The Big Picture Capturing the Forest then the Trees Sociology is classified as being one of the social sciences. Please name the other social sciences and define these disciplines
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The Big Picture
Capturing the Forest then the Trees
Sociology is classified as being
one of the social sciences.
Please name the other social
sciences and define these disciplines
Science is the study of the material world using human reason.
Science, by definition, limits itself to what can be observed, measured and verified, known as empiricism.
Political Science
The scientific study of how societies govern the people;
Analyzes the role of government in regulating people’s behavior, as well as
How and to what degree it serves to protect societal members of threats (i.e., internal and external)
as well as influencing/regulating services, goods
and resources (i.e., energy, commodities, etc.)
Psychology concerned with the behavior, feelings and
thoughts of individuals as influenced by social
stimuli and/or the person’s physiology.
The subfield of abnormal psychology is
concerned with mental disorders, ranging from
psychoses to neuroses
The applied field of clinical psychology offers
direct patient-care mechanisms to treat mental
problems in individuals.
Anthropology.
Anthropology is a broad social science concerned with the study of humans from a social, biological and cultural perspective
Physical anthropology divides into two areas, one related to tracing human evolution and the study of primates, and the other concerned with contemporary human characteristics stemming from the mixture of genetic adaptations and culture.
Sociocultural anthropology is concerned with broad aspects of the adaptation of humans to their cultures—with social organization, language, ethnographic details, and, in general, the understanding of culturally mitigated patterns of behavior
Economics
It is perhaps the oldest of the social sciences, with its concern with wealth and poverty, trade and industry
Concerned with understanding how societis distribute, value and produce and/or import goods and services.
Microeconomics is largely concerned with issues such as competitive markets, wage rates, and profit margins. Macroeconomicsdeals with broader issues, such as national income, employment, and economic systems
Sociology
It is the social science discipline that
study’s human society and social
interaction, in group settings.
SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY A cross-disciplinary social scientific
discipline.
Social psychologist study the relationship
between (the) individual(s) in affecting the
Social groups and societal context as well
as how social group affiliation and society
Affect (the) individual(s).
Dimensions Of Comte’s
Positivism
Methodological - the application of
scientific knowledge to physical and social
phenomena.
Social and political - the use of such
knowledge to predict the likely results of
different policies so the best one could be
chosen.
August Comte
The “founder of sociology.”
Comte believed objective knowledge was attainable only through science rather than religion.
Positivism is a belief that the world can be understood through scientific inquiry.
Theory
A set of logically interrelated statements
that attempt to describe, explain and
predict outcomes.
Levels of Sociological Analysis
Class lets begin to identify the
various Sociological Theories
There are 4 major sociological theories;
Please someone, identify the most
conservative theory among the 4;
We will be talking about each of the
theories, comparing and contrasting them
in terms of the Marriage and Family
Institution, what you indicated is the most
popular of all the social institutions.
Marriage and Family Discussion
Drawn from the textbook I adopted for my
marriage and family course;
Lamanna, Mary Ann & Agnes Riedmann.
2000. (7th Edition) Marriages and
Families: Making Choices in a Diverse
Society. Wadsworth Thomas Learning
Publishing Company. ISBN 0-534-52507-5
Major Sociological Theoretical Approaches
I . Symbolic Interaction
Levels of Analysis Micro-Sociological
Nature of Society A social reality continuously created through social interaction.
Basis of
Social interaction
Shared symbols and meanings
Focus of Analysis Individuals of social actors
Major Sociological Theoretical Approaches
II. Social Exchange; aka Post Modernism
Levels of Analysis Micro-Sociological
Nature of Society A social reality
continuously created
through social interaction.
Basis of
Social interaction
Social Reciprocity
Elementary Forms of
Social Behavior
Focus of Analysis Postindustrialization, consumerism,
and global communications bring
into question assumptions about
social life and the nature of reality
Major Sociological Theoretical ApproachesIII. Structural/Functional
Levels of Analysis Macro-Sociological
Nature of Society A social system consisting of interdependent units
Basis of
Social interaction
Consensus deriving from shared beliefs and values.
Focus of Analysis Social order and the perpetuation of society
Levels of
Analysis
Macro-
Sociological
Nature of
Society
A social order characterized by
competing groups and classes,
each pursuing its own interests
Basis of
Social
interaction
Conflict and coercion
Focus of
Analysis
Competition for control of limited
resources
IV. CONFLICT THEORY
Chapter 2
Sociological Research Methods
Chapter Outline
Why is Sociological Research
Necessary?
The Sociological Research Process
Research Methods
Ethical Issues in Sociological Research
Sharpening Your Focus
What is the relationship between theory
and research?
What are the steps in the conventional
research process?
What can qualitative methods add to our
understanding of human behavior?
Theory and Research Cycle
A theory is a set of logically interrelated
statements that attempt to describe, explain,
and predict social events.
Research is the process of systematically
collecting information for the purpose of testing
an existing theory or generating a new one.
The theory and research cycle consists of
deductive and inductive approaches.
Conventional Research
Model
1. Select and define the research problem.
2. Review previous research.
3. Formulate the hypothesis.
4. Develop the research design.
5. Collect and analyze the data.
6. Draw conclusions and report the
findings.
Theory and Research Cycle
Deductive Approach
1. Theories generate hypotheses.
2. Hypotheses lead to observations.
3. Observations lead to the formation of
generalizations.
4. Generalizations are used to support the
theory, suggest modifications to it, or
refute it.
Inductive Approach
1. Specific observations suggest generalizations.
2. Generalizations produce a tentative theory.
3. The theory is tested through the formation of hypotheses.
4. Hypotheses may provide suggestions for additional observations.
Sociology and Scientific
Evidence
Many sociologists believe that two basic
scientific standards must be met:
1. Scientific beliefs should be supported
by good evidence or information.
2. These beliefs should be open to public
debate and critiques from other
scholars, with alternative
interpretations being considered.
Sociology and Scientific
Evidence
Sociology involves debunking,
unmasking false ideas or opinions.
Two approaches:
Normative
Empirical
Hypothesis Defined
A predict statement derived from a theoretical perspective,
that ascribes how two or more variables relate to each other.
Variables
The independent variable is presumed
to cause or determine a dependent
variable.
The dependent variable is assumed to
depend on or be caused by the
independent variable(s).
Demonstrating Cause-and-
Effect Relationships
1. You must show that a correlation exists
between the variables.
2. You must ensure that the independent
variable preceded the dependent
variable.
3. You must make sure that any change in
the dependent variable was not due to a
variable outside the stated hypothesis.
Cause and Effect
Relationships
Why do older African
American men have a
lower rate of suicide than
older white males?
Questions like this are
the foundation for study
as sociologists try to
understand cause-and-
effect relationships.
Variables
Independent
Dependent
Intervening
Hypothesized Relationships
Between Variables
Causal Relationship
Hypothesized Relationships
Between Variables
Inverse Causal Relationship
Hypothesized Relationships
Between Variables
Multiple-cause Explanation
Question
In a medical study, lung cancer could be
the _____ variable, while smoking could
be the ______ variable.
a. dependant, independent
b. independent, dependant
c. valid, reliable
d. reliable, valid
Answer: a
In a medical study, lung cancer could be
the dependant variable, while smoking
could be the independent variable.
Operational Definition
An explanation of an abstract concept in terms of observable features that are specific enough to measure the variable.
The operational definition of an A may be an exam average of 90% or above.
Question
Validity is the extent to which a study or research instrument:
A. accurately measures what it is supposed to measure.
B. yields consistent results.
C. approximates a true experiment.
D. relies on other variables to preserve validity.
Answer: A
Validity is the extent to which a study or
research instrument accurately measures
what it is supposed to measure.
Validity
The extent to which a study or research instrument accurately measures what it is supposed to measure.
Reliability
The extent to which a study or research instrument yields consistent results when applied to different individuals at one time or to the same individuals over time.
Sharpening Your Focus
Why is it important to have a variety of research methods available?
Why is a code of ethics for sociological research necessary?
Triangulation
Combining multiple methods in a given
study.
Triangulation refers not only to research
methods but also to multiple data
sources, investigators, and theoretical
perspectives in a study.
Multiple data sources include persons,
situations, contexts, and time.
ASA Code of Ethics
1. Disclose research findings in full and
include all possible interpretations of the
data.
2. Safeguard the participants’ right to
privacy and dignity while protecting them
from harm.
ASA Code of Ethics
3. Protect confidential information provided
by participants.
4. Acknowledge research collaboration and
disclose all financial support.
Sampling
In random sampling, every member of
an entire population being studied has the
same chance of being selected.
In probability sampling, participants are
deliberately chosen because they have
specific characteristics, possibly including
such factors as age, sex, race/ethnicity,
and educational attainment.
Research and Social Factors
Sociological research
looks at factors that
motivate suicide
bombers.
Some researchers might
ask why suicide bomber
Raed Abdel-Hameed
Mesk would take his own
life while committing a
terrorist attack.
Research Methods
Specific strategies or techniques for
systematically conducting research.
Qualitative Research Method
1. Researcher begins with a general
approach rather than a highly detailed
plan.
2. Researcher has to decide when the
literature review and theory application
should take place.
Qualitative Research Method
3. The study presents a detailed view of the topic.
4. Access to people or other resources that can provide necessary data is crucial.
5. Appropriate research method(s) are important for acquiring useful qualitative data.
Survey Research
Describes a population without
interviewing each individual.
Standardized questions force
respondents into categories.
Relies on self-reported information, and
some people may not be truthful.
Survey Definitions
Respondents are persons who provide data for
analysis through interviews or questionnaires.
A questionnaire is a printed research
instrument containing a series of items to which
subjects respond.
An interview is a research method in which an
interviewer asks the respondent questions and
records the answers.
Surveys and Polls
Conducting surveys
and polls is an
important means of
gathering data from
respondents.
Computer-assisted
Telephone Interviewing
The widespread use of answering machines, voice mail,
and caller ID may make this form of research more
difficult in the twenty-first century.
Research Methods:
Field Research
Study of social life in its natural setting.
Observing and interviewing people where
they live, work, and play.
Generates observations that are best
described verbally rather than
numerically.
Field Research
How might sociologists study the ways in which
parents and their college-age children cope
when the students first leave home.
Approaches to Field
Research
Participant observation
Collecting observations while part of the activities of the group being studied.
Ethnography
Detailed study of the life and activities of a group of people over a period of years.
Approaches to Field
Research
Case Studies - In-depth, multifaceted
investigation of a single event, person, or
social grouping.
A collective case study involves
multiple cases.
An unstructured interview is an extended,
open-ended interaction between an
interviewer and an interviewee.
Ethnographic Research
Sociologist Elijah
Anderson’s 14 year study
of two Philadelphia
neighborhoods— one
populated by low-income
African Americans, the
other racially mixed but
increasingly middle- to
upper income and
white—is an example of
ethnographic research.
Research Methods: Secondary
Analysis of Existing Data
Materials studied may include:
books, diaries, poems, graffiti, movies,
television shows, advertisements,
greeting cards, music, art, and even
garbage.
Experiments
Study the impact of certain variables on
subjects’ attitudes or behavior.
Designed to create “real-life” situations.
Used to demonstrate a cause-and-effect
relationship between variables.
Non Laboratory Settings
Natural experiments may be conducted when an
unforeseen event occurs. What adaptation strategies
did these people use during the massive power outage
in the northeastern United States?
Effective Research Methods
Which methods might
be most effective in
learning about the
problems of the
homeless, such as
these street people
warming themselves
on a warm grate in
Moscow, Russia?
Strengths and Weaknesses
of Research Methods
Research
MethodStrengths Weaknesses
Experiments
(Laboratory,
Field, Natural)
Control over
research.
Ability to isolate
experimental
factors.
Little time and
money required.
Replication
possible, except for
natural experiments.
Artificial
Reliance on
volunteers or
captive audiences.
Ethical questions of
deception.
Statistics: What We Do and
Don’t Know
Homelessness
in the U.S. Suicide in the U. S.
Explanation The homeless often
avoid interviews with
census takers.
Critics assert the
actual number may
be 3 million and that
the government
intentionally
undercounts them.
Census data places
Latino/as in the
category of whites.
Other than African
Americans, people of
color are listed as
nonwhite—other.
Strengths and Weaknesses
of Research Methods
Research
MethodStrengths Weaknesses
Survey
Research
(Questionnaire,
Interview,
Telephone
Survey)
Useful in describing
features of a large
population without
interviewing
everyone
Relatively large
samples possible
Multivariate analysis
possible
Potentially forced
answers
Respondent
untruthfulness on
emotional issues
Data that are not
always “hard facts”
presented as such
in statistical
analyses
Strengths and Weaknesses
of Research Methods
Research
MethodStrengths Weaknesses
Secondary
Analysis of
Existing Data
(Existing
Statistics,
Content
Analysis)
Data readily
available.
inexpensive to
collect.
Longitudinal and
comparative
studies possible.
Replication
possible.
Difficult to determine
accuracy of data.
Failure of data
gathered by others to
meet goals of current
research.
Questions of privacy
when using diaries,
other personal
documents.
Strengths and Weaknesses
of Research Methods
Research
MethodStrengths Weaknesses
Field
Research
(Participant
Observation,
Case Study,
Ethnography,
Unstructured
Interview)
Gain insider’s view.
Useful for studying
behaviors in natural
settings.
Longitudinal studies
possible.
Documentation of
social problems of
groups possible.
Problems
generalizing results.
Nonprecise data
measurements.
Inability to test
theories.
Difficult to make
comparisons.
Not representative.
Quantitative and Qualitative
Research
Quantitative research focuses on data
that can be measured numerically.
Qualitative research focuses on
interpretive description rather than
statistics to analyze underlying meanings
and patterns of social relationships.
Analyzing Content
Examination of cultural artifacts or forms of
communication to draw conclusions about
social life.
Cultural artifacts are products of individual
activity, social organizations, technology, and
cultural patterns.
Among the materials studied are diaries, love
letters, poems, books, and graffiti, movies,
television, advertisements, and greeting cards.
Correlation Versus Causation
A study might find that exposure to a suicide hot
line is associated with a change in attitude
toward suicide.
If some of the students who were exposed to
the hot line also received psychiatric
counseling, the counseling may be the “hidden”
cause of the observed change in attitude.
Correlations alone do not prove causation.
Hawthorne Effect
A phenomenon in which changes in a
subject’s behavior are caused by the
researcher’s presence or by the subject’s
awareness of being studied.
Understanding Statistical
Data Presentations
1. Read the title.
2. Check the source and explanatory notes.
3. Read the headings for each column and
row.
4. Examine and compare the data.
5. Draw conclusions.
Statistics: What We Do and
Don’t Know
Homelessness in
the U.S. Suicide in the U. S.
Research
Finding
At least 250,000
people in the U.S.
are homeless.
At least 32,439
Americans committed
suicide in 2004.
Possible
Problem
Does that
underestimate the
number of homeless
people?
Are suicide rates
different for some
categories of U.S.
citizens?
U.S. Suicides, by Sex and
Method Used, 1984 and 2004
Method Males Females
1984 2000 1984 2000
Total 22,689 25,566 6,597 6,873
Firearm 14,504 14,523 2,609 2,227
Poisoning 3,203 3,200 2,406 2,600
Suffocation 3,478 5,980 863 1,356
Grounded Theory
Researchers who use grounded theory
collect and analyze data simultaneously.
For example, after in-depth interviews
with 106 suicide attempters,
researchers in one study concluded
that half of the individuals who
attempted suicide wanted both to live
and to die at the time of their attempt.
Zellner Research
Sociologist William Zellner wondered if
some automobile “accidents” were
actually suicides.
By interviewing people who knew the
victims, Zellner hoped to obtain
information that would help determine if
the deaths were accidental or intentional.
Zellner Research
When he recruited respondents, he
suggested their participation might reduce
the number of accidents in the future; but
didn’t mention that he suspected
autocide.
From the data he collected, Zellner
concluded that at least 12% of the fatal
single-occupant crashes were suicides.
Quick Quiz
1. The scientific method is based on the assumption that knowledge is best gained by:
A. direct observation
B. systematic observation
C. the support of good evidence
D. the possibility for public debate
E. all of these choices
Answer: E
The scientific method is based on the
assumption that knowledge is best gained
by: direct observation, systematic
observation, the support of good
evidence and the possibility for public
debate.
2. With _____ research, the goal is
scientific objectivity, and the focus is on
data that can be measured numerically.
A. inductive
B. deductive
C. quantitative
D. qualitative
Answer: C
With quantitative research, the goal is
scientific objectivity, and the focus is on
data that can be measured numerically.
3. _____ exists when two variable are
associated more frequently than could
be expected by chance.
A. Multiple causation
B. Regression relation
C. Correlation
D. Spurious relation
Answer: C
Correlation exists when two variable
are associated more frequently than
could be expected by chance.
4. Reliability is the extent to which a study
or research instrument:
A. measures the phenomenon it is
intended to measure.
B. yields consistent results.
C. approximates a true experiment.
D. relies on other variables to
preserve validity.
Answer: B
Reliability is the extent to which a study
or research instrument yields
consistent results.
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