iii Chapter 1 Elementary biochemistry Biology For CAPE ® Examinations Claire Durant CSEC ® is a registered trademark of the Caribbean Examinations Council (CXC). Biology for CAPE ® Examinations is an independent publication and has not been authorised, sponsored, or otherwise approved by CXC.
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iiiChapter 1 Elementary biochemistry
BiologyFor CAPE® Examinations
Claire Durant
CSEC® is a registered trademark of the
Caribbean Examinations Council (CXC).
Biology for CAPE® Examinations is an independent
publication and has not been authorised, sponsored,
or otherwise approved by CXC.
Macmillan Education
4 Crinan Street, London N1 9XW
A division of Macmillan Publishers Limited
Companies and representatives throughout the world
299(a, b) by Enrico Brooks, Brooks La Touche Photography Limited,
Barbados ; T = top, B = bottom, C = centre, L = left, R = right
The author(s) and publishers are grateful for permission to reprint
the following copyright material: Figure 8.4 (page 113), map showing
distribution of P. falciparum malaria in Africa from S I Hay, et al (2009)
in PLoS Medicine 6(3):e1000048; Figure 22.4 (page 293) bar chart of
leading causes of death in the Caribbean from Data for Action Unite to stop the chronic non-communicable disease (CNDC) epidemic in the Caribbean. CARICOM Heads of Government Regional Summit
on CNCD on September 15, 2007; Table 22.1 (page 294) showing
preventive recommendations from Policy and Action for Cancer Prevention. Food, Nutrition, and Physical Activity: a Global Perspective. Washington DC: AICR, 2009; Figure 22.5 (page 297), graphs
summarizing HIV/AIDS in the Caribbean 1990–2011 from UNAIDS
Global Reports up to and including 2012; Table 22.2 (page 297)
showing prevalence of HIV in young males and females in 2001
and 2010; data from UNAIDS World AIDS DAY Report 2011; Figure
22.6 (page 298) bar chart of HIV prevalence among some high-risk
groups in selected Caribbean countries from UNAIDS World AIDS Day Results 2012; Figure 22.7 (page 298) graphs for AIDS surveillance in
Barbados from [PAHO].
These materials may contain links for third party websites. We have
no control over and are not responsible for, the contents of such third
party websites. Please use care when accessing them.
Although we have tried to trace and contact copyright holders before
publication, in some cases this has not been possible. If contacted
we will be pleased to rectify any errors or omissions at the earliest
opportunity.
Dr Claire Durant wishes to thank her parents Mr and Mrs James
Taylor for their love and support through this process as well as her
sisters Juliet, Peggy, Ruth and her friend Mr Louis Barrett. Dr Durant
acknowledges the assistance of Mr Simeon Archer.
ISBN 978-0-230-46576-3 AER
v
Contents
Investigations 47
Summary 48
Review questions 49
Answers to ITQs 49
Chapter 3 Enzymes and metabolic reactions in cells 50
Learning objectives 50
Factors affecting chemical reactions 50
Catalysts 51
Enzymes are the catalysis of metabolic
reactions 51
Mode of action of enzymes 51
Induced-fit hypothesis 51
Enzyme specificity 52
Factors affecting enzyme activity 52
Enzyme regulation 54
Enzyme inhibitors 54
Practical applications of enzymes 56
Investigations 57
Summary 57
Review questions 58
Answers to ITQs 58
Module 2 Genetics, variation and natural selection
Chapter 4 Structure and roles of nucleic acids 59
Learning objectives 59
Chemical structure and function of nucleotides 59
Structure and function of deoxyribonucleic acid 60
Expression of genetic information and
the genetic code 62
DNA replication 63
DNA proof-reading and repair 65
Structure and function of ribonucleic acid 66
Protein synthesis 67
The link between DNA, chromatin and
chromosomes 69
Applications of the principles of
DNA replication 70
Genetic control of phenotype 71
Investigations 72
Summary 72
Preface
Unit 1
Biomolecules, reproduction and
development
Module 1 Cell and molecular biology
Chapter 1 Elementary biochemistry 2
Learning objectives 2
Water 2
Acids, bases, the pH scale and buffers 6
Chemical structure and function of
carbohydrates 9
Importance of glucose, sucrose, starch,
glycogen and cellulose 11
Carbohydrates as organic building blocks 14
Chemical structure and function of proteins 15
Importance of haemoglobin and collagen 18
Chemical structure and functions of lipids 20
Chemical structure and function of
phospholipids 22
Testing for reducing sugar, non-reducing
sugar, starch, lipid and protein 22
Investigations 24
Summary 25
Review questions 25
Answers to ITQs 26
Chapter 2 Cell structure and function 27
Learning objectives 27
Comparison of the light microscope and the
electron microscope 27
Prokaryotes and eukaryotes 28
Features of the typical prokaryotic cell 28
Features of the typical eukaryotic cell 29
Structure and function of organelles 30
Endosymbiont theory 37
The fluid mosaic model of membrane structure 37
Movement of substances across biological
membranes 38
Tissues and organs 45
Cell communication 46
vi Contents
Review questions 73
Answers to ITQs 73
Chapter 5 Mitosis and meiosis 74
Learning objectives 74
The importance of mitosis 74
The maintenance of genetic stability 74
The stages of mitosis 74
The importance of the haploid and
diploid numbers 76
The stages of meiosis 77
Genetic variability and meiosis 79
Abnormalities in cell division 79
Down syndrome 79
Cancer as a genetic disorder 80
Investigations 80
Summary 81
Review questions 82
Answers to ITQs 82
Chapter 6 Patterns of inheritance 83
Learning objectives 83
The basis of Mendelian genetics 83
Monohybrid crosses 83
Law of segregation 84
Law of independent assortment 85
Dihybrid crosses 86
Analysing, interpreting and understanding
genetic experiments 87
Basic rules of probability 87
The chi-squared test 87
Incomplete dominance, codominance, epistasis,
hybrid vigour and sex-linked inheritance 89
Mendelian inheritance in humans 92
Investigations 93
Summary 94
Review questions 95
Answers to ITQs 95
Chapter 7 Genetic engineering 96
Learning objectives 96
Principles of biotechnology 96
Isolating and cloning genes 96
Applications and techniques of genetic
engineering in plants 98
Recombinant DNA applications in medicine 99
Human gene therapy 99
Human Genome Project 101
Transgenic plants 101
Transgenic animals 102
Transgenic microorganisms 104
Ecological concerns about genetically modified
organisms 104
Implications of using GMOs 105
Investigations 105
Summary 106
Review questions 106
Answers to ITQs 106
Chapter 8 Variation and natural selection 107
Learning objectives 107
Sexual reproduction as a mechanism to introduce
genetic variation 107
Phenotypic effects of mutations: sickle cell
anaemia, phenylketonuria, cystic fibrosis 107
Natural selection and evolution 109
Artificial selection and agriculture 110
Selection in natural populations 112
Types and causes of gene mutation 113
Environmental factors as forces of natural
selection 115
Mechanisms of natural selection 116
The biological species concept 117
The process of speciation 117
Mechanisms of reproductive isolation
of species 119
Investigations 120
Summary 121
Review questions 122
Answers to ITQs 122
Module 3 Reproductive biology
Chapter 9 Asexual reproduction and vegetative
propagation 123
Learning objectives 123
Types of asexual reproduction 123
Principles and importance of vegetative
propagation 127
Techniques and applications of tissue culture 128
Genetic consequences of asexual reproduction 129
viiContents
Investigations 129
Summary 130
Review questions 130
Answers to ITQs 130
Chapter 10 Sexual reproduction in the flowering plant 131
Learning objectives 131
Structure and function of flowers 131
Pollination and fertilisation 135
Mechanisms of self-fertilisation and
cross-fertilisation 136
Fruit and seed development 137
Fruit and seed dispersal 138
Genetic consequences of
sexual reproduction 139
Investigations 139
Summary 140
Review questions 140
Answers to ITQs 140
Chapter 11 Sexual reproduction in humans 141
Learning objectives 141
Sexual reproduction 141
The male reproductive system 141
The female reproductive system 145
The ovarian cycle 146
The uterine cycle 149
Fertilisation and implantation 149
Structure and function of the placenta 150
Pregnancy 151
Methods of birth control 154
Sexually transmitted diseases 154
Artificial insemination 156
Investigations 156
Summary 157
Review questions 157
Answers to ITQs 158
Unit 2
Bioenergetics, biosystems and
applications
Module 1 Bioenergetics
Chapter 12 Photosynthesis 160
Learning objectives 160
Anatomy and function of leaves 160
Structure and function of chloroplasts 162
The light-dependent stage of photosynthesis 162
Pigments of photosynthesis and their action
spectra 163
ATP synthesis 163
The Calvin cycle is light independent 166
Factors affecting photosynthesis 167
Investigations 168
Summary 169
Review questions 169
Answers to ITQs 170
Chapter 13 Cellular respiration 171
Learning objectives 171
Overview of aerobic respiration 171
Steps of glycolysis and the formation of
acetyl-CoA 172
Structure and function of mitochondria 174
The Krebs cycle 175
The electron transport chain 176
ATP synthesis 178
Energy yield from aerobic respiration 178
Anaerobic respiration: lactate fermentation and
alcohol fermentation 179
Investigations 181
Summary 181
Review questions 182
Answers to ITQs 182
Chapter 14 Energy flow and nutrient cycling 183
Learning objectives 183
Ecosystems, habitats and ecological niches 183
Energy flows in ecosystems 183
Energy losses at different trophic levels 184
Biomass 185
Biological pyramids 186
viii Contents
Composting 187
The nitrogen cycle 188
Ecosystems as self-sustaining units 190
Investigations 191
Summary 191
Review questions 192
Answers to ITQs 192
Chapter 15 Ecological systems, biodiversity and
conservation 193
Learning objectives 193
The dynamics of ecosystems 193
Biodiversity 193
The importance of maintaining biodiversity 194
Factors contributing to loss of biodiversity 198
In situ and ex situ conservation 200
Conservation in the Caribbean 203
Investigations 205
Summary 205
Review questions 206
Answers to ITQs 206
Module 2 Biosystems maintenance
Chapter 16 Uptake and transport of water, minerals
and products of photosynthesis 207
Learning objectives 207
Overview of transport in plants 207
Overview of plant nutrition 207
Structure and function of roots 207
Structure and function of xylem 211
Water movement in plants: transpiration
and the cohesion–tension theory 212
Structure and function of phloem 214
Transport of sugars in phloem: pressure flow
theory 216
Investigations 217
Summary 218
Review questions 218
Answers to ITQs 219
Chapter 17 Circulatory system of mammals 220
Learning objectives 220
Overview of mammalian circulation 220
Anatomy of the heart 220
The cardiac cycle 222
Composition and function of blood 223
Structure and function of blood vessels 225
Regulation of blood pressure 226
Capillary exchange 228
Cardiovascular disease 229
Overview of the respiratory tract 231
Principles of gas exchange 231
Transport of carbon dioxide and oxygen 231
Investigations 234
Summary 234
Review questions 235
Answers to ITQs 236
Chapter 18 Homeostasis and hormonal action 237
Learning objectives 237
Homeostasis 237
Principles of hormonal action 237
The human endocrine system 238
Functions of insulin and glucagon 241
Plant hormones: ethylene 242
Commercial use of plant hormones 243
Investigations 244
Summary 245
Review questions 245
Answers to ITQs 246
Chapter 19 Nervous coordination 247
Learning objectives 247
Differences between endocrine and nervous
communication 247
Overview of nervous communication 247
Organisation of the nervous system 248
Structure and function of neurones 248
The resting potential 251
Propagation of an action potential 253
Synapses and neurotransmitters 257
Postsynaptic potentials: temporal summation and
spatial summation 258
Effects of drugs and nerve agents on the nervous
system 259
Investigations 260
Summary 260
Review questions 261
Answers to ITQs 261
ixContents
Chapter 20 The kidney, excretion and osmoregulation 262
Learning objectives 262
Osmoregulation 262
Overview of the urinary system 263
Structure and function of the kidney 264
Urine production 266
Hormonal regulation of kidney function 269
Dialysis, kidney transplants and
kidney stones 270
Investigations 271
Summary 271
Review questions 272
Answers to ITQs 272
Module 3 Applications of biology
Chapter 21 Immunology 273
Learning objectives 273
Overview of the immune system 273
Innate immunity and acquired immunity 273
Overview of the lymphatic system 273
Barriers and non-specific defences
(cellular innate defences) 274
Specific defences: immunity 277
Immunoglobulins 278
The structure and function of the B cell
and T cell antigen-specific receptors 279
Clonal selection 281
Humoral and cell-mediated immune responses 282
Active immunity, passive immunity and
vaccination 284
Antibodies in medicine 284
Allergic reactions 285
ABO blood typing system and
the Rhesus factor 285
Investigations 286
Summary 287
Review questions 288
Answers to ITQs 288
Chapter 22 Health and disease 289
Learning objectives 289
Maintenance of health 289
Effects of diet and exercise on the body 289
Categorisation of diseases 292
Incidence rates and mortality rates 293
Chronic non-communicable diseases 293
HIV/AIDS 296
Dengue 299
Investigations 301
Summary 302
Review questions 302
Answers to ITQs 303
Chapter 23 Substance abuse 304
Learning objectives 304
Drug use 304
Effects of alcohol consumption on the body 305
Alcohol and violence 307
Alcohol and driving 307
Effects of cigarette smoking on the body 307
Investigations 309
Summary 310
Review questions 310
Answers to ITQs 310
Chapter 24 Practical biology and school-based
assessments 312
Techniques for biological drawing 312
Calculating magnification 314
How to use a microscope 316
Preparing a wet mount microscope slide 317
Microscopy measurement 317
Graphical representation of data 318
Planning and designing experiments 319
Data collection and analysis 319
Organising and presenting a report 319
How to plan and design an experiment 323
Study tips for biology tests and exams 324
Examples of experiments 324
Examples of 2 calculations 337
Examples of assessment criteria 338
Selected bibliography 340
Index 342
x
Preface
This series of textbooks for CAPE Sciences follows directly from
Macmillan’s CSEC Science series. The books in the series will be
especially valuable for students who have completed CSEC Science
examinations successfully, and wish to continue their studies at a
higher level, to gain employment in a scientific field or to extend their
education at degree level.
CAPE subject studies are each divided into two units, and students have
the option to study either or both of them. These books are designed
to be used with any of these three options. In each unit the material is
based on the knowledge and skills that the student will have gained in
CSEC studies.
The move to higher-level studies is not without its pitfalls. To minimise
these problems the books have several new and innovative features.
In the sciences a good diagram is worth a thousand words. Diagrams
in these books are carefully presented to convey the maximum
understanding with the minimum of extraneous detail. Their captions
are comprehensive, to help the reader to integrate the visual material as
fully and easily as possible with the text.
As in the familiar CSEC series, use is made of ‘In-text Questions’ (ITQ),
but at this level they provoke analytical thought rather than confirm
comprehension.
All science teachers are aware of fundamental misconceptions that
are commonly held. Throughout these books, notes are provided to