Classical Europe The Mediterranean world of approximately 2000 BCE to AD 500 produced brilliant civilizations in Greece and Italy. Greek civilization took shape in many individual city-states. Although the military might of Greece was small compared to later empires, Greek culture produced a golden age of innovation in architecture, sculpture, poetry, drama, philosophy, science and government that set a standard for later civilizations. The conquests of Alexander the Great spread Greek culture throughout Southwest Asia. To the west of Greece, another great civilization grew up in Italy. The Roman republic and empire would develop new methods of government to represent the people, tie together far-flung provinces, and amass wealth many times greater the Greece’s. Yet Rome’s writers acknowledged the Greeks’ enduring impact. Ancient Greece (2000 BCE – 323 BC) Ancient Greece was a small region with few resources and limited political power. Yet, for about 600 years, between about 750 BCE and 150 BCE, the people of this area on the Aegean Sea produced poetry, art, entertainment, ideas and forms of government that continue to influence the way we think, live and govern ourselves today. Greece has a long coastline, dotted with bays and inlets and with many islands. Some writers have said that the Greeks did not live on a land but around a sea. Sea travel and trade were important to the Greeks because their homeland was poor in resources. Because of its mountainous terrain (see below), travel from one section of Greece to another was difficult, therefore, the Greeks developed independent, self-sufficient communities. The mild Mediterranean climate of Greece encouraged outdoor activities. Greek men spent much of their time in the marketplace, or agora, and the gymnasium, discussing current events and politics. The mild climate also encouraged outdoor religious and civic celebrations and theatrical productions in outdoor amphitheaters. The earliest civilization to appear in Greece was that of the Minoans on the island of Crete. For unknown reasons that civilization ended abruptly. Around 2000 BC, during the Bronze Age, Greek-speaking peoples began to move into mainland Greece. These people are known as the Mycenaeans. Warrior kings, who lived in huge and luxurious fortresses, ruled over the common people. These kings obtained wealth through piracy and wars. The most famous war of the Mycenaeans was the Trojan War, named for Troy a seaport city in Asia Minor (modern day Turkey). Homer, a Greek poet, told stories of the Trojan War in long poems called epics. According to Homer, Greek armies attacked and destroyed Troy because a Trojan prince had abducted Helen, the beautiful wife of a Greek king. In his poems, The Iliad and The Odyssey, Homer celebrated the ideal of arête, which means to strive for excellence, to show courage, and to win honor. These values and this period have been labelled as the Heroic Age. Greek warriors had the chance to realize the ideal of arête through the Olympic games, an athletic event held in Olympia, a Greek sacred site, every four years. These games allowed young charioteers, boxers, wrestlers, runners and javelin throwers from all over Greece to compete with one another. Winners received a wreath of olive leaves, but the most important prize was fame and honor. The Olympic games were not just a chance for athletes to compete, however. Athletic games were also a form of homage to the gods. The twelve most powerful gods and goddesses of the Greeks were believed to live on Mount Olympus, the tallest mountain in Greece. The gods and goddesses had human characteristics. They loved, they hated, they became jealous, they quarreled, but they were also immortal and more powerful than human beings. The Greeks developed a rich set of myths and stories about their gods and goddesses. These myths helped explain the mysteries of nature, the origins of the world, and the power of human passions. Around 750 BCE, the city-states became the most important form of political organization in Greece. The Greek word for city-state, polis, is the root of our words politics, police, and policy. Citizens of the polis took part in debates on public issues. The kings of the Heroic Age were overthrown by small groups of noble families, who ruled as an aristocracy (which means rule by the “best”, in this case, the upper class/nobility). Under the aristocracy, the armies of the city-states grew larger. It became the duty of a citizen to serve in the army of his polis. These citizen soldiers were called hoplites. With their iron spears and shields, they stood side by side to form the most formidable fighting machine of their time, the phalanx. As farmers and artisans acquired weapons and military training, they then rose in revolt against the aristocracy. The citizen armies were led by men called tyrants, often nobles who feuded with other aristocrats. The tyrants strengthened many of the city-states by building forts, harbors and temples. Many tyrants tried to add to the wealth of their polis by founding colonies, or new
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Classical Europe The Mediterranean world of approximately 2000 BCE to AD 500
produced brilliant civilizations in Greece and Italy.
Greek civilization took shape in many individual city-states.
Although the military might of Greece was small compared to later
empires, Greek culture produced a golden age of innovation in
architecture, sculpture, poetry, drama, philosophy, science and
government that set a standard for later civilizations. The conquests
of Alexander the Great spread Greek culture throughout Southwest
Asia.
To the west of Greece, another great civilization grew up in Italy.
The Roman republic and empire would develop new methods of
government to represent the people, tie together far-flung
provinces, and amass wealth many times greater the Greece’s. Yet
Rome’s writers acknowledged the Greeks’ enduring impact.
Ancient Greece (2000 BCE – 323 BC)
Ancient Greece was a small region with few resources and limited
political power. Yet, for about 600 years, between about 750 BCE
and 150 BCE, the people of this area on the Aegean Sea produced
poetry, art, entertainment, ideas and forms of government that
continue to influence the way we think, live and govern ourselves
today.
Greece has a long coastline, dotted with bays and inlets and with
many islands. Some writers have said that the Greeks did not live on
a land but around a sea. Sea travel and trade were important to the
Greeks because their homeland was poor in resources. Because of
its mountainous terrain (see below), travel from one section of
Greece to another was difficult, therefore, the Greeks developed
independent, self-sufficient communities.
The mild Mediterranean climate of Greece encouraged outdoor
activities. Greek men spent much of their time in the marketplace,
or agora, and the gymnasium, discussing current events and politics.
The mild climate also encouraged outdoor religious and civic
celebrations and theatrical productions in outdoor amphitheaters.
The earliest civilization to appear in Greece was that of the Minoans
on the island of Crete. For unknown reasons that civilization ended
abruptly. Around 2000 BC, during the Bronze Age, Greek-speaking
peoples began to move into mainland Greece. These people are
known as the Mycenaeans. Warrior kings, who lived in huge and
luxurious fortresses, ruled over the common people. These kings
obtained wealth through piracy and wars.
The most famous war of the Mycenaeans was the Trojan War,
named for Troy a seaport city in Asia Minor (modern day Turkey).
Homer, a Greek poet, told stories of the Trojan War in long poems
called epics. According to Homer, Greek armies attacked and
destroyed Troy because a Trojan prince had abducted Helen, the
beautiful wife of a Greek king. In his poems, The Iliad and The
Odyssey, Homer celebrated the ideal of arête, which means to strive
for excellence, to show courage, and to win honor. These values and
this period have been labelled as the Heroic Age.
Greek warriors had the chance to realize the ideal of arête through
the Olympic games, an athletic event held in Olympia, a Greek
sacred site, every four years. These games allowed young
charioteers, boxers, wrestlers, runners and javelin throwers from all
over Greece to compete with one another. Winners received a
wreath of olive leaves, but the most important prize was fame and
honor. The Olympic games were not just a chance for athletes to
compete, however. Athletic games were also a form of homage to
the gods.
The twelve most powerful gods and goddesses of the Greeks were
believed to live on Mount Olympus, the tallest mountain in Greece.
The gods and goddesses had human characteristics. They loved,
they hated, they became jealous, they quarreled, but they were also
immortal and more powerful than human beings. The Greeks
developed a rich set of myths and stories about their gods and
goddesses. These myths helped explain the mysteries of nature, the
origins of the world, and the power of human passions.
Around 750 BCE, the city-states became the most important form of
political organization in Greece. The Greek word for city-state, polis,
is the root of our words politics, police, and policy. Citizens of the
polis took part in debates on public issues.
The kings of the Heroic Age were overthrown by small groups of
noble families, who ruled as an aristocracy (which means rule by the
“best”, in this case, the upper class/nobility). Under the aristocracy,
the armies of the city-states grew larger. It became the duty of a
citizen to serve in the army of his polis. These citizen soldiers were
called hoplites. With their iron spears and shields, they stood side
by side to form the most formidable fighting machine of their time,
the phalanx. As farmers and artisans acquired weapons and military
training, they then rose in revolt against the aristocracy.
The citizen armies were led by men called tyrants, often nobles who
feuded with other aristocrats. The tyrants strengthened many of
the city-states by building forts, harbors and temples. Many tyrants
tried to add to the wealth of their polis by founding colonies, or new
Classical Europe settlements that kept ties to their home city, in other parts of the
Mediterranean.
Two of the most powerful city-states, Sparta and Athens, had to deal
with serious conflicts caused by the gap between the rich and the
poor. These city-states developed very different forms of political
and social organization to resolve the conflicts. The Spartans
adopted a harsh set of laws that placed strength of the army before
all other values. The Spartans felt that they needed a strong army
because their polis depended on the labor of helots (workers who
were virtual slaves), who outnumbered the Spartans by eight to one.
In Athens, wealthy rulers and poor farmers also found themselves in
conflict. Athens, however, avoided civil war by reforming its
government. Athens created a democracy, a government in which
citizens took a direct part. Every male citizen was allowed to attend
the assembly, where questions of government were debated and
decided by vote.
The democracy of Athens provided the foundation for modern
democratic governments. However, only about one-fifth of the
people who lived in Athens were citizens who could participate.
Slaves, foreigners, and women – even the daughters and wives of
citizens – had no say in the government.
Both Athens and Sparta faced a common threat. In 490 BCE, the
Persians, who commanded a powerful empire to the east (centered
in modern-day Iran), attacked the Greeks. Despite their small
numbers, the Greek armies resisted the invaders, winning key
battles on land and on sea. All of Greece was involved in the war,
but the Athenians suffered the most. Athenian ships and soldiers
fought in every major battle against the Persians. Athens itself was
burned to ashes although its people survived.
After the war, the Greek city-states formed an alliance called the
Delian League. The purpose of the league was to provide a defense
against further Persian attacks. The Athenians, however, began to
use their navy to control the rest of the league. Soon the league was
not an alliance, but an empire controlled by Athens.
The man who did the most to turn war-torn Athens into the seat of a
brilliant civilization was Pericles. Pericles had a gift for public
speaking that appealed to every segment of the Athenian citizenry.
The period of his leadership (461 – 429 BCE) became known as the
Age of Pericles. The Age of Pericles was to be a period of great
political and artistic achievement – a golden age – for Athens.
Pericles broadened democracy by instituting payment to public
officials, so that even the poorest citizens could afford to serve. He
made Athens more powerful by strengthening the Athenian navy
and used money from the Delian League to beautify Athens. On the
Acropolis, the high hill overlooking Athens, Pericles had artisans
build the Parthenon, a temple in honor of their patron goddess,
Athena.
Just as the Greeks used architecture and athletics to express civic
pride and honor their gods, they also developed the theater.
Dramatists competed like athletes for a wreath of ivy and the honor
of winning. The major playwrights of the Golden Age of Athens
were Aeschylus (ES-kih-lus) and Sophocles (SAHF-uh-klees). Both
men wrote a type of drama known as tragedy. A tragedy portrays
men and women of strong character whose hubris (strength, pride
and attempts to change their fate) led to their own downfall.
The Golden Age of Athens was followed by a period of conflict. In
431 BCE, tension caused by Athenian control of the Delian League
increased and led to an invasion by Sparta. The war that resulted is
known as the Peloponnesian War (Sparta is located on the
Peloponnesian peninsula). Athens had a stronger navy, but Sparta
had a stronger army. The war dragged on for 27 years. Athens
slowly became weakened by plague and the loss of its fleet and in
404 BC surrendered to Sparta. Yet the fall of Athens did not mean
the end of Athenian art and culture. During the war, a playwright
named Aristophanes (AR-is-TAHF-uh-neez) began to write a new
type of play called comedy. He made Athenians laugh at their
leaders, their institutions, and themselves, even as their power
crumbled.
The decline of Athens also led to a new attitude of questioning
among its thinkers, or philosophers. One of the greatest of these
philosophers was Socrates. Socrates forced Athenians to examine
their beliefs about democracy, patriotism and religion. Although
some considered Socrates the wisest man in Athens, many citizens
thought the old man dangerous. In 399 BCE, he was found guilty of
“corrupting the youth of Athens” and failing to revere “the gods that
the state recognizes.” Socrates was sentenced to death. Although
his friends offered to help him escape, he chose to end his life in the
city he loved and calmly carried out his sentence by drinking poison.
Much of what we know about Socrates comes from his student
Plato, who wrote down the conversations with Socrates as he
remembered them. Plato also developed his own ideas about
government and philosophy. His most famous work, The Republic,
describes what he considered an ideal society, ruled by a
philosopher-king.
Classical Europe Plato’s most famous student was a young man named Aristotle, who
studied with him for twenty years. Aristotle was curious about
every branch of knowledge. Even more important than the
knowledge he collected, however, was his method of organizing and
testing ideas. Aristotle’s systems of logic marked the beginning of
the development of scientific thought.
Alexander’s conquests spread Greek culture.
Aristotle also had a famous student, young Alexander of Macedonia,
a kingdom to the north of Greece. Alexander’s father, Philip II, had
conquered and united all of Greece, after it had weakened itself
during the Peloponnesian War. When he was assassinated,
Alexander became king. In 334 BCE, Alexander led his troops across
the Dardanelles (strait separating Greece from Turkey) into Asia.
They marched for eight years and covered 20,000 miles, conquering
everything in their path. By the time he died of a fever in 323 BC,
Alexander had conquered Asia Minor (Turkey), the east coast of the
Mediterranean, Egypt, the Persian Empire and the lands of the Indus
River valley (see map below).
Alexander did not simply wage war. Everywhere he went, he
established colonies and institutions to spread Greek culture. There
Greek culture mixed with Near Eastern cultures. Even though his
generals divided his empire after his death, Greek officials continued
to develop and spread Greek culture. This mixture of Greek and
local cultures became known as Hellenism.
Hellenism brought Athenian ideas about art, architecture,
philosophy, and science to the Asian world. It also absorbed the
influences of the Jewish, Egyptian, Persian and Indian cultures and
sought to preserve them. Hellenistic influence and respect for
learning and observation led to scientific advances of Euclid, who
organized the findings of Greek geometry, and Archimedes, who
discovered the laws controlling the motions of levers, inclined
planes, pulleys, screws, wedges and wheels. The achievements of
Hellenistic civilization became a resource for the growth of later
civilizations.
The Roman Republic
After 2000 BCE, many groups of people invaded Italy and settled
throughout the Italian peninsula. Settlers called “Latins” built
villages along the Tiber River which later joined to form the city of
Rome. Over a period of several hundred years, Rome took control
of most of Italy. The defeated peoples usually became allies of
Rome.
A “republic,” a type of government in which people elect leaders to
make decisions, was established. The government was controlled by
the “patricians,” a group of powerful aristocrats. All other people
belonged to the lower class, or “plebeians.” Government officials
were elected by adult male citizens. The Senate, made up of 300
patricians, had the most power, including control over tax monies
and foreign policy. The Assembly, which represented the plebeians,
had little real power at first but gradually was given more
responsibilities. Two “consuls,” both patricians, ran the government
and commanded the army. In times of emergency, a dictator was
chosen and given absolute power to act quickly and decisively.
The Roman Republic gained lands throughout the Mediterranean
region. Rome expanded into the western Mediterranean during the
Punic Wars, a long struggle with the city of Carthage in North Africa.
Between 218 B.C. and 202 B.C., the great Hannibal of Carthage
crossed the Alps into northern Italy and overwhelmed several
Roman armies. But Hannibal was forced to return to Africa to
defend Carthage, and was defeated there. In the eastern
Mediterranean, Rome captured Macedonia and the Greek city-
states. Other victories left Rome as the sole power in the
Mediterranean world (see map below).
Classical Europe
The Roman Republic Becomes the Roman Empire
Some say the republic’s successes led to its downfall. Civil wars
broke out between the forces of loyal to different ambitious Roman
patricians and generals. After many decades of civil war between
various factions, Julius Caesar returned from Gaul and defeated the
general, Pompey, becoming the sole ruler of Rome. He soon
introduced a number of reforms. Public lands were given to the
poor. Many people in the provinces were granted citizenship.
Roads were built, swamps were drained, and other public works
programs were undertaken. A new calendar was set up that had
365 days.
Members of the Senate, who were jealous and fearful of Caesar,
stabbed him to death on the “Ides of March” –– March 15, 44 B.C.
Caesar’s assassins were defeated by Caesar’s right-hand man, Marc
Antony, and Caesar’s heir, Octavian. But a new civil war soon broke
out between the former allies during which Octavian destroyed
Antony’s forces. The Senate, eager to end almost 100 years of
constant civil war, gave Octavian absolute power. Octavian was now
known as “Augustus,” meaning “most high” ruler. As emperor,
Augustus was given and had the authority to both make laws and
veto laws proposed by the Senate.
Under Augustus, Rome experienced its “Golden Age.” His reign
marked the beginning of “Pax Romana,” or Roman Peace, which
lasted almost 200 years. Business expanded and a sound money
system was established. New roads and aqueducts were built and
civil servants guaranteed the distribution of grain, ran an efficient
postal service and provided other government services.
Augustus was the first of a line of emperors who were worshipped
as gods and allowed to choose their own successors. Roman culture
was heavily influenced by Greek culture. Educated Romans learned
Greek, Roman emperors and wealthy citizens copied Greek
architecture. Rome borrowed much of its mythology from that of
Ancient Greece. This particular Hellenistic blending, also known as
Greco-Roman culture, flourished and spread throughout the empire.
The people of the Roman Empire followed many different religions.
Of these groups, the Jews alone were monotheists. The area of
Syria and Palestine (Judea) fell under Roman influence around 65
BCE. Jewish monotheism led to conflicts with the polytheistic
Romans. Although usually tolerated, many Jews fiercely opposed
Roman rule. It took Roman legions from AD 66 to 73 to crush Jewish
rebellions. In AD 130, the Jews rose up again and a half million Jews
were killed and the rest were banished from Judea. This is known as
the diaspora.
Another religion that challenged the might of Rome arose in Judea
as well. Jesus, a Jew, was born in Palestine when it was under
Roman rule. When he was about thirty, he began his work as a
wandering prophet and teacher. With him traveled twelve followers
or disciples. After three years of ministry, Jesus was arrested.
Because he had described the coming of a “kingdom” of God in his
teaching Jesus was charged with blasphemy and sedition (conduct or
speech inciting rebellion) and was crucified.
According to Christian tradition, Jesus rose from the dead and
continued to preach his message about the kingdom of God,
repentance for sin, salvation, love of others until he ascended to
heaven after 40 days. His followers believed he was the messiah
whom God had promised the Jewish people. His followers and later
converts like Paul used Hellenistic teachings to spread Jesus’
message throughout the Roman Empire during the Pax Romana.
As Christianity spread, Roman rulers began to oppose it. Its message
of love for God and one another appealed especially to the poor.
Christians refused to recognize Roman gods or to accept the divinity
of Roman emperors. Roman leaders saw the new religion as
challenging their authority. Both St. Paul and St. Peter were
executed while in Rome under the Emperor Nero. Because Peter,
whom Jesus called the “rock” upon which his church would be built,
died in Rome, early leaders of the church, called bishops, claimed
that they outranked Christian bishops in other regions. Eventually,
they established the office of pope, or father of the Christian
Church.
The peaceful years of Pax Romana were followed by a century of
warfare and disorder. To make administration of the huge empire
easier, it was divided into an eastern Greek-speaking portion and a
western Latin-speaking portion. Each part had its own emperor.
Civil wars often broke out between rival political groups.
Constantine, who believed he had experienced a sign from God
before winning a crucial battle, issued the Edict of Milan which
legalized Christianity and ended the persecutions. Eventually, Rome
would make Christianity its official religion and outlaw all other
faiths.
Classical Europe
The Western Roman Empire, with its capital in Rome, came to an
end in 476 A.D. This happened for many reasons. When emperors
limited personal freedom, they lost the support of the people. The
empire was too large to govern effectively. While some people
were very rich, most were poor and often did not own their own
land. The increased use of slaves put many Romans out of work.
The population declined because of war, hunger, and disease.
Finally, the Huns, Goths, Vandals, Angles, Saxons, Franks, and other
barbarian tribes overran the empire. However, the Christian (Roman
Catholic) Church based in Rome became the chief civilizing force in
Western Europe. The Church’s ceremonies and institutions would
help preserve the Latin language, Roman literature and learning
through the times of turmoil that lay ahead.
Meanwhile, the Eastern Roman Empire, with its capital at
Constantinople, became even more Greek culturally after the fall of
the West. Historians have come to refer to this civilization as the
Byzantine Empire. It becomes the center and origin of Eastern
Orthodox Christianity that is prevalent in Greece, parts of Eastern
Europe and Russia, today. The Byzantine Empire lasted for another
thousand years as it slowly declined until it was conquered by the