Cleft sentences in the history of French and English
The development of French clefts
Corpus studies
Frequencies in Dufter (2008)
Figure : Diachronic variation of OF clefts (Dufter 2008, 46)
I Dufter’s explanation:I increase in the 13cI decrease in the 14c due to the dominance of chronicles in the
BFM corpus⇒ a clear increase of clefts occurs rather late (from ca. 1600 on)? How do we reconcile these results?
17
Cleft sentences in the history of French and English
The development of French clefts
Corpus studies
A solution for the empirical problemI The CP-CLF annotation in the Penn corpora reflects a difficult
and therefore not always reliable interpretation of the data.I Dufter (2008) distinguishes types of clefts, but his overall fre-
quencies are based on surface structures alone.I But Dufter claims with respect to type 2 clefts that
I they do not occur before 1550 [our findings contradict this]I they are responsible for the increase of clefts in modern periods
I In historical texts, we must zoom out beyond the CP-CLF tag:I on predicative constructions with a relative clause which is not
CP-CLF tagged:I (subject) + copula verb + predicative + relative clauseI where subject is a pronoun or empty
I (We abbreviate PRED+REL in some of the tables.)
18
Cleft sentences in the history of French and English
Language contact
Contents
Introduction
The development of French cleftsAmbiguityTypes of cleftsCorpus studies
Language contactThe historical backgroundClefts in the language contact situationZooming out: predicative constructions
Conclusion
19
Cleft sentences in the history of French and English
Language contact
The historical background
Norman Conquest: Multilingualism since 1066
I Intense language contact situation from 1066-1500I Massive lexical borrowing (widely assumed), structural borrowing
(neglected for a long time, addressed only recently)I Multilingual situation of post-Conquest medieval England (1066
to 15th c.):I Anglo-Latin (official language for a long time)I Anglo-French (gradually replaced Anglo-Latin)I Varieties of Middle English (mainly spoken)
20
Cleft sentences in the history of French and English
Language contact
The historical background
Multilingual discourse
Ingham (2009)
“. . . it is becoming clear that the relationship between Frenchand English in the later medieval period was more a matterof complementarity. The two languages represented, not dif-fering communities with opposed interests, but choices avail-able to those who possessed bilingual competence.” [p.80]“Thus, if English and French were both spoken languages inlater medieval England, bilinguals having command of bothmight reasonably be supposed to have mixed the two, tosome extent.” [p.86]
21
Cleft sentences in the history of French and English
Language contact
The historical background
Multilingual discourse
Sources of multilingualism:I glosses in dictionariesI didactic texts (discussed in Hunt 1991),
grammars of French (e.g. Palsgrave 1530)I macaronic texts (business writing, lay subsidy rolls, leases)
see the work by Wright (1995; 2003),Trotter (2000); Ingham (2010); Schendl and Wright (2011))
I direct translations:e.g. La somme le roi (1279) → Ayenbite of Inwyt (1340)Le roman de la rose (ca. 1270) → The romaunt of the rose (ca.1385)
22
Cleft sentences in the history of French and English
Language contact
The historical background
Code-switching in macaronic texts
I Latin-English(12) þou most supplante and forsake al maner vices, non ore set corde
(I.375-376)‘You must supplant and forsake every kind of vice, not just by wordbut in the heart.’
(sermon De celo querebant, MS Bodley 649)
I French-English(13) “O Thomas, je vous dy, Thomas! Thomas! This maketh the feend;
this moste ben amended.“ ‘Oh Thomas, I tell you, Thomas! Thomas! The fiend is doing this,that must be changed.” ’
(Canterbury Tales III.1832-1833)
23
Cleft sentences in the history of French and English
Language contact
Clefts in the language contact situation
Clefts: a language contact phenomenon?I Two candidates:
1. Informative presupposition it-cleft/Type 2 cleft(replication of Latin cleft) (→ Löfstedt 1966,Ball, 1991)
Subject Verb XP subordinate clauseexpletive / nulldemonstrativeanaphoric
’be’’have’
argumentnon-argumentfocustopic
relativeadverbialnewgiven
(14) þathen
wæswas
framfrom
CristesChrist’s
hidercymeadvent
hundteontighundred
&and
fiftigfifty
&and
sixsix
gear,year
þætthat
Marcus,Marcus
oþrefurther
namanname
Antonius,Antonius
sewho
wæswas
feowerteoþafourteenth
framfrom
AgustoAugustus
þamthe
casere,emperor
sehe
onfengreceived
RomwaraRoman
riceempire
midwith
AureliaAurelius
hishis
breðer.brother
(Bede_1:4.32.1.248)
24
Cleft sentences in the history of French and English
Language contact
Clefts in the language contact situation
Clefts: a language contact phenomenon?
I Two candidates:2. Pronoun it-cleft/Type 2 (replication of French cleft)→ (Ball, 1991, 1994a,b)
Subject Verb XP subordinate clauseexpletive / nulldemonstrativeanaphoric
’be’’have’
argumentnon-argumentfocustopic
relativeadverbialnewgiven
(15) ‘Hit was I,’ seyde Balyn, ‘that slew this knyght in my defendaunte;’“ ‘It was I”, said B., “that slew this knight in my defense.”
(MALORY,53.1762)
25
Cleft sentences in the history of French and English
Language contact
Clefts in the language contact situation
Latin influence on Old English (up until 1150)
I 89 cleft constructions in the YCOEI Most frequent in Latin based texts
I 47 (‘time clefts’) in the Ecclesiastical History of the English Peo-ple by Bede (731)
I 8 (introduced by causal adv.) in the Cura Pastoralis by Alfred theGreat (9th century)
(16) Forfor
ðæmthat-reason
wæswas
eacalso
ðættethat
SanctusS.
PetrusPeter
ærestfirst
towearpdestroyed
ðætthat
ðætthat
hehe
eftafterwards
timbrede.timbered.
(CP:58.443.2.3158)
Latin structure: hinc est quod Petrus prius evertit, ut postmodum construat
26
Cleft sentences in the history of French and English
Language contact
Clefts in the language contact situation
French influence on Middle English (1066-1500)
I 92 cleft constructions in the PPCME2I 24 (26%) pronoun it-clefts in M3, M4 (1350-1500)I Most frequent in Latin or French based texts
(17) ofte‘Many
tymestimes
oureour
lordelord
IhesuJesus
saydesaid
toto
me,me,
“II
ititamam
thatthat
isishiaste.”highest.”
(JULNOR,59.256)
27
Cleft sentences in the history of French and English
Language contact
Clefts in the language contact situation
French influence on Middle English (1066-1500)
Pronoun it-clefts in METext Tokens OriginM3 (1350-1420)Julian of Norwich’s Revelations of Divine Love 10 likelyThe New Testament (Wycliffite) 2 LatinPurvey’s General Prologue to the Bible 1 LatinEnglish Wycliffite sermons 1 LatinM4 (1420-1500)Aelred of Rivaulx’s De Institutione Inclusarum 2 FrenchCapgrave’s Chronicle 2 LatinMalory’s Morte Darthur 6 French
28
Cleft sentences in the history of French and English
Language contact
Zooming out: predicative constructions
Zooming out: predicative constructionsI An analysis non-CLF-tagged predicatives with relative clauses
(PRED+REL) in the YCOE and PPCME3 corpora showed thatI PRED+RELs had a significant frequency peak in the first ME
period M1I decreased steadily through M2-M3-M4
Figure : Diachronic variation of OE/ME PRED+REL vs clefts29
Cleft sentences in the history of French and English
Language contact
Zooming out: predicative constructions
Zooming out: predicative constructions
I The standard deviation of the average relative frequency ofPRED+RELI higher in ME texts: ø 0.78% ±0.98%)I lower in OF (ø 0.26% ±0.26%)
Possible interpretation of the PRED+REL figures:I In both medieval French and English predicative structures were
frequent, regardless of their IS status.I The high relative frequencies in ME are caused by a limited
number of texts.I These texts have a close relation to French texts, e.g. i.e. Ayen-
bite translated from the Somme le roi
30
Cleft sentences in the history of French and English
Language contact
Zooming out: predicative constructions
Language contact
Figure : ME predicatives with relative clause: rel. frequencies per text31
Cleft sentences in the history of French and English
Language contact
Zooming out: predicative constructions
Language contact
Predicatives with relative clause in METext fabs frel OriginM1 (1150-1250)St. Juliana 18 0.031690 LatinM2 (1250-1350)Ayenbite of Inwyt 97 0.035183 FrenchM3 (1350-1420)Dan Jon Gaytryge’s sermon 10 0.050251 LatinThe Book of Vices and Virtues 15 0.041209 French
32
Cleft sentences in the history of French and English
Language contact
Zooming out: predicative constructions
Language contact
(18) a. þet oþer heaued of þe kueade beste: is enuie. þet is þe eddre / þet al/ enuenymeþ. (AYENBI,26.408)
b. Li seconz chiés de la beste d’enfer est envie: c’est li serpenz qui en-venime tout. (SOMME-ch33-par2)‘The second head of the evil beast is envy. That is the adder that allpoisons.’
(19) a. þanne he becomþribaud. holyer. and þyef and þanne me hine an-hongeþ. þis is þet scot: þet me ofte payþ. (AYENBI,51.907-9)
b. puis devient ribauz et houliers et lerres, et puis le pent on. C’estl’escot que il en paie sovent. (SOMME-ch38-par28)‘Then he became bawdy and lecherous and a thief and then man himcrucified. This is that price that man often pays.’
33
Cleft sentences in the history of French and English
Language contact
Zooming out: predicative constructions
Chaucer’s translation of Le Roman de la Rose
34
Cleft sentences in the history of French and English
Conclusion
Conclusion
1. PRED+REL and cleft constructions already existed in OE.2. The sharp increase of PRED+REL in ME could be due to French
influence.I PRED+REL could be interpreted as type 2 cleftsI PRED+REL could also explain the rise of pronominal type 2 clefts
3. Acceleration of a syntactic form + functional reinterpretationdue to intense language contact
“Pragmatic borrowing” (Prince, 1988, 505):
(i) a syntactic form S2 in L2 may be construed by speakers as’analogous’ to a syntactic form S1 in L1, and
(ii) the discourse functions of S1 in L1 may then be borrowed intoL2 and associated with S2.
35
Cleft sentences in the history of French and English
References
Ball, C. N. (1991). The historical development of the it-cleft. PhD thesis, University of Pennsylvania,Philadelphia.
Ball, C. N. (1994a). The origins of the informative-presupposition it-cleft. Journal of Pragmatics,22:603–628.
Ball, C. N. (1994b). Relative pronouns in it-clefts: The last seven centuries. Language Variation andChange, 6:179–200.
Bouchard, J., Dupuis, F., and Dufresne, M. (2007). Un processus de focalisation en ancien français: ledéveloppement des clivées. In Actes du congrès annuel de l’Association canadienne de linguistique2007. Proceedings of the 2007 annual conference of the Canadian Linguistic Association.
Chaucer, G., Dahlberg, C., and Ruggiers, P. G. (1999). The romaunt of the rose, volume Vol. 7 of Avariorum edition of the works of Geoffrey Chaucer. Univ. of Oklahoma Press, Norman.
Collins, P. (1991). Cleft and pseudo-cleft constructions in English. Routledge, London, New York.Combettes, B. (1999). Thématisation et topicalisation: leur rôle respectif dans l’évolution du français.
In Guimier, C., editor, La thématisation dans les langues. Actes du colloque de Caen, 9-11 octobre1997, pages 231–245. Peter Lang, Paris.
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Ingham, R. (2009). Mixing languages on the manor. Medium Aevum, 78(1):107–124.Ingham, R., editor (2010). The Anglo-Norman Language and its Contexts. Boydell and Brewer.Kroch, A. and Taylor, A., editors (2000). The Penn-Helsinki Parsed Corpus of Middle English, Second
Edition (PPCME2). University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia.Lambrecht, K. (2001). A framework for the analysis of cleft constructions. Linguistics, (39):463–516.Laurent, F. (2008). La Somme le roi. Société des anciens textes français, Paillart, Paris, Abbeville.Löfstedt, B. (1966). Die konstruktion ’c’est lui qui l’a fait’ im lateinischen. Indogermanische
Forschungen, 71:253–277.36
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Marchello-Nizia, C. (1999). Le français en diachronie: douze siècles d’évolution. Collection L’essentielfrançais. Ophrys, Paris.
Martineau, F., editor (2009). Le corpus MCVF. Modéliser le changement: les voies du français.Université d’Ottawa, Ottawa.
Morris, R., editor (1866). Dan Michel’s Ayenbite of Inwyt or Remorse of Conscience, volume I of TheEarly English Text Society 23. N. Trübner und Co., London.
Muller, C. (2003). Naissance et évolution des constructions clivées en c’est... que... : de la focalisationsur l’objet concret à la focalisation fonctionnelle. In Blumenthal, P. and Tyvaert, J.-E., editors, Lacognition dans le temps. Études cognitives dans le champ historique des langues et des textes, pages101–120. Niemeyer, Tübingen.
Prince, E. (1978). A comparison of wh-clefts and it-clefts in discourse. Language, 54:883–906.Prince, E. (1988). On pragmatic change: the borrowing of discourse functions. Journal of Pragmatics,
12:505–518.Prévost, S. (2009). Topicalisation, focalisation et constructions syntaxiques en français médiéval : des
relations complexes. In D. Apothéloz, B. C. e. F. N., editor, Les linguistiques du détachement, actesdu colloque international de Nancy, pages 427–439. Peter Lang, Bern.
Prévost, S. and Stein, A., editors (2012). Syntactic Reference Corpus of Medieval French. ENS deLyon/Universität Stuttgart, Lyon/Stuttgart.
Rooth, M. (1985). Association with Focus. PhD Thesis, UMass, Amherst.Schendl, H. and Wright, L., editors (2011). Code-switching in early English. Mouton de Gruyter, Berlin.Taylor, A. et al. (2003). The York-Toronto-Helsinki Parsed Corpus of Old English Prose (YCOE).
University of York, Heslington, York.Trotter, D., editor (2000). Multilingualism in Later Medieval Britain. D.S. Brewer, Cambridge.Wright, L. (1995). A hypothesis on the structure of macaronic business writing. In Fisiak, J., editor,
Medieval Dialectology, number 79 in Trends in Linguistics Studies and Monographs, pages 309–321.Mouton de Gruyter, Berlin.
Wright, L. (2003). Models of language mixing: Code-switching versus semicommunication in medievallatin and middle english accounts. In Kastovsky, D. and Mettinger, A., editors, Language contact inthe history of English, volume 1 of Studies in English Medieval Language and Literature, pages363–377. Peter Lang, Frankfurt/Main.
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Cleft sentences in the history of French and English
OF tagged clefts vs PRED+REL in MCVF
Figure : OF tagged clefts vs PRED+REL in MCVF
38
Cleft sentences in the history of French and English
OF tagged clefts vs PRED+REL in MCVF
Figure : OF tagged clefts vs PRED+REL in MCVF per text